Et101 - Electrical Technology PDF

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UNIT 1 UNITS ASSOSIATED WITH BASIC ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES

1.1 SI Unit
The system of units used in engineering and science is International system of units, usually
abbreviated to SI units, and is based on the metric system.
Table 1.1 Basic SI Unit

Quantity Unit Unit Symbol
Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Luminous intensity candela cd
Amount of substance mole mol
SI units may be made larger or smaller by using prefixes which denote multiplication or division
by a particular amount. A prefix may be added to a unit to produce a multiple of the original
unit. All multiple are integer power of ten. A prefix usually used show in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2 Standard prefixes for SI Units

Name Prefix Power of ten Decimal equivalent
none none 100 1
1
deca da(D) 10 10
hector h 102 100
Kilo K 103 1 000
Mega M 106 1 000 000
Giga G 109 1 000 000
12
Tera T 10 1 000 000 000 000
deci d 10-1 0.1

centi c 10-2 0.01
mili m 10-3 0.001
micro µ 10-6 0.000 001
nano n 10-9 0.000 000 001
pico p 10-12 0.000 000 000 001
Example 1
Perform the following conversion:

a. 56µ to milliseconds
b. 4.5m to millimeter
c. 150g to kilogram
d. 3.3kΩ to Ω
MARLIANA/JKE/POLISAS-ET101/UNIT 1 1
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Solution 1:
a. 1ms = 1000µs c. 1kg = 1000g

µ
So µ µ

So

b. 1m = 1000mm d. 1kΩ = 1000Ω

So

So Ω
Ω

1.2 Definition, units and symbols of electrical quantities
No. Quantity, Definition Unit,

Symbol Symbol
1 Charge, Q Charge is defined as the quantity of electricity which flows Coulomb,
past a given point in an electric circuit when a current of C
one ampere is maintained for one second.
Q = It
2. Work, W The work is done when a force acts through a distance in a Joule, J
direction of the force.
3. Power, P Power is defined as the rate of doing work or transferring Watt, W
energy.

Electric power is the rate of energy consumption in an
electrical circuit.

4. Electromotive The force or electrical pressure that causes a current to Volt, V
Force, e.m.f flow in a circuit equivalent to the potential difference
between the terminals.
5. Resistance, R Resistance is defined as the resisting or opposing the Ohm, Ω
current flow in conductor when a constant electric
potential applied at the two points to produce a current.

6. Current, I Electrical current is a measure of the amount of electrical Ampere, A
charge transferred per unit time.
7. Conductance, G Conductance is the reciprocal of electrical resistance. Siemens, S

8. Energy, E Energy is ability to do work. Joule, J
E = Pt
Example 2
If a current of 10A flows for four minutes, find the quantity of electricity transferred.
Solution 2:
Quantity of electricity, Q=It coulombs. I =10A and t = 4 × 60 = 240s.
Hence
Q = 10 × 240 = 2400C
Example 3
Find the conductance of a conductor of resistance:
a. 25Ω b. 20 kΩ c. 10mΩ
Solution 3:

a.

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b. "
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c.
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Example 4
A source e.m.f. of 15V supplies a current of 3A for 6 minutes. How much energy is provided in
this time?
Solution 4:
E = Pt where P = IV = (3)(15) = 45W t = 6 X 60s = 360s
Hence, E = Pt = (45)(360)=16.2kJ
TUTORIAL 1
1. Rewrite the following as indicated:

a. 1500 pF = _________ nF
b. 0.06 μF = _________ pF
c. 10000 kHz = __________ MHz
d. 68 kΩ = _________ MΩ
e. 0.56 mA =_________μA
2. Find the conductance of a resistor of resistance:

a. 100Ω
b. 50 kΩ
c. 250mΩ
3. A conductor has a conductance of 25μS. What is its resistance?
4. An e.m.f. of 220V is connected across a resistance and the current flowing through the resistance is
5A. What is the power developed?
5. Find the electric power of an electrical circuit that consumes 120 joules for 20 seconds.
6. In what time would a current of 15A transfer a charge of 25 C?
7. A current of 10A flows for 15 minutes. What charge is transferred?
8. How long must a current of 100mA flow so as to transfer a charge of 80 C?
9. A 1.5KΩ resistor, and there is 25 volts across the resistor. Determine the power (in watts) that the
resistor dissipates.
10. A battery of e.m.f. 10V supplies a current of 5A for 2 minutes. How much energy is supplied in this
time?
http://modul2poli.blogspot.com/ UNIT 2 CELLS AND BATTERY
UNIT 2 CELLS AND BATTERY

2.1 General Features of batteries
2.1.1 The relationship between cell and batteries
Generally, a cell delivers a certain voltage that is a function of what chemical reactions are
taking place to generate the voltage. The purpose of an electric cell is to convert chemical energy into
electrical energy. To get increased voltage one must add cells in series. The primary difference between
a battery and a cell is a battery can be composed of a number of cells. A cell can be a battery. For
example, the 9-volt batteries have 6 individual cells inside them.
2.1.2 The basic operation of battery
A simple cell comprises two dissimilar conductors (electrodes) in an electrolyte. Such a cell is
shown in Figure 1, comprising copper and zinc electrodes. An electric current is found to flow between
the electrodes. Other possible electrode pairs exist, including zinc-lead and zinc-iron. The electrode
potential (i.e. the p.d. measured between the electrodes) varies for each pair of metals. By knowing the
e.m.f. of each metal with respect to some standard electrode the e.m.f. of any pair of metals may be
determined.
Figure 1
2.1.3 Comparison between primary and secondary cell
Primary cell Secondary cell

1. Cannot be recharged 1. Can be recharged after use
2. Irreversible 2. Reversible
3. Can be used once 3. Can be used many times.
Table 1
2.1.4 Types of cells and batteries

a. Carbon-zinc cell
b. Alkaline cell
c. Nickel-cadmium cell
d. Edison cell
e. Mercury cell
MAM/FI/JKE/POLISAS-ET101/UNIT 2 1
2.2 Cell connections
2.2.1 Series connection

Assume that;
n = number of cells connected in series
E = e.m.f cell
R = external resistance
r = internal resistance of cell
So that:
a) Total emf, ET = nE Volts(V)
b) Total internal resistance, rT = nr Ohm(Ω)
c) Total resistance in the circuit, RT = nr + R
Figure 2 d)

2.2.2 Parallel connection
Assume that;
m = number of cells connected in parallel
E = e.m.f cell
So that:
e) Total emf, ET = E Volts(V)

f) Total internal resistance ,

g) Total resistance in the circuit,
d)

Figure 3

2.2.3 Series-parallel combination
Assume that;
n = number of cell in series
m = number of cells in parallel
E = e.m.f cell
So that:
h) Total emf,ET = nE Volts(V)
8
i) Total internal resistance,rT
8
j) Total resistance in the circuit, 9:

Figure 4 d)

Example 1
One battery consists of three cells in series. External resistance is 5Ω. E.m.f each cell is 1.5V and
internal resistance is 0.2Ω. Calculate the current flow and draw the circuit.
Solution:
Total e.m.f , E = nE = 3 X 1.5V = 4.5V
Total internal resistance = nr = 3 X 0.2 =
0.6Ω
Total resistance, RT = nr + R
= 0.6 + 5
= 5.6Ω
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Example 2
Two cells with e.m.f 1.5 V for each cell and internal resistance 0.2Ω are joined in parallel and
connected to an external resistor of 4Ω. What is current will flow.
Solution:
Total e.m.f , E = 1.5V

Total internal resistance = r/m = 0.2/2 =
0.1Ω
Total resistance,RT = r/m + R
= 0.1 + 4
= 4.1Ω
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0

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12<
52=447
Example 3
Eight cells are divided in two groups. Four cells for each group and the group are joined in
parallel. Emf for each cell is 1.5V and internal resistance is 0.6Ω. One external resistor 5Ω
connected in parallel to the group. Calculate:
a) Current flow
b) Voltage drop for internal resistor
c) The potential difference at the battery terminals
Solution:
8>? FG2H
a) ' @A 7 IJ2K 52M46N
CDE CH
B L
SP FU2V
b) OP Q R T 52M46 R W <2<4O
c) Voltage source,VS = nE - Vr
= 4(1.5) – 1.16V
= 4.84V
@
VS = IRL = 0.968 X 5 = 4.84V
TUTORIAL 1
1. An external resistance of 10Ω is connected to the terminal of a battery consisting 10 cells connected
in series. Emf for each cells and internal resistance is 1.5V and 0.2Ω. Find the current flow.
2. 15 cells with emf for each cell are 1.5V and internal resistance 0.3Ω is connected in parallel.
Calculate the value of current flow if the external resistance, 5Ω is joined to them.
3. A battery consist of 12 cells are divided in three group which each group consist of four cells in
series. The three groups are joined in parallel. The emf of each cell is 1.5V and internal resistance
cell is 0.2Ω. The group is connected to a load resistor of 4Ω. Calculate the current flow.
4. A battery consists of five cells in series. Each cell is 2.5V and internal resistance is 0.05Ω. A battery is
connected to the load resistance of 15Ω. Determine:
i. Total e.m.f ii. Total resistance iii. Total current
5. Ten 1.5V cells in series, each cells having an internal resistance of 0.3Ω, are connected series to a
load of 25Ω. Determine :
i. The current flowing the circuit ii. The potential difference at the battery terminals.
6. One battery consists of four cells, connected in series. Emf of each cell is 1.45V and internal
resistance of 0.04Ω. if a load resistance of 5Ω is connected to the battery, draw the circuit and
calculate:
i. Total emf iii. Total resistance
ii. Total internal resistance iv. Current flow
7. One battery consists of eight cells in parallel. Emf and internal resistance of each cells is 1.5V and
0.4Ω. Find the value of current if an external resistance of 5Ω is connected to the battery.
8. A battery consists of 5 cells with emf and internal resistance of each cell is 1.5V and 0.25Ω
connected in series. If the current flow through load resistance is 1.5A, calculate the value of load
resistance.
9. 15 cells with emf 1.5V and internal resistance of 0.5Ω are arranged five per row and three rows in
parallel. Draw the circuit and calculate:
i. Current flow if external load resistance is 15Ω
ii. Terminal voltage
10. 20 cells with emf 1.45V and internal resistance 0.5Ω for each cells is connected 4 rows which every
rows consists of 5 cells in series. Load resistance 15Ω is connected to the battery. Calculate the value
of current flow.
UNIT 3 AN INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

3.1 Standard symbols for electrical components
Symbols are used for components in electrical circuit diagrams and some of the more common
ones are shown below.
Two conductors
Two conductors
Conductor crossing but not Fixed resistor Variable resistor
joined together
joined
Inductor Capacitor Cell Battery Filament lamp
V A w
Alternative fuse
Voltmeter Ammeter Wattmeter Fuse
symbol
3.2 Electric current and quantity of electricity
If an electric pressure or voltage is applied across any material there is a tendency for
electrons to move in a particular direction. This movement of free electrons, known as drift,
constitutes an electric current flow. Thus current is the rate of movement of charge and is
measured in ampere.
The unit used to measure the quantity of electrical charge Q is called the coulomb C
(where 1 coulomb = 6.24 x 1018 electrons).
Generally, if I is the current in amperes and t the time in seconds during which the
current flows, then I x t represents the quantity of electrical charge in coulombs.
Quantity of electrical charge transferred,

MARLIANA/JKE/POLISAS/ET101-UNIT3 1
Example 1
What current must flow if 0.45 coulombs is to be transferred in 5 ms?
Solution:
Quantity of electricity, Q = It, then:

Example 2
If a current of 20A flows for five minutes, find the quantity of electricity transferred.
Solution:
Quantity of electricity,
3.3 Potential difference
For a continuous current to flow

between two points in a circuit a potential
difference (p.d.) or voltage, V, is required
Current
flow A
between them; a complete conducting path is
necessary to and from the source of electrical
energy. The unit of p.d. is the volt, V
Figure 1 shows a cell connected across
a filament lamp. Current flow, by convention,
is considered as flowing from the positive
V
terminal of the cell, around the circuit to the
Figure 1 negative terminal.
The flow of electric current is subject to friction. This friction, or opposition, is called
resistance R and is the property of a conductor that limits current. The unit of resistance is the
ohm.
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An ammeter is an instrument used to measure current and must be connected in series

with the circuit. Figure 1 show an ammeter connected in series with the lamp to measure the
current flowing through it. Since all the current in the circuit passes through the ammeter it
must have a very low resistance.
A voltmeter is an instrument used to measure p.d. and must be connected in parallel
with the part of the circuit whose p.d. is required. In Figure 1, a voltmeter is connected in
parallel with the lamp to measure the p.d. across it. To avoid a significant current flowing
through it a voltmeter must have a very high resistance.
An ohmmeter is an instrument for measuring resistance. A multimeter, or universal
instrument, may be used to measure voltage, current and resistance.
3.4 Resistance and resistivity
The resistance of an electrical conductor depends on 4 factors, these being:

a) The length of the conductor
Resistance, R, is directly proportional to length, l, of a conductor, i.e. R α l.
b) The cross-sectional area of the conductor
Resistance, R, is inversely proportional to cross-sectional area, a, of a conductor. i.e.
R α 1/a
c) The type of material
Since R α l and R α 1/a then R α l/a. By inserting a constant of proportionality into this
relationship the type of material used may be taken into account. The constant of
proportionality is known as the resistivity of the material and is given the symbol
ρ.Thus,
ρ
)*
d) The temperature of the material
Example 1
Calculate the resistance of a 3 km length of aluminium overhead power cable if the cross-
sectional area of the cable is 10 mm2. Take the resistivity of aluminium to be 0.03 x 10-6 Ωm.
Solution:
Length,l= 3 km = 3000 m; area, a = 10 mm2 = 10 x 10-6 m2 , resistivity,ρ= 0.03 x 10-6 m
ρ2 34 5 6346

+,-.-/01,# + 7
/ 5
Example 2
Calculate the cross-sectional area, in mm2, of a piece of copper wire, 25 m in length and having
a resistance of 0.30Ω .Take the resistivity of copper as 0.03 x 10-6 Ωm.
Solution:
ρ8 ρ8
+,-.-/01,# + :,01,1;<-- = -,1.<0/2/;,/# /
9 >
ρ2 34 5 636

/ 5 ?@
+ 4
TUTORIAL 1
1. The resistance of a 5 m length of wire is 600Ω .Determine:

a) the resistance of an 8 m length of the same wire,
b) the length of the same wire when the resistance is 420Ω [960Ω,3.5m]
2. Calculate the resistance of a 2 km length of aluminium overhead power cable if the cross-
sectional area of the cable is 100 mm2. Take the resistivity of aluminium to be 0.03x10-6Ωm.
[0.6Ω]
3. The resistance of 1.5 km of wire of cross-sectional area 0.17 mm2 is 150Ω. Determine the
resistivity of the wire. [0.017× 10−6 Ωm or 0.017 µΩm]
4. Determine the resistance of 1200 m of copper cable having a diameter of 12 mm if the

resistivity of copper is 1.7 x 10-8 Ωm. [0.18Ω]
5. The resistance of a 2 m length of cable is 2.5Ω. Determine (a) the resistance of a 7 m length
of the same cable and (b) the length of the same wire when the resistance is 6.25Ω.
[(a) 8.75Ω (b) 5m]
6. Some wire of cross-sectional area 1mm2 has a resistance of 20Ω. Determine:

a) The resistance of a wire of the same length and material if the cross-sectional area is 4
mm2.
b) the cross-sectional area of a wire of the same length and material if the resistance is
32Ω.
[(a) 5Ω (b) 0.625 mm2]
7. Find the resistance of 800 m of copper cable of cross-sectional area 20 mm2. Take the
resistivity of copper as 0.02 μΩm. [0.8Ω]
8. Calculate the cross-sectional area, in mm2, of a piece of aluminium wire 100 m long and
having a resistance of 2Ω. Take the resistivity of aluminium as 0.03 x 10-6 Ωm. [1.5 mm2]
9. Find the resistance of 1 km of copper cable having a diameter of 10 mm if the resistivity of

copper is 0.017 x 10-6 Ωm. [0.216Ω]
3.5 Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law states that the current I flowing in a circuit is directly proportional to the
applied voltage V and inversely proportional to the resistance R, provided the temperature
remains constant.
( (
'( '

3.6 Series, parallel and series-parallel connections
3.6.1 Series circuit
Figure 2
In a series circuit:
a) Total resistance, A B C D C E
b) The current I is the same in all parts of the circuit , B D E
c) The voltage drop at each resistor, V1, V2 and V3 are different depends on the value
of the resistor.
d) The sum of the voltages V1, V2 and V3 is equal to the total applied voltage, V.
( (B C (D C (E
Voltage divider
Voltage drop at each resistor that connected by serial can be find by using voltage
divider rules (VDR).
B D E
(B ((D ((E (
B C D C E B C D C E B C D C E
Example 1
For the circuit in figure 3, find the current and voltage drop at each resistor.
R1
15kΩ
50V R2 35kΩ
Figure 3
Solution:
+ F G7 C 4G7 G7

H

+ F G
+I G
HI H H H
+I C + @ G C 4G
+@ 4G
H@ H H 4H
+I C + @ G C 4G
3.6.2 Parallel circuit
Figure 4
In a parallel circuit:
B BD
a) The total resistance, A B JJ D , A B B or A
K B K D
B D
b) The voltage drop at each resistor is equal to the voltage source,( (B (D
c) The sum of the currents I1, I2 and I3 is equal to the total circuit current,
B C D
From Ohm’s law,
( ( (
#B #D
A B D
Current divider rules (CDR)
Current flow through at each resistor that connected by parallel can be find by using
current divider rules (CDR).
D B
B #D
B C D B C D
Example 2
Find the current flow and voltage drop at each resistor in figure 5.
Figure 5
Solution:
+ F +I JJ + @ H
I
+I
+I + @
+F
+I C + @ C H
@ L
4L7 + @
H H HI H@ H
L
+ F 4L
3.6.3 Series-parallel circuit
Figure 6
In series-parallel circuit:
DE
a) Total resistance , A B C D JJ E , A B C
D K E
(
b) Total current , A
A
c) Current flow through each resistor
E D
B A D B E B
D C E D C E
d) Voltage drop at each resistor

(B B B (D D D (E E E
Example 3
For the circuit in figure 7, find the current through each resistor.
Figure 7
Solution:
+ F +I C + @ JJ + ,
+@+ G G
+ F +I C G C LG7
+@ C + G C G
H
F 4M? I
+ F LG
+ G
@ F 4M? L?
+@ C + G C G
+@ G
I 4M? 4?
+@ C + G C G
TUTORIAL 2
1. Calculate total resistance between 2. For the circuit in figure 4, find the
terminal A and B for the circuit below. current and voltage drop at each
a) resistor.
Figure 1
b)
Figure 4
3. For the circuit in figure 5, find the

current and voltage drop at 30Ω
resistor.
Figure 2
c)
Figure 5
4. For the parallel network 6, find the

value of RT, IT, I1 and I2.
Figure 3
Figure 6
5. For the circuit in figure 7, find the 8. By referring to figure 10, find:
current through each resistor. a) Total resistance at terminal XY
b) Voltage across 3kΩ resistor using
Voltage Divider Rule if the
Voltage at XY is 60V.
c) Current Ia and Ib by using
Current Divider Rule if total
current IT is 1.5A.
Figure 7
6. For the circuit in figure 8, find:

a) Total resistance
b) Total current
c) Current flow through resistor 6Ω
and 4Ω. Figure 10
Figure 8
7. Based on figure 9, calculate:

a) Total resistance, RT
b) Total current, IT
c) Current flow through 16Ω
d) Voltage drop at terminal A and B
e) Power dissipated by the circuit.
Figure 9
3.7 Delta–Star transformation
Delta -∆ Star – Y
Figure 8
Formula Delta Star Formula Star Delta
+I + +9+N
+9 +I + 9 C + N C
+I C + @ C + +O
+I + @ +N+O
+N +@ +N C +O C
+I C + @ C + +9
+@+ +9+O
+O + +9 C +O C
+I C + @ C + +N
Example 1
Calculate the total resistance between terminal A and B for figure below.
A
4Ω 2Ω
6Ω
3Ω 3Ω
B
Figure 9
Solution:
Figure 10 Figure 11
Step1:
Using ∆ →Υ transformation on 4Ω, 2Ω and 6Ω resistor.
+I + +I + @
+9 LΩ+ N Ω
+I C + @ C + C C +I C + @ C + C C
+@+
+O Ω
+I C + @ C + C C
Step 2:
Replacing the ∆ configuration with Υ configuration and redrawing the circuit (Figure11).
Step 3:
Find the total resistance,RT.
+ F P3 C 46 JJ 3 C 46Q C L MMΩ
Example 2
Based on circuit below, calculate the following using Star-Delta transformation:

i) Current flowing through 12Ω and 10Ω
ii) Voltage across 12Ω and 10Ω
Figure 12
Solution:
Figure 13 Figure 14
i) Current flowing through 10Ω and 12Ω

Step1:
+F 44 C P3LM C 6 JJ 3L C 6Q
+9 44Ω
CCM + F 44 C 3LM JJ L6
M +F 44 C 4
+N LMΩ
CCM +F LM7
M
+O LΩ
CCM
H
F L
+ F LM
L
I@R I L L
LM C L
LM
ISR @ L L
LM C L
ii) Voltage across 12Ω and 10Ω

HI@R I@R +I@R HISR ISR +ISR
HI@R 3L636 HISR 3L636
MH LH
3.8 Electrical power and energy
Electrical power
Power P in an electrical circuit is given by the product of potential difference V and
current I. The unit of power is the watt, W. Hence,
$ ( ………equation 1
From Ohm’s law,
(
Substituting for V in equation (1) gives:
$ D T
Also, from Ohm’s law,
(

Substituting for I in equation (1) gives:
(D
$ T

Electrical energy
U
"'"
!'VW $X'
If the power is measured in watts and the time in seconds then the unit of energy is watt-
seconds or Joules.
3.9 Effects of electric current.
Main effects of an electric current Applications of the effects

a) magnetic effect bells, relays, motors, generators,
transformers, telephones, car-ignition
and lifting magnets
b) chemical effect primary and secondary cells and
electroplating
c) heating effect cookers, water heaters, electric fires, irons,
furnaces, kettles and soldering irons
TUTORIAL 3
1. Calculate the total resistance between

terminal A and B for figure 11.
Figure 13
Figure 11
4. Based on Figure 14, using star-delta
2. Using star-delta transformation, transformation, calculate the current
calculate: flow and voltage drops at 6kΩ resistor.
a) Total resistance, RT
b) Total Current, IT
c) Current flow through 15Ω resistor
Figure 14
5. Based on Figure 15, using star-delta

transformation, calculate the current
flow through RL.
Figure 12
3. Based on figure 13, find total current

and current flow through 15Ω resistor
Figure 15
UNIT 4 DC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT AND NETWORK THEOREMS

1.0 Kirchoff’s Law
Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL) states at any junction in an electric circuit the total current flowing
towards that junction is equal to the total current flowing away from the junction, i.e. Σ I = 0
Thus , referring to figure 1:
∑ current towards = ∑ current flowing away

I1 + I2+ I3 = I4 + I5
I1 + I2 + (- I3 ) + (- I4 ) + (-I5 ) = 0
∑I= 0
Figure 1
Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states in any closed loop in a network, the algebraic sum Figure 2
of the voltage drops (i.e. products of current and resistance) taken around the loop is equal to
the resultant e.m.f. acting in that loop.
E = IR1 + IR2
E = I(R1 + R2 )
E + (- IR1 ) + (- IR2) = 0
Figure 2
1.1 Mesh analysis

Analysis using KVL to solve for the currents around each closed loop of the network and
hence determine the currents through and voltages across each elements of the
network.
Mesh analysis procedure:

1. Assign a distinct current to each closed loop of the network.
2. Apply KVL around each closed loop of the network.
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous linear equation for the loop currents.
Example 1
Find the current flow through each resistor using mesh analysis for the circuit below.
Figure 3
Solution:
Step 1: Assign a distinct current to each closed loop of the network.
Figure 4
Step 2: Apply KVL around each closed loop of the network.

Loop 1: Loop 2:

------------ equation 1

--------------- equation 2
Step 3: Solve the resulting simultaneous linear equation for the loop currents.
Solve equation 1 and 2 using matrix

Matrix form:

From KCL :

Example 2
Figure 5
Solution:
Step 1: Assign a distinct current to each closed loop of the network.
Figure 6
Step 2: Apply KVL around each closed loop of the network.
Loop 1: Loop 2:

------------ equation 1 --------------- equation 2
Step 3: Solve the resulting simultaneous linear equation for the loop currents.
Solve equation 1 and 2 using matrix

Matrix form:

From KCL :

1.2 Nodes analysis

Analysis using KCL to solve for voltages at each common node of the network and hence
determines the currents through and voltages across each elements of the network.
Nodal analysis procedure:

1. Determine the number of common nodes and reference node within the network.
2. Assign current and its direction to each distinct branch of the nodes in the network.
3. Apply KCL at each of the common nodes in the network
4. Solve the resulting simultaneous linear equation for the nodal voltages.
5. Determine the currents through and voltages across each the elements in the
network.
Example 3
Figure 7
Solution:
Step 1: Determine the number of common nodes and reference node within the network (Figure 8).
1 common node (Va) , reference node C
Step 2: Assign current and its direction to each distinct branch of the nodes in the network (Figure 8).
Figure 8
Step 3: Apply KCL at each of the common nodes in the network
KCL:
Step 4: Solve the resulting simultaneous linear equation for the nodal voltages.

! "

#
! "

∴

Step 5: Determine the currents through each elements

Example 4
Figure 9
Solution:
Step 1: Determine the number of common nodes and reference node within the network (Figure 10).
1 common node (Va) , reference node C
Step 2: Assign current and its direction to each distinct branch of the nodes in the network (Figure 10).
Figure 10
Step 3: Apply KCL at each of the common nodes in the network
KCL:
Step 4: Solve the resulting simultaneous linear equation for the nodal voltages.

! "

#
$
%&
$
%

∴ ##

Step 5: Determine the currents through each elements

## ##

##

TUTORIAL 1
Find the current through each resistor for the networking below using Mesh Analysis and Nodal
Analysis.
a)
d)
b)
e)
c)
R1
4kΩ
R3 3kΩ
V1
R2 2kΩ
30V
V2
25V
2.0 Thevenin’ s Theorem
Thevenins Theorem states:

"Any linear circuit containing several energy source and resistances can be replaced by just a
Single Voltage in series with a Single Resistor".
Thevenins equivalent circuit.
Figure 11
Thevenin’s theorem procedure:
1. Open circuit RL and find Thevenin’s voltage (VTH).

2. Find Thevenin’s resistance (RTH) when voltage source is short circuit or current source is
open circuit and RL is open circuit.
3. Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit such as in figure 11 with the value of VTH and RTH.
Find the IL which current flow through the RL.
Example 5
Find the current flow through RL equal to 30Ω for the circuit in Figure 12.
Figure 12
Solution:
Step 1: Open circuit RL and find Thevenin’s voltage (VTH).
'( )*Ω
Using VDR find VTH
'( $

Figure 13
Step 2: Find Thevenin’s resistance (RTH) when voltage source is short circuit
'(
++

'(
'( Ω
Figure 14
Step 3: Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit with the value of VTH and RTH
'(
,
'( ,

,

,

Figure 15
Example 6
Find current flow through R4.

R2
60Ω
R1 R3 R4
Is
30Ω 90Ω 25Ω
300mA
Figure 16
Solution :
Step 1 : Open circuit RL and find Thevenin’s voltage (VTH).

'( -*Ω $
Using CDR, find I2

$ .

$

Figure 17
'(
$

Step 2: Find Thevenin’s resistance (RTH) when current source,IS is open circuit.
'( ++
'(

++
'(
++

$
'(

'( Ω
Figure 18
Step 3: Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit with the value of VTH and RTH
RTH
45Ω '(
IL ,
'( ,
VTH RL

4.5V 25Ω ,

,

Figure 19
TUTORIAL 2
1. Refer to figure 1, find the current flow 5. Calculate the current flow in 30Ω resistor
through resistor 12Ω using Thevenin’s for the circuit in figure 5 using Thevenin’s
Theorem. Theorem.
Figure 1 Figure 5
2. Find the current flow through resistor 15Ω 6. Refer to figure 6, find the current flow
for the circuit in figure 2 using Thevenin’s through 50Ω using Thevenin’s Theorem.
Theorem.
Figure 6
Figure 2
7. Use Thevenin’s Theorem, find the current
3. Count value stream IL by using Thevenin’s flow through resistor R=10Ω.
Theorem.
Figure 7
Figure 3
8. Use Thevenin’s Theorem, find the current
flow through resistor R=10Ω.
4. Use Thevenin’s Theorem to find the current
flowing in 5Ω resistor shown in figure 4.
Figure 4 Figure 8
3.0 Norton’s Theorem
Nortons Theorem states:

"Any linear circuit containing several energy sources and resistances can be replaced by a single
Constant Current generator in parallel with a Single Resistor".
Figure 20
Norton’s theorem procedure:
1. Remove RL from the circuit. Find IN by shorting links output terminal.
2. Find RN by short-circuit voltage source or open-circuit current source.
3. Draw the Norton’s equivalent circuit such as in figure 20 with the value of IN and RN. Find
the IL which current flow through the RL.
Example 7
Find the current flow through RL equal to 30Ω for the circuit in Figure 21.
Figure 21
Step 1: Remove RL from the circuit. Find IN by shorting links output terminal.
Figure 22
'

++

$
'

'
'

' / 0 $

Step 2: Find RN by short-circuit voltage source.
0
11

0
0 /
Figure 23
Step3: Draw the Norton’s equivalent circuit with the value of IN and RN. Find the IL which current
flow through the RL.
Using CDR, find IL
0
, $ 0
0 ,

, $

Figure 24
Example 6
Find current flow through R4.
Figure 25
Solution:
Step 1: Remove RL from the circuit. Find IN by shorting links output terminal.
R2 Current flow at 90Ω is 0A, so 23 2&*4.
60Ω
0 $

Is
R1 R3

IN R4
30Ω 90Ω 25Ω
300mA
Figure 26
Step 2: Find RN by open-circuit current source.
R2
60Ω 0

11
0
11
R1 R3 RN
$
30Ω 90Ω 0

0 /
Figure 27
Step3: Draw the Norton’s equivalent circuit with the value of IN and RN. Find the IL which current
flow through the RL.
Using CDR, find IL
0
, $ 0
0 ,

, $

Figure 28
TUTORIAL 3
1. Refer to figure 1, find the current flow 5. Calculate the current flow in 30Ω resistor
through resistor 12Ω using Norton’s for the circuit in figure 5 using Norton
Theorem. Theorem.
Figure 1 Figure 5
2. Find the current flow through resistor 15Ω 6. Refer to figure 6, find the current flow
for the circuit in figure 2 using Norton through 50Ω using Norton Theorem.
Theorem.
Figure 6
Figure 2
7. Use Norton Theorem, find the current flow
3. Count value stream IL by using Norton through resistor R=10Ω.
Theorem.
Figure 7
Figure 3
8. Use Norton Theorem, find the current flow
through resistor R=10Ω.
4. Use Norton Theorem to find the current
flowing in 5Ω resistor shown in figure 4.
Figure 4 Figure 8
4.0 Maximum Power Transfer theorem
The maximum power transfer theorem states:

‘A load will receive maximum power from a linear bilateral dc network when its total resistive
value equal to the Thevenin’s or Norton resistance of the network as seen by the load.’
Figure 29
For the Thevenin equivalent circuit above, maximum power will be delivered to the load when:
56 578
For the Norton equivalent circuit above, maximum power will be delivered to the load when:
56 53
There are four conditions occur when maximum power transfer took place in a circuit:
1. Value of RL equal to RTH (RL=RTH).

2. Value of current is half of the current when RL is short circuited.
3. Value of load voltage is half the Thevenin’s voltage (VL = ½VTH).
4. Percentage of efficiency,η% = 50%.
Where:
, ,
9η $
9 $
9
'( '( ,
Example 7
Refer to figure 30, determine the load power for each of the following value of the variable load
resistance and sketch the graph load power versus load resistance.
a) 25Ω b) 50Ω c) 75Ω d) 100Ω e) 125Ω
Figure 30
Solution:
'(
,
'( ,
:, , ,
a) , / d) ,

#
# #
:,

; :,

#

;
b) ,
/ e) , /

#
#
:,

; :,

;
c) , #/

#
# #
:,

# #
;
RTH RL I VTH VL=IRL %η PL

75Ω 0 0.133A 10V 0V 0% 0W
75Ω 25Ω 0.1A 10V 2.5V 25% 0.25W
75Ω 50Ω 0.08A 10V 4V 40% 0.32W
75Ω 75Ω 0.067A 10V 5.0V 50% 0.336W
75Ω 100Ω 0.057A 10V 5.7V 57% 0.325W
75Ω 125Ω 0.05A 10V 6.5V 65% 0.312W
Load Power (PL) vs Load Resistance(RL)

0.4
0.35 75, 0.336
50, 0.32 100, 0.325 125, 0.312
Load Power (W)
0.3
0.25 25, 0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0 0, 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Load Resistance (Ω)
Figure 31
Example 8
For the network in figure 32, determine the value of R for maximum power transfer to R and
hence calculate the maximum power using Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.
Figure 32
Solution:
Open circuit R and find Thevenin’s voltage (VTH).
'( Ω
Using VDR find VTH

'( $

Figure 33
Find Thevenin’s resistance (RTH) when voltage source is short circuit
'( ++
$
'(

'(
Ω
Figure 34
Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit with the value of VTH and RTH
Maximum power transfer occur when R=RTH.

So, the value of R is 10Ω.

,

,

Figure 35 Maximum power transfer,

:,< = ,

;
5.0 Superposition Theorem
The superposition theorem states:

‘In any network made up of linear resistances and containing more than one source of e.m.f, the
resultant current flowing in any branch is the algebraic sum of the currents that would flow in
that branch if each source was considered separately, all other sources being replaced at that
time by their respective internal resistances.’
Removing the effect of voltage and current source
Voltage source Current source
Example 9
Determine the current through resistor R2=5Ω for the network in figure 36 using superposition
theorem.
Figure 36
Solution:
Step 1: V active , I inactive. So current source is open circuit.

Figure 37
Step 2: V inactive, I active. So voltage source is short circuit.
Using CDR

> $ $

Figure 38
Step 3: Total current through R2=5Ω.
Ia 1A Ib 6A
? > #
Example 10
Find the current flow through each resistor for the network in figure 39.
Figure 39
Solution:
Step 1: V1 active, V2 inactive
'

11

'
/

@

'

@ $

@ $

Figure 40
Step 2: V1 inactive, V2 active
'

11

'
/

@@
#
'

@@ $
#
#

@@ $
#

Figure 41
Step 3: Total current flow through each resistor
IR1 ⇒ I1’=0.429A I1’’=0.571A

So @@ @
#

IR2 ⇒ I2’=0.286A I2’’=0.714A

@@ @
So ?
#

IR3 ⇒ I3’=0.143A I3’’=0.143A
So ? @@ @

TUTORIAL 4
Find the current through each resistor for the networking below using Superposition Theorem.
b)
d)
b)
e)
c)
R1
4kΩ
R3 3kΩ
V1
R2 2kΩ
30V
V2
25V
http://modul2poli.blogspot.com/UNIT 5 CAPACITOR AND CAPACITANCE
UNIT 5 CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE

5.1 Capacitor and Capacitance
5.1.1 Associated Quantities
- A capacitor is an electrical device that is used to store electrical energy.

- The unit of capacitance is Farad. The symbol of capacitance is C.
- Capacitance is defined to be the amount of charge Q stored in between the two
plates for a potential difference or voltage V existing across the plates.
In other words:
- A capacitor has capacitance of one Farad when current charging of one Ampere
flows in one second. This process causing a transferring of one volt in plates
potential.
- The Farad unit is too large for practical as charge ratio to its potential difference.
uses. Thus microfarad (μF) , nanofarad (nF) or Pico farad (pF) is used as a suitable
unit for capacitor:-
 Microfarad (µF) 1µF = 1/1,000,000F = 10-6F
 Nanofarad (nF) 1nF = 1/1,000,000,000 = 10-9F
 Microfarad (pF) 1pF = 1/1,000,000,000,000 = 10-12F
5.1.2 Types of capacitors
Mica
Unpolarised
Ceramic
Film
Fixed Air-gap
Paper
Polarized
Aluminum
Tantalum
Variable Trimmer
5.1.3 Capacitor Construction
Figure 1: Capacitor construction
In its most elementary state a capacitor consists of two metal plates separated by a
certain distance d, in between the plates lies a dielectric material with dielectric constant =εoε,
where εo is the dielectric of air.
The dielectric material allows for charge to accumulate between the capacitor plates.
Air (actually vacuum) has the lowest dielectric value of εo = 8.854 x 10-12 Farads/meter. All other
materials have higher dielectric values, since they are higher in density and can therefore
accumulate more charge.
The Physical meaning of capacitance can be seen by relating it to the physical

characteristics of the two plates, so that, the capacitance is related to the dielectric of the
material in between the plates, the square area of a plate and the distance between the plates
by the formula:
Clearly, the larger the area of the plate the more charge can be accumulated and hence
the larger the capacitance. Also, note that as the distance d increases the Capacitance
decreases since the charge cannot be contained as 'densely' as before.
By applying a voltage to a capacitor and measuring the charge on the plates, the ratio of
the charge Q to the voltage V will give the capacitance value of the capacitor and is therefore
given as: C = Q/V this equation can also be re-arranged to give the more familiar formula for the
quantity of charge on the plates as: Q = C x V.
5.2 Capacitor equivalents circuit
5.2.1 Capacitor connected in series
e1 e2 e3 Total voltage
VT = e1 + e2 + e3
Since then
C1 C2 C3
E
Where CT is the total equivalent circuit

capacitance
Figure 2: Capacitors in series
It follows that for n series-connected capacitors:
5.2.3 Capacitor connected in parallel
Total charge,
QT = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
CTE = C1V1 + C2 V2 + C3 V3
E Total voltage
C1 C2 C3
ET = e1 = e2 = e3
Total equivalent circuit capacitance
CT = C1 + C2 + C3
Figure 3: Capacitor in parallel It follows that for n parallel connected
capacitors:
CT = C1 + C2 + C3 +……+ Cn
5.2.3 Capacitor connected in series-parallel
Total equivalent circuit capacitance

C1
E C2 C3
Figure 4: Capacitor in series-parallel
Example 1
Calculate the equivalent capacitance of two capacitors of 3μF and 6μF connected:
(a) in parallel (b) in series.
Solution:
(a) In parallel, equivalent capacitances:
(b) In series, equivalent capacitance :
Example 2
Find the capacitance to be connected in series with a 10μF capacitor for the equivalent capacitance to
be 6μF.
Solution:
, ,
For two capacitance in series:
Example 3
Find the total capacitance of the circuit:

Solution:
C2 2µF
C1 C3 C4
E
1µF 3µF 4µF
TUTORIAL 1
1. Capacitors of 15μF and 10μF are connected (a) in parallel and (b) in series. Determine the equivalent
capacitance in each case.
2. Find the capacitance to be connected in series with a 25μF capacitor for the equivalent capacitance
to be 10µF.
3. Find the capacitance to be connected in parallel with a 25μF capacitor for the equivalent
capacitance to be 10µF.
4. Find the total capacitor the circuit.
a)
C4 C2 C1
E
100µF 100µF 100µF
C5 50µF C3 200µF
[40µF]
b)
C1 C2 C3 C4
30µF 60µF 60µF 30µF

C5 C6
20µF 40µF
[11.14µF]
c)
C1 C2 C3
C4
30µF 30µF 30µF
C5 C6
30µF
30µF 30µF
[1.2µF]
5.3 Circuit with capacitive load
Figure 5
Mathematically, the capacitance of the device relates the voltage difference between
the plates and the charge accumulation associated with this voltage:
q(t)=CV(t) equation (1)
Capacitors which obey the relationship of equation (1) are linear capacitors, since the
potential difference between the conductive surfaces is linearly related to the charge on the
surfaces. Note that the charges on the right and left plate of the capacitor in Figure 5 are equal
and opposite. Thus, if we increase the charge on one plate, the charge on the other plate must
decrease by the same amount. This is consistent with our previous assumption electrical circuit
elements cannot accumulate charge, and current entering one terminal of a capacitor must
leave the other terminal of the capacitor.
So, current is defined as the time rate of change of charge,
5.3.2 Elements related to capacitance
a. Electric field:
 Area that surrounds the electric charge or charges system where the
increasing and decreasing of electric force exists.
b. Line of electric force:

 A line of electric force is known as line or curve that pointed out from
positive charge (+) to negative charge (-) in a magnetic field.
c. Electric flux:
 Known as amount of electric force line pointed out from positive charge (+)
to negative charge (-) in a magnetic field. Flux symbol is Ψ(phi).
d. Electric flux density (D):

 Electric flux density is a measurement of electric flux that pass through a
unit of plate’s area with a coincide angle, that is an area of 1 meter².
 The ratio between the charge of the capacitor and capacitor plates.
 The symbol used is D. Based on Figure 1, if the area of capacitor is A, then
the flux density is given as:-
where Q= charge(Coulomb), A = surface area of capacitor
Figure6: Area and distance of capacitor plates
e. Electric field strength:

 When two metal plates are charged and separated in a certain distance, a
potential difference will exists between the plates.
 A force was also generated, known as electric force and the symbol is E. The
magnetic strength depends on the potential difference and distance
between plates.
Where; V = potential difference d = thickness of dielectric
f. Dielectric:
 Insulator that is used between the two plates of a capacitance is known as
dielectric.
 Electric field exists in the dielectric and the flux density depends on the types
of insulator used.
g. Absolute permittivity (ε):

 Permittivity is a capacitance or ability to store energy of a capacitor.
 A force was also generated, known as electric force and the symbol. It
depends on the dielectric substance, and the symbol is ε.
5.3.3 Factor that effecting capacitance
Based on Figure 7, the factor that effecting capacitance is:
Figure 7
a. Capacitance between two plates proportional to the surface area
b. Capacitance between two plates inversely proportional to the thickness of

dielectric
c. Increasing the dielectric constant of the material between the plates
5.4 Process charging and discharging in a capacitor
5.4.1 Charging process in capacitor
VR VC
b i + -
a S R C
A
+ E -
Figure 8: Capacitor circuit for charging process
In initial state, a capacitor is uncharged (Vc = 0V). When a capacitor start

charged, maximum current will be flowing (i = Imax). The current would be decreased by
exponent, while voltage will be rising by exponent also. This state will continue until full
state (steady) achieved. In this full state, current had decreased to zero value, while
voltage increased until maximum value. The capacitor is said in fully charge.
Figure 9 show both curves current and voltage for capacitor during charging
process, in x-axis (t, time). The current and voltage curve may be represented by
exponent equations respectively.
vc , i
IMax
A
VMax
vc Voltage through capacitor:

= 0.632 VMax vc = Vmax (1 – e –t/ )
vc = Vmax
i=0
Current flow:
i i = Imax (e –t/ )
= 0.371 IMax
= CR t
Figure 9: Current and voltage curve in capacitor during charging process
Time constant,0 = CR
- The times taken for voltage achieve value of 0.632Vmax and current achieve value of
0.371Imax 0
Initial current,
5.4.2 Discharging process in capacitor
VR VC
b i + -
a S R C
A
+ E -
Figure 10: Capacitor circuit for discharging process
When capacitor fully charge and then switch being transformed to ‘b’, discharge
process for capacitor will happen. The time taken to recharge and fully discharge is
5 =CxR. Figure 11 show the curve for discharging process in capacitor.
v, i
Vmax Voltage through capacitor:

vc = Vmax ( e –t/ )
t, time
Discharging current flow:
i =-Imax (e –t/ )
Imax
Figure 11: Current and voltage curve in capacitor during discharging process
5.4.3 Energy stored in a capacitor
During charging process through capacitor, it will get energy. Energy is kept in
static form. The voltage in capacitor will increase from 0 volt to E volt.
Example 1
One capacitor 0.326µF connected in series with 680kΩ and dc voltage 120V. Determine:
i. Time constant
ii. Initial current charge
iii. Current through capacitor, 100ms after charge to the source.
iv. Energy stored in capacitor.
Solution:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Example 2
100kΩ 150µF When switch are connected, calculate:

+ -
R C i. Time constant
S ii. Initial current charge
iii. Time taken for voltage through capacitor
increase to 160V.
220V iv. Current and potential difference through
capacitor, 4 second after charge to the
source.
v. Energy stored in capacitor.
Solution:
i. ii.
iii. vc = 160V iv.
47s
iv.
Example 3
200kΩ 20µF Solution:

+ -
R C i.
S
ii.
150V iii.
When switch are connected, calculate:
i. Initial current charge iv.
ii. Initial potential difference through
capacitor.
iii. Time constant
iv. Time taken for capacitor fully charges.
TUTORIAL 2
1. A 20µF capacitor is connected in series with a 50 kΩ resistor and the circuit is connected to a 20
V, d.c. supply. Determine:
a) The initial value of the current flowing,
b) The time constant of the circuit,
c) The value of the current one second after connection,
d) The value of the capacitor voltage two seconds after connection,
e) The time after connection when the resistor voltage is 15 v
[0.4mA,1s,0.147mA,17.3V,0.288s]
2. A circuit consists of a resistor connected in series with a 0.5µF capacitor and has a time
constant of 12 ms. Determine:
(a) The value of the resistor
(b) The capacitor voltage 7 ms after connecting the circuit to a 10 V supply
*24kΩ,4.42V]
3. An 12µF capacitor is connected in series to a 0.5MΩ resistor across the dc voltage supply of
240V. Determine:
(a) Time constant
(b) Initial charging current
(c) Time for capacitor voltage increase to 150V
(d) The current flowing through the capacitor after 4 seconds
(e) Energy stored in the capacitor when it is fully charged
(f) Sketch the current and voltage (IV) curve to show the process of charging the capacitor.
[6s,0.48mA,5.88s,0.246mA,0.346J]
4. A capacitor is charged to 100 V and then discharged through a 50 kΩ resistor. If the time
constant of the circuit is 0.8 s, determine:
(a) The value of the capacitor,
(b) The time for the capacitor voltage to fall to 20 v,
(c) The current flowing when the capacitor has been discharging for 0.5 s
(d) The voltage drop across the resistor when the capacitor has been discharging for one
second.
[16µF,1.29s,1.07mA,28.7V]
5. A 0.1µF capacitor is charged to 200 V before being connected across a 4 kΩ resistor. Determine:
(a) The initial discharge current
(b) The time constant of the circuit
[50mA,0.4s]
http://modul2poli.blogspot.com/ UNIT 6 INDUCTOR AND INDUCTANCE
UNIT 6 INDUCTOR AND INDUCTANCE

6.1 Inductor and inductance
6.1.1 Associated quantities
- Inductor, also called a choke, is another passive type electrical component designed
to take advantage of this relationship by producing a much stronger magnetic field
than one that would be produced by a simple coil.
- Symbol of inductance is L.
- Unit of inductance is Henry.
- Inductance – the property of an electric circuit by which an electromotive force is

induced in it as the result of changing magnetic flux.
- Electromagnet – temporary magnet production due to flow of electric current.
- Electromagnetic induction - production process electric form magnet.
6.1.2 Types of inductor
Air core
Fixed Iron core
Ferrite core
Variable Core loss
6.1.3 Construction of inductor
An inductor is usually constructed as a coil of conducting material, typically

copper wire, wrapped around a core either of air or ferrous material.
Core materials with higher permeability than air confine the magnetic field
closely to the inductor, thereby increasing the inductance. Inductors come in many
shapes. Most are constructed as enamel coated wire wrapped around a ferrite with wire
exposed on the outside, while some enclose the wire completely in ferrite and are called
‘shielded’.
1
MARLIANA/JKE/POLISAS/ET101-UNIT6
Some inductors have an adjustable core, which enables changing of the

inductance. Small inductors can be etched directly onto a printed board by laying out
the trace in a spiral pattern.
Figure 1
6.2 Inductance equivalents circuit for series and parallel connection
6.2.1 Inductors connected in series
L1
I
Total voltage,
e1
ET = e 1 + e 2
ET e2 Total inductance,
L2
LT = L1 + L2
It follows that for n series connected
inductors
Figure 2: Inductor in series LT = L1 + L2 +…….+ Ln
Current, I = IL1 = IL2
6.2.2 Inductors connected in parallel
IT Total voltage,
ET = e 1 = e 2
I1 I2 Total current,
ET IT = I1 + I2
L1 e1 L2 e2 Total inductance
Figure 3: Inductor in parallel It follows that for n parallel connected

inductors
2
6.2.3 Inductors connected in series-parallel
L1
IT
Total current,
I1 I2 IT = I1 +I2
ET Total inductance,
L2 L3
LT = L1 + L2 // L3
Figure 5: Inductor in series-

parallel connection
Example 1
Calculate the equivalent inductance of two inductors of 3H and 5H connected:

(a) in series (b) in parallel.
Solution:
a) Total inductance in series, b) Total inductance in parallel,
Example 2
Find the inductance to be connected in parallel with a 10H capacitor for the equivalent capacitance to
be 6H.
Solution:
, ,
For two capacitance in series:
Example 3
Find the total inductance for the circuit below Total inductance,
L1 LT = L1 + L2 // L3
IT
5H I1 I2
ET L2 2H L3 3H
3
TUTORIAL 1
Find the total inductance of the circuit.
1.
2H
ET 3H 4H
1H
[Ans: 0.788H]
2.
A B
2mH 3mH 5mH
4mH
6mH [Ans: 8.33mH]
3.
4H
2H 5H
6H
A B
2H 3H
2H
5H 3H [Ans: 3.54H]
4.
12mH 5.2mH 4mH 2mH
40mH 12mH 12mH 4mH
[Ans: 20mH]
4
6.3 Circuit with inductive load
6.3.1 Electromagnetic induction
When a conductor is moved across a magnetic field so as to cut through the lines of
force (or flux, an electromotive force (e.m.f) is produced in the conductor. If the conductor
forms part of a closed circuit then the e.m.f produced causes an electric current to flow round
the circuit. Hence an e.m.f is induced in the conductor as a result of its movement across the
magnetic field. This effect is known a ‘electromagnetic induction’.
6.3.2 Faraday’s Law
Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction state:

i) An induced e.m.f is setup whenever the magnetic field linking that circuit
changes
ii) The magnitude of the induced e.m.f in any circuit is proportional to the rate of
change of the magnetic flux linking the circuit.
6.3.3 Mathematical relationship between the induced e.m.f and the network
Faraday noted that the e.m.f induced in a loop is proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux through it:
Where; e is the electromotive force induced (in volts)

N is the number of turns of the coil
dΦ is the change of flux in Weber, Wb
dt is the time taken for the flux to change in seconds.
*Notice the negative sign is the induced current will now produce an induced magnetic
filed. The direction of that magnetic field will be opposite to the direction the flux is
changing.
6.3.4 Self-inductance and the induced e.m.f
Inductance is the name given to the property of a circuit whereby there is an e.m.f
induced into the circuit by change of flux linkages produced by a current change.
When the e.m.f is induced in the same circuit as that in which the current is changing,
the property is called self-inductance, L.
Induced e.m.f is the product of self-inductance and the rate of change in current
Where; e is induced e.m.f (in volts)

L is self-inductance in Henry
di is the change of current in Amperes
dt is the time taken for the current to change in seconds.
5
6.3.5 The mathematical of self-inductance
Where; N is number of turns of coil

L is length of coil
A is surface area
µ is permeability
6.3.6 The factors that influence inductance
A component called an inductor is used when the property of inductance is required in a

circuit. The basic form of an inductor is simply a coil of wire.
Factors which affect the inductance of an inductor include:

i) The number of turns of wire (N) – more turns the higher the inductance
ii) The cross-sectional area of the coil of wire (A) – the greater the cross-sectional area
the higher the inductance
iii) The presence of magnetic core - when the coil is wound on an iron core, the same
current sets up a more concentrated magnetic field and the inductance is increased
iv) The way turns are arranged – a short tick coil of wire has a higher inductance than
the along thin one.
6.4 Rise and decay of current goes through an inductor in the dc circuit
6.4.1 Rise and decay of current
b R L
a S
V
Figure 5: Inductor circuit
Refer to Figure 5, when switch in ‘a’ position, inductor connected to DC supply.

The current had not achieved maximum value immediately. The current are going to
reach maximum value in a period of time that certain caused by production e.m.f
induced by inductor which always against the supply voltage. In other words, the
currant of the circuit is rise delayed.
When switch is being transformed to position ‘b’, inductor circuit had short
circuit (no supply voltage). The current is not decrease continue to zero but take a time
that certain from maximum value until zero value. Refer to figure 6 which is shown the
exponential graph changing of current in inductor circuit.
6
i i
Rise of current Decay of current
IM IM
Rt
Rt
i IM e L
i I M (1 e L )
t t
Figure 6: Graph changing of current in inductor circuit
6.4.2 Time constant

Time constant, defines as time for current achieve maximum (IM) if this maintain the
early promotion rate current.
0
i) Time constant at rise of current 0
Practically, the current did not rise by regular. By graphically, it achieves 63.2% from
maximum value (point ‘B’ in figure 7) in time constant. In other words, time constant,
also defines as time for current of inductor achieve 63.2% from the maximum value.
i
From the graph:
C D
IM Current will be rising from
minimum value (0) by
63.2% B exponent headed for
Rt
A maximum value, IM (steady
i I M (1 e L )
state).
Time for value of i achieve
63.2% from maximum value
t is time constant, .
Time for value of I achieve
maximum value is 5
5
0
Figure 7: Graph rise of current through an inductor
From RL circuit, time constant, , given by equation:
7
ii) Time constant at decay of current
In decay of current through an inductor, a method to find values of time constant same
as in rise of current through an inductor. The differences are value of current decay
from maximum value (IM) to minimum (0), and value 63.2% replaced with 36.8% which is
100% - 63.2%. Figure 8 shown clear pictures for decay of current in inductor.
i
From the graph:
Current will reduce from
IM
maximum value (IM) by
exponentially until minimum
Rt
L
value (0).
i IM e Time for i to reach 36.8% from
maximum value (reducing of
36.8%
t 63.2% from origin value, IM) is
time constant:
0
Time for i to reach final value
(zero) is 5 .
5
Figure 8: Graph decay of current through an inductor
6.4.3 Energy stored in an inductor
An inductor possesses an ability to store energy. The energy stored, W in the magnetic
field of an inductor is given by:
Example 1
One inductor 0.5H connected in series with resistor 20Ω and dc voltage 120V. Determine:
i) Time constant iii) Energy stored in inductor
ii) Current at time 0.025s
Solution
i) Time constant
ii)
iii) Energy store,
8
Example 2
When switch connected to ‘a’,

calculate:
b R=10Ω L=7.5H i) Time constant
ii) Time taken for current achieve
a S
maximum value
iii) Maximum current if the current is
2.5A in 0.38s.
100V
Solution
i) Time constant, iii)
ii)
Example 3
One circuit has resistor 40Ω connected in series with inductor 15H and dc voltage 220V.
Calculate:
i) Time constant
ii) Current at time (i)
iii) Current at time 0.05s
iv) Energy stored in inductor
Solution
i) Time constant iii) t = 0.05s
ii)
iv)
9
TUTORIAL 2
1. A coil of inductance 0.04 H and resistance 10Ω is connected to a 120 V, d.c. supply. Determine
(a) the final value of current
(b) the time constant of the circuit
(c) the value of current after a time equal to the time constant from the instant the supply
voltage is connected.
[12A,4ms,7.58A]
2. The winding of an electromagnet has an inductance of 3H and a resistance of 15Ω. When it is

connected to a 120 V d.c. supply, calculate:
(a) the steady state value of current flowing in the winding
(b) the time constant of the circuit
(c) the value of the induced e.m.f. after 0.1s
(d) the time for the current to rise to 85% of its final value
(e) the value of the current after 0.3 s
[8A,0.2s,72.78V,0.379s,6.215A]
3. A coil has an inductance of 1.2H and a resistance of 40Ω and is connected to a 200 V, d.c. supply.
Determine the approximate value of the current flowing 60 ms after connecting the coil to the
supply. [4.3 A]
4. A 25 V d.c. supply is connected to a coil of inductance 1H and resistance 5Ω. Determine the
approximate value of the current flowing 100 ms after being connected to the supply. [2 A]
5. The field winding of a 200 V d.c. machine has a resistance of 20Ω and an inductance of 500mH.
Calculate:
(a) the time constant of the field winding
(b) the value of current flow one time constant after being connected to the supply
(c) the current flowing 50 ms after the supply has been switched on.
[(a) 25 ms (b) 6.32 A (c) 8.65 A]
10
UNIT 7 MAGNETIC CIRCUIT, ELECTROMAGNETISM AND ELECTOMAGNETIC INDUCTION
UNIT 7 MAGNETIC CIRCUIT, ELECTROMAGNETISM AND

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
7.1 Magnetism
7.1.1 The principles of magnetism and its characteristic
Magnetism is defined as the force produced by charge particles (electrons) of magnet. A

magnet is a material that generates a magnetic field.
A permanent magnet is a piece of ferromagnetic material (such as iron, nickel or cobalt)

which has properties of attracting other pieces of these materials. A permanent magnet will
position itself in a north and south direction when freely suspended. The north-seeking end of
the magnet is called the north pole, N, and the south-seeking end the south pole, S.
The direction of a line of flux is from the north pole to the south pole on the outside of
the magnet and is then assumed to continue through the magnet back to the point at which it
emerged at the north pole. Thus such lines of flux always form complete closed loops or paths,
they never intersect and always have a definite direction. The laws of magnetic attraction and
repulsion can be demonstrated by using two bar magnets. In Figure 1(a), with unlike poles
adjacent, attraction takes place. Lines of flux are imagined to contract and the magnets try to
pull together. The magnetic field is strongest in between the two magnets, shown by the lines of
flux being close together. In Figure 1(b), with similar poles adjacent (i.e. two north poles),
repulsion occurs, i.e. the two north poles try to push each other apart, since magnetic flux lines
running side by side in the same direction repel.
Figure 1(a) : Unlike poles
Figure 1(b) : Similar poles
MARLIANA/JKE/POLISAS/ET101-UNIT 7 1
7.1.2 Magnetic field
The area around a magnet is called the magnetic field and it is in this area that the
effects of the magnetic force produced by the magnet can be detected. A magnetic field cannot
be seen, felt, smelt or heard and therefore is difficult to represent. Michael Faraday suggested
that the magnetic field could be represented pictorially, by imagining the field to consist of lines
of magnetic flux, which enables investigation of the distribution and density of the field to be
carried out.
The magnetic fields can be plot by using:
i. Compass
ii. Iron dust method
7.1.3 Characteristics of magnetic field / flux lines:
i. Forming a closing loop

ii. Did not crossed against each other
iii. Has a certain direction
iv. Repel between one another
v. Has a tension along its distance where it will tends to make them as short as possible
Element (iii)
Element (ii) Certain direction
Element (i)
Does not across Closed loop
N S
Element (v) Element (iv)

Tension along lines Repel each other
Figure 2: Magnetic field characteristics
7.1.4 a. Magneto motive force, Fm

Magneto motive force (mmf) is the cause of the existence of a magnetic flux in a
magnetic circuit.
mmf, Fm = NI Ampere turns
b. Reluctance, S
Reluctance is the ‘magnetic resistance of a magnetic circuit to the presence of
magnetic flux.

The unit of reluctance is 1/H or A/Wb

c. Magnetic field strength, H

Magnetic field strength (or magnetizing force)

Ampere per metre
Where l is the mean length of the flux path in metres.
d. Magnetic flux and flux density

Magnetic flux is the amount of the magnetic field (or the number of lines of
force) produced by a magnetic source. The symbol for magnetic flux is Φ. The
unit of magnetic flux is the Weber, Wb.
Magnetic flux density is the amount of flux passing through a defined area that
is perpendicular to the direction of the flux:
%&'()*+, -.#
!"# $
%/(%#
The symbol for magnetic flux density is B. the unit of magnetic flux density is
Tesla,T.
e. Permeability and B-H curve for different magnetic materials

§ Permeability is the ability of a magnetic circuit to produce magnetic flux
lines in a material or substance that formed with a magnetic force is known
as ‘permeability’.
§ Symbol of permeability: μ (mμ) and unit is Weber/ampere turns (Wb/AT)

, -.0('1*)2
§ where or μoμr= B / H
%&'()*+,3/+(
μ = absolute permeability
μo = free space permeability, 4π x 10-7
μr = relative permeability , μr = B (substance) / B (vacuum) for the
same H, μr = B / Bo
• Notes: for air, vacuum and non-magnetic material μr = 1 ( μ = μo)
Figure 3: B-H curve for four materials
7.2 Composite series magnetic circuit

For a series magnetic circuit having n parts, the total reluctance S is given by:
S = S1 + S2 +…..+ Sn
( This similar to resistor connected in series in a electrical circuit )
Example 1
A closed magnetic circuit of cast steel contains a 6cm long path of cross-sectional area 1cm2 and
a 2 cm path of cross-sectional area 0.5 cm2. A coil of 200 turns is wound around the 6 cm length
of the circuit and a current of 0.4 A flows. Determine the flux density in the 2 cm path, if the
relative permeability of the cast steel is 750.
Solution:
For the 6cm long path:
5 67489:
Reluctance,4 CDECC 7 FGA H
5 ;<=7489> ?;@A8?;47489B ?
For the 2cm long path
: I7489:
ReluctanceI ;<=7489> ?;@A8?;8DA7489B ? JDKJJ 7 FGA H
:

Total circuit reluctance

4 L I ;CDECC L JDKJJ? 7 FGA FGDCF 7 FGA H
Flux density, B in the 2cm path

M
$
N
I8878D<
Where flux,M QDR 7 FGSA TU
O 48D64748P
@DA7489P
$ FDRFV
8DA7489B
7.3 Comparison between electrical and magnetic quantities
Electrical circuit Magnetic circuit

e.m.f , E (V) mmf, Fm (A)
Current, I (A) Flux,Φ (Wb)
Resistance, R (Ω) Reluctance, S (H-1)
X ZZ
W M
Y
ρ
Y
N 8 / N
7.4 Hysteresis and Hysteresis Loop
Hysteresis is the ‘lagging’ effect of flux density B whenever there are changes in the
magnetic field strength H. When an initially unmagnetized ferromagnetic material is subjected
to a varying magnetic field strength H, the flux density B produced in the material varies as
shown in Figure 4, the arrows indicating the direction of the cycle. Figure 4 is known as a
hysteresis loop.
From Figure 4, distance OX indicates the residual flux density or remanence, OY

indicates the coercive force, and PP’ is the saturation flux density.
Hysteresis results in a dissipation of energy which appears as a heating of the magnetic

material. The energy loss associated with hysteresis is proportional to the area of the
hysteresis loop.
The area of a hysteresis loop varies with the type of material. The area, and thus the
energy loss, is much greater for hard materials than for soft materials.
Figure 4: Hysteresis loop
7.5 Electromagnetism
7.5.1 Magnetic field due to an electric current
Let a piece of wire be arranged to pass vertically through a horizontal sheet of

cardboard, on which is placed some iron filings, as shown in Figure 5(a).
If a current is now passed through the wire, then the iron filings will form a definite
circular field pattern with the wire at the centre, when the cardboard is gently tapped. By
placing a compass in different positions the lines of flux are seen to have a definite direction as
shown in Figure 5(b).
Current direction
Cardboard
Magnetic field
Figure 5(a) Figure 5(b)
If the current direction is reversed, the direction of the lines of flux is also reversed. The
effect on both the iron filings and the compass needle disappears when the current is switched
off. The magnetic field is thus produced by the electric current. The magnetic flux produced has
the same properties as the flux produced by a permanent magnet. If the current is increased the
strength of the field increases and, as for the permanent magnet, the field strength decreases as
we move away from the current-carrying conductor.
waqn
Magnetic field is surrounding a conductor that carries current, thus the form of
magnetic field that surrounds a straight conductor is in concentric cylindrical (Figure 6(a)).
The direction of magnetic field flux depends on the direction of current that flows in the
conductor. Figure 6(b) shows the direction of flux, which is according to clock-wise when current
enters the conductor (sign as “+” at the center of conductor). Meanwhile, Figure 6(c) shows the
opposite case, where the direction of current is exit from the conductor (sign as “•”, where it
will produce magnetic field flux according to anti-clockwise).
Figure 6(a) Figure 6(b) Figure 6(c)
Figure 6: Pole of magnetic field flux against current
Example
Draw magnetic field that exist when two conductors carrying current are put near to each other,
where:-
i. Current flows in the same direction on both of conductors.
ii. Current flows in the opposite direction between both conductors.
Solution
+ +
+ •
i. Current in same direction ii. Current in opposite direction
A magnetic field set up by a long coil, or solenoid, is shown in Figure 7(a) and is seen to
be similar to that of a bar magnet. If the solenoid is wound on an iron bar, as shown in Figure
7(b), an even stronger magnetic field is produced, the iron becoming magnetized and behaving
like a permanent magnet.
Figure 7(a): Magnetic field of a solenoid Figure 7(b): Magnetic field of an iron cored solenoid
The direction of the magnetic field produced by the current I in the solenoid may be
found by either of three methods:
a) Compass
Figure 8
b) Screw rule
States that ‘If a normal right-hand thread screw is screwed along the conductor
in the direction of the current, the direction of rotation of the screw is in the
direction of the magnetic field.’
Figure 9
c) The grip rule
States that ‘if the coil is gripped with the right hand, with the fingers pointing in
the direction of the current, then the thumb, outstretched parallel to the axis of
the solenoid, points in the direction of the magnetic field inside the solenoid.’
Figure 10
7.6 Electromagnetic induction
7.6.1 Laws of electromagnetic induction
Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction state:

i. ‘An induced e.m.f. is set up whenever the magnetic field linking that circuit
changes.’
ii. ‘The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. in any circuit is proportional to the rate of
change of the magnetic flux linking the circuit.’
Lenz’s law states:

‘The direction of an induced e.m.f. is always such that it tends to set up a current
opposing the motion or the change of flux responsible for inducing that e.m.f.’.
Fleming’s Right-hand rule states:

Let the thumb, first finger and second finger of the right hand be extended such that
they are all at right angles to each other (as shown in Figure 11). If the first finger points
in the direction of the magnetic field, the thumb points in the direction of motion of the
conductor relative to the magnetic Figure 11 field, then the second finger will point in
the direction of the induced e.m.f.
Figure 11
In a generator, conductors forming an electric circuit are made to move through

a magnetic field. By Faraday’s law an e.m.f. is induced in the conductors and thus a
source of e.m.f. is created. A generator converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy. The induced e.m.f. E set up between the ends of the conductor shown in Figure
12 is given by:
E = Blv Volts
where B, the flux density, is measured in teslas, l, the length of conductor in the
magnetic field, is measured in metres, and v, the conductor velocity, is measured in
metres per second.
Figure 12
If the conductor moves at an angle θ to the magnetic field (instead of at 900 as assumed
0
above) then
E = Blv sin θ Volt
Example 1
A conductor 300 mm long moves at a uniform speed of 4 m/s at right-angles to a uniform magnetic field
of flux density 1.25 T. Determine the current flowing in the conductor when
(a) its ends are open-circuited,
(b) its ends are connected to a load of 20 Ω resistance.
Solution
When a conductor moves in a magnetic field it will have an e.m.f. induced in it but this e.m.f. can only
produce a current if there is a closed circuit.
Induced e.m.f. E = Blv =(1.25)(300/1000)(4) = 1.5 V
(a) If the ends of the conductor are open circuited no current will flow even though 1.5 V has been
induced.
(b) From Ohm’s law, I = E/R =1.5/20 = 0.075 A or 75 mA
Example 2
At what velocity must a conductor 75 mm long cut a magnetic field of flux density 0.6 T if an e.m.f. of 9 V
is to be induced in it? Assume the conductor, the field and the direction of
motion are mutually perpendicular.
Solution
Induced e.m.f. E = Blv, hence velocity v = E/Bl
Hence v = 9/(0.6)(75x10-3)=(9 x 103)/(0.6 x 75)= 200 m/s
Example 3
A conductor moves with a velocity of 15 m/s at an angle of (a) 90°, (b) 60° and (c) 30° to a magnetic field
produced between two square-faced poles of side length 2 cm. If the flux
leaving a pole face is 5 μWb, find the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. in each case.
Solution
v = 15 m/s; length of conductor in magnetic field, l = 2 cm = 0.02 m;
A = 2 x 2 cm2 = 4 x 10-4 m2, Φ = 5 x 10-6 Wb
(a) E90 = Blv sin 90° =(Φ/A)lv sin 90 =(5 X 10-6)(0.02)(15)(1)/(4x10-4) = 3.75 mV
(b) E60 = Blv sin 60° = E90 sin 60° = 3.75 sin 60° = 3.25 mV
(c) E30 = Blv sin 30° = E90 sin 30° = 3.75 sin 30° = 1.875 mV

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UNIT 1 UNITS ASSOSIATED WITH BASIC ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES

Table 1.1 Basic SI Unit

Table 1.2 Standard prefixes for SI Units

deci d 10-1 0.1

Perform the following conversion:

a. 1ms = 1000µs c. 1kg = 1000g

b. 1m = 1000mm d. 1kΩ = 1000Ω

1.2 Definition, units and symbols of electrical quantities

No. Quantity, Definition Unit,

1. Rewrite the following as indicated:

2. Find the conductance of a resistor of resistance:

3. A conductor has a conductance of 25μS. What is its resistance?

6. In what time would a current of 15A transfer a charge of 25 C?

7. A current of 10A flows for 15 minutes. What charge is transferred?

8. How long must a current of 100mA flow so as to transfer a charge of 80 C?

UNIT 2 CELLS AND BATTERY

2.1.1 The relationship between cell and batteries

2.1.2 The basic operation of battery

2.1.3 Comparison between primary and secondary cell

Primary cell Secondary cell

2.1.4 Types of cells and batteries

2.2 Cell connections

2.2.1 Series connection

2.2.2 Parallel connection

2.2.3 Series-parallel combination

Total e.m.f , E = 1.5V

UNIT 3 AN INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

Inductor Capacitor Cell Battery Filament lamp

3.2 Electric current and quantity of electricity

Quantity of electrical charge transferred,

What current must flow if 0.45 coulombs is to be transferred in 5 ms?

3.3 Potential difference

For a continuous current to flow

An ammeter is an instrument used to measure current and must be connected in series

3.4 Resistance and resistivity

The resistance of an electrical conductor depends on 4 factors, these being:

ρ2 34 5 6346

ρ2 34 5 636

1. The resistance of a 5 m length of wire is 600Ω .Determine:

4. Determine the resistance of 1200 m of copper cable having a diameter of 12 mm if the

6. Some wire of cross-sectional area 1mm2 has a resistance of 20Ω. Determine:

9. Find the resistance of 1 km of copper cable having a diameter of 10 mm if the resistivity of

3.5 Ohm’s Law

3.6 Series, parallel and series-parallel connections

3.6.1 Series circuit

+ F G7 C 4G7 G7

3.6.2 Parallel circuit

Current divider rules (CDR)

3.6.3 Series-parallel circuit

d) Voltage drop at each resistor

3. For the circuit in figure 5, find the

4. For the parallel network 6, find the

6. For the circuit in figure 8, find:

7. Based on figure 9, calculate:

3.7 Delta–Star transformation

Formula Delta Star Formula Star Delta

+ F P3 C 46 JJ 3 C 46Q C L MMΩ

Based on circuit below, calculate the following using Star-Delta transformation:

i) Current flowing through 10Ω and 12Ω

ii) Voltage across 12Ω and 10Ω

3.8 Electrical power and energy

3.9 Effects of electric current.

ρ2 34 5 6346

ρ2 34 5 636

+ F G7 C 4G7 G7

+ F P3 C 46 JJ 3 C 46Q C L MMΩ

Matrix form:

R2 Current flow at 90Ω is 0A, so 23 2&*4.