Genetic Modified Organisms: -

GMO’s are the plants, animals and insects that are modified genetically by
inserting a gene of desirable trait from another organism in a process called
Recombinant of DNA.
• “Extracting and Inserting the Gene”
• *Organisms that that pass through this process called Transgenics.
We can classify the GM Crops according to its traits into three groups that called
“Generations”:
1)First Generation:
These plants that have grown from Gm seeds and have traits that make them
resistant to:
Herbicides-pests-viruses
And have no difference in the appearance and taste from the traditional crops
Like:
BT Crops, that uses a gene from bacterium Bacillus Thuringienes that interact to
make a protein that destroy the digestive system of specific pests but it’s
harmless to humans.
2)Second Generation:
Crops that have been increased in the levels of the proteins, carbohydrates and
flavor.
Like:
Golden Rice that have high amounts of Beta-Carotene to produce Vitamin A.
3)Third Generation:
Crops that have resistance to abiotic “or environmental” Conditions
Like:

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Drought, increased temperature or soil.
Benefits: -
1)Insect Resistance:
Plants that have resistance to pests and insects, by inserting a gene of toxicity
like the gene of the Bacillus Thuringiensis that have been inserted in Crops like:
BT Corn “as mentioned above”, resulting in reducing the consumption of the
pesticides.
2)Weed killer Resistance:
Crops that haven’t been affected by the weed killers “or Herbicides”. By
inserting a gene that have resistance to herbicides, to get rid of the weeds that
are competing for the nutrients and other resources in soil.
Like:
Eggplants are one these crops, harvesting these plants was nearly destroyed by
the pests so the farmers had to rely on pesticides that causes diseases later for
them. The BT gene that have been inserted in these plants solved this problem
and the using of pesticides reduced by 80% in Bangladesh.
3)Disease Resistance: -
Crops that have resistance to disease that affect on the plants like:
Ringspot Virus that affected on the Hawaiian Papaya in 1990s and the GM
Papaya that is vaccinated against this virus, that solved this problem and
rescued the Papaya’s industry
4)Nutritional Levels: -
Crops that have high nutritional levels like:
Golden Rice that have increased levels of Beta-Carotene that traditional rice
that produce vitamin A in the Stomach “Vitamin A that is important for
children, low levels of it in the human body causes blindness and may causing
dying”
*The most important nutrient in the soil is nitrogen, so the fertilizers use it but
accumulation of it in soil poison the underground water, So GM benefits this
situation by inserting a gene in the gene that makes the plant absorb the
needed nitrogen in the air and the excess of the nitrogen in soil decreases.
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As there is benefits, there is a issues caused by it:
1)Allergenicity: -
Some of GM foods can cause allergic reactions. The proteins present in GM
foods may cause allergenicity, so to know that there is some tests like: heat and
digestive stability and comparing its reaction by the reaction of the normal
proteins in these tests.
*GM foods can create new proteins that wasn’t found before, so these proteins
called Novel Proteins. “these are the proteins that have no history and newly
created”
2)Gene Transfer: -
There were threatens that GM foods can transfer into cells in intestinal. DNA
from the GM food can’t be completely digested, so there are some fragments
that stay in the gastrointestinal. The gene is absorbed by gut microflora and
somatic cells that lining the intestinal cells. Some scientist found that there is no
biological danger by these genes because they are degraded in the cells.
3)Outcrossing: -
The movement of the genes from GM plants to traditional plants by pollen.
There were some ways to reduce this crossing like:
Buffer zones and Pollen barriers.
4)Pleiotropic and insertional effects: -
Single gene can be responsible for more than one phenotype that called
pleiotropy. Introduced genes can cause in changes in gene expression that may
causes a new gene with unpredictable results.
5)Increase of Anti-Nutrients: -
Substances that prevent the utilization of the nutrients, its amount increases
when there is any insertion of genes. *In cattle and sheep, heat stable the anti-
nutrients in the body like: Glucinies and Phytoestrogens
*Phytic acid cause infertility, allergic reactions and decreasing amount of the
phosphorus and zinc.
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6) Environmental Effects: -
Effects on Non-target organisms like: birds-insects-bees-fish. The gene can be
found in the same place of the harvesting that causes gene instability,
biodiversity loss and increased amount of chemical reactions.

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DNA:
DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid is a long molecule that contains our unique
genetic code.
DNA contains four basic building blocks or bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C),
guanine (G) and thymine (T). Adenine pairs with thymine by double hydrogen
bond, Guanine pairs with cytosine by triple hydrogen bond.
•DNA is a two-stranded molecule.
•DNA has a unique ‘double helix’ shape, like a twisted ladder.
•Each strand of DNA has a beginning and an end, called 5’ (five prime) and 3’
(three prime) respectively.

Gene expression:
Gene expression is the process by which the instructions in our DNA are
converted into a functional product, such as a protein.

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There are two key steps involved in making a protein, transcription and
translation.
➢ Transcription:
•Occurs in the nucleus.
•Transcription is when the DNA in
a gene is copied to produce an
RNA transcript called messenger
RNA (mRNA) with the help of an
enzyme called RNA Polymerase.
•The RNA polymerase binds to
the DNA strand leading it to
unwind and open.
•The RNA polymerase slides
down the strand, where the
complementary bases pairs up.
•Once the RNA polymerase reaches the Terminator, the messenger RNA
transcript is complete.

➢ Intron splicing:
•The strand of messenger RNA that is made during transcription includes
regions called Exons that codes for protein and non-coding section called
Introns.
•In order for the mRNA to be used in translation the introns need to be removed
this process is called Intron splicing and it’s performed by a complex made of
protein and RNA called spliceosome.
•This complex removes the Introns and joins the Exons to produce a mature
messenger RNA that can leave the nucleus through a nuclear pore and enter the
cytoplasm.

➢ Translation:
•It occurs in the cytoplasm.
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•The message carried by the mRNA is read by a carrier molecule called transfer
RNA (tRNA).
•The nitrogenous bases are grouped into Three letters called Codons (G C A).
•It begins with mRNA binding to the small ribosomal subunit on the start codon.
•Complementary base pairing occurs between the codon of the messenger RNA
and the anticodon of the tRNA.
•The large ribosomal subunit binds to the mRNA and the small ribosomal
subunit. And it contains 3 regions called the E, P and A sites.
•A charged transfer RNA binds to the A site and a peptide bind forms between
its amino acid attached to the tRNA at the P site.
•The complex slides down one codon to the right where now the uncharged
tRNA exits from the E site and the A site is open to accept the next tRNA and this
repeats until a release factor binds to the A-site at a stop codon and the
polypeptide is released from the tRNA in the P site.

Plasmids:
Plasmids are small rings of DNA found
naturally in some bacterial cells in
addition to the main bacterial
chromosome.
They replicate independently of
chromosomal DNA.
Some properties of plasmids:
Easy to work with - Plasmids are a
convenient size (generally 1,000-
20,000 base pairs) for physical
isolation (purification) and manipulation. With current cloning technology, it is
easy to create and modify plasmids containing the genetic element that you are
interested in.
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Self-replicating - Once you have constructed a plasmid, you can easily make an
endless number of copies of the plasmid using bacteria, which can uptake
plasmids and amplify them during cell division. Because bacteria are easy to
grow in a lab, divide relatively quickly, and exhibit exponential growth rates,
plasmids can be replicated easily and efficiently in a laboratory setting.
Plasmids in Genetic engineering:
Plasmids are used as a vector, or vehicle, for DNA of interest, typically a gene.
1.The plasmid and the DNA of interest (for example human DNA containing
insulin hormone gene) are isolated.
2. For both the plasmid and the human DNA, a restriction enzyme is used to cut
the DNA into many fragments.
3. Sticky ends hold the donor and plasmid DNA
together until an enzyme called DNA ligase joins
them permanently.
4.The recombinant DNA plasmids, each with a
different portion of the donor DNA, are transferred
into bacteria. When the bacterial cells copy their
own DNA, they also copy the plasmids and the
donor genes the plasmids carry.
5.After the cells have grown into colonies, the
bacterial colony containing the plasmid with the
desired DNA is then identified by using a probe.

Vectors:
Vectors are those DNA molecules that can carry a foreign DNA fragment when
inserted into it. A vector must possess certain minimum qualifications to be an
efficient agent for the transfer, maintenance and amplification of the passenger
DNA.
1.The vector should be small and easy to isolate.
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2. They must have one or more origins of replication so that they will stably
maintain themselves within host cell.
3. Vector should have one or more unique restriction sites into which the
recombinant DNA can be inserted.
4. They should have a selectable marker (antibiotic resistance gene) which
allows recognition of transformants.
5. Vector DNA can be introduced into a cell.
6. The vector should not be toxic to host cell.

Mitosis cell division:

It’s the division of nucleus and it’s a
continuous process that allows for the
organized distribution of a cell’s copied
DNA to offspring cells. It has four stages:
➢ Prophase:
•Chromatin reticulum condenses the
appears in the form of chromosomes.
•The two copies of
chromosomes(chromatids) stay
connected to one another by the
centromere.
•The spindle fibers are formed extended
between the two poles of the cell.
•Two pairs of dark spots called
centrosomes appear, In animal cells
each centrosome contains a pair of small
bodies called centrioles, while plant cells
lack centrioles.
•Each chromosome is connected with one of the spindle fibers by the
centromere.
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•The nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear.
➢ Metaphase:
•The chromosomes which are connected with the spindle fibers (kinetochore
fibers) are arranges along the cell equator.

➢ Anaphase:
•The chromatids of each chromosome separate at the centromere and moves
towards opposite poles of the dividing cells.
•After the chromatids separate, they are considered to be individual
chromosomes.
➢ Telophase:
•The spindle fibers disappear.
•A nuclear membrane is formed at each pole of the cell surrounding by the
chromosomes leading to formation of two new nuclei.
•A nucleolus appears at each pole.
•At the end of the phase, the cell divides into two new cells, each contains the
same number of chromosomes of the parent cell(2N).
Cytokinesis:
It is the process of dividing the cytoplasm during telophase, In animal cells,
cytokinesis involves the formation of a cleavage furrow, which pinches the cell
into two cells. In the plant cells, vesicles from the Golgi apparatus join together
at the midline of the dividing cell to form a cell plate which divides the cell into
two cells.

Meiosis cell division:

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It is a form of cell division that halves the number of chromosomes when
forming specialized reproductive cells, such as gametes or spores. Meiosis
involves two divisions of the nucleus—meiosis I and meiosis II.
Meiosis I:
➢ prophase I:
•Chromosomes begin to condense and are arranged in homologous pairs, each
consists of 4 chromatids which are called tetrad, and the process of pairing is
call synapsis.
•Crossing over phenomenon occurs.
•Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear.
•Spindle fibers appear and connect to the chromosomes at centromere.
➢ Metaphase I:
•Pairs of homologous chromosomes are now arranged at the cell equator, with
one chromosome in each pair facing each pole.

➢ Anaphase I:
•The homologous chromosomes separate. As in mitosis, the chromosomes of
each pair are pulled to opposite poles of the cell by the spindle fibers. These
random separations are called independent assortment. But the chromatids do
not separate at their centromeres—each chromosome is still composed of two
chromatids.
➢ Telophase I and Cytokinesis I:
•The spindle fibers disappear.
•A nuclear membrane is formed leading to the formation of 2 nuclei.
•At the end of the phase, cell divides into two cells, the nucleus of each of them
contains half the number pf chromosomes of the parent cell.

Meiosis II:
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➢ prophase II:
•A new spindle forms around the chromosomes.
➢ Metaphase II:
•The chromosomes line up along the equator and are attached at their
centromeres to spindle fibers.
➢ Anaphase II:
•The centromeres divide, and the chromatids (now called chromosomes) move
to opposite poles of the cell.
➢ Telophase II and Cytokinesis II:
•In telophase II, A nuclear membrane forms around the chromosomes in each of
the four new cells.
•Cytokinesis II occurs resulting in four new cells, each of which contains half the
number of chromosomes of the original cell.

Asexual reproduction types:

1.Binary fission:
They are responsible for unicellular organisms like Amoebas. They reproduce by
dividing the nucleus into two equal halves and later these 2 nuclei split into
individual cells resulting into two separated but genetically identical amoebas.
2.Budding:
occurs when a parent cell forms a bubble-like bud. The bud stays attached to
the parent cell while it grows and develops. When the bud is fully developed, it
breaks away from the parent cell and forms a new organism. Examples: Yeast
and some bacteria, Organisms: Hydra and jellyfish.
3.Regenerations (Fragmentation):

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The organism splits into fragments. Each of these fragments develop into fully
grown organisms. A new organism can develop from a single ray, or arm.
Examples: Starfish.
4.Vegetative propagation:
Vegetative propagation is a form of asexual reproduction of a plant by which
only one plant is involved, and the offspring is the result of one parent. The
offspring grows from a fragment of the parent plant or grows from a specialized
reproductive structure (such as a stolon, rhizome, tuber, corm, or bulb). The new
plant is genetically identical to the parent.
5.Spore propagation:
It is the production of reproductive cells, called Spore which is capable of
developing into a new individual without fusion with another reproductive cell.
Spores thus differ from gametes, which are reproductive cells that must fuse in
pairs in order to give rise to a new individual. Spores are agents of asexual
reproduction, whereas gametes are agents of sexual reproduction. Spores are
produced by bacteria, fungi, algae, and plants.

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Pollination occurs when pollen grains are produced in the male reproductive
parts of flowers called the anthers.
Female reproductive parts called the stigma.
pea plants normally reproduce through self-pollination.
the cross pollination can be performed manually by transforming the pollen
from anthers to stigma.
the observed characteristics of Mendel’s experiment:
- Position of flower along stem: Axial, Terminal.
- Hight of plant: Tall, Short
- Pod appearance: Inflated, constricted.
- Pod color: Green, Yellow
- Seed texture: Round, Wrinkled
- Seed Color: Yellow, Green
- Flower Color: Purple, White
There are two types of factors that effects on the trait
1) dominant factors.
2) recessive factors.
There are two laws:
1) the law of segregation.
2) the law of independent assortment.
Molecular genetics: is the study of the structure and function of chromosomes.
And genes.
Allele: Each of two or more alternative forms of genes.
so Mendel’s factors are now called alleles
- The genotype: consists of allele that the organism inherits from its partner.
- The phenotype of a PP or a Pp pea plant is purple flowers.
when both alleles of pairs are alike, the organism the organism is said to be
homozygous.
when the two alleles in the pair are different, the organism is said to be
heterozygous.
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- A cross in which only one characteristic is tracked is a monohybrid cross.
- The ratio of genotypes that appear in offspring is called the genotypic ratio.
- Codominance occurs when both alleles for a gene are expressed in a
heterogeneous offspring.
- A dihybrid cross is a cross which two characteristics are tracked.
- Test cross: an individual of unknown genotype is crosses with a homozygous
recessive individual.
When the trait was paired with a trait controlled by a dominant factor.
The law of segregation:
Mendel concluded that the paired factors separate during the formation of
reproductive cells, each reproductive cell or gamete receive one factor of each
pair. When two gametes combine during the fertilization, the offspring has two
factors for each characteristic this states that a pair of factors is segregated or
separated during the formation of gametes.
The law of independent assortment:
Mendel went to study whether the inheritance of one trait (Such as plant height)
influenced the inheritance of one trait (Such as flower color). So, he conducted a
hybrid cross *cross that considers two pairs of contrasting traits*
Mendel hypothesized that each trait was inherited by mean of a separate factor.
because the characteristics he studied has two alternative forms he reasoned
that a pair of factors must control each trait.
Recessive & Dominant traits:
When medal crossed strains one of the P traits failed to appear in the F1 plants.
In every case, that trait reappeared in a ratio of about 3:1 In the F2 Generation.
Mendel concluded that one factor in a primary prevent the other from having an
effect.
Mendel hypothesized that the trait appearing in the F1 generation was
controlled by a dominant factor because it dominated. He thought that the
other trait that didn’t appear the F1 but reappeared in the F2 generation was
controlled by a recessive factor.
So, a trait controlled by a recessive factor had no observable effect on an
organism’s appearance.
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