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2 Kinamatics PDF
2 Kinamatics PDF
coordinate system. This vector is called the position
vector of the particle. In rectangular (Cartesian)
coordinates (Figure 1), the position vector is simply
r
r = x xˆ + y yˆ + z zˆ
(eq 1)
The unit vector is the unit vector in the positive x direction, similarly and ̂ .
The components of the position vector of a moving particle are functions of the time (t),
namely,
x = x(t) y = y(t) z = z(t). (eq 2)
In a time interval ∆, the particle will change its position say from
to . The
displacement vector of the particle is
∆ = −
(eq 3)
r r
Velocity. If vector r is the position vector of a moving particle then the derivative of r
with respect to time t is called the velocity, which we shall denote by :
where the dots indicate differentiation with respect to time t. (This convention is standard
and is used throughout this book.). That means ≡ , ≡ , and ≡ .
r
So the quotient (∆ r /∆t) is a vector that is parallel to the displacement. As we consider
r
r dr
smaller and smaller time intervals, the quotient (∆ r /∆t) approaches a limit , which we
dt
r
dr
call the velocity. The vector expresses both the direction of motion and the rate. This is
dt
shown graphically in Figure 2. In the time interval ∆t, the particle moves along the path
from P to P΄. As ∆t approaches zero, the point P΄ approaches P, and the direction of the
r
vector (∆ r /∆t) approaches the direction of the tangent to the path at P. The velocity vector,
therefore, is always tangent to the path of motion. *)
Acceleration. The time derivative of the velocity is called the acceleration. Denoting the
acceleration with , we have
r r
r d v d2 r
a= = 2 (eq 9)
dt dt
4 Examples
Let us study four examples in which the position vector is given. We will derive the
velocity and the acceleration from the position vector.
all in SI units.
(a) Find the velocity of particle.
(b) Find the acceleration of particle.
(c) What are the magnitude and the direction of the acceleration at time t = 3 s?
(d) What is the angle between the acceleration and the velocity at t= 3 s?
8 : 8
At times = 0, , , … equations A, B, and C
9 9
tell us that the particle is at highest point, at =
2&. The velocities of the particle at these times are
= 23&, twice the velocity of the wheel.
8 !8 <8
At times = , , … equations A, B, and C
9 9 9
tell us that the particle is at lowest point, at = 0,
and is instantaneously in contact with the ground.
The velocities of the particle at these times are = 0, twice the velocity of the wheel.
= ̂ (eq 11)
Velocity. As the particle moves, both and ̂ vary; thus, they are both functions of the
time. Hence, if we differentiate with respect to time t, we have
= = $ ̂ %
̂
= + ̂ (eq. 14)
?̂
We want to investigate
. If we differentiate equation 11 with respect to time t, we get
̂ = =
= − sin = + cos =
@ @ B
Notice that I used the chain rule = ∙ . Now take
as a common factor,
̂ =
= =>
(eq. 15 a)
Thus, r& is the radial component of the velocity vector, and rθ& is the transverse
component.
? = , E B = = (eq. 17)
Acceleration. To find the acceleration vector, we take the time derivative of the velocity
r
r dv
(equation 16), i.e. a = . This gives
dt
= = F ̂ + = => G
̂ = =>
= H ̂ + I + J = => + => + = K
(eq. 18)
=> =
= − ̂
(eq. 19)
1
= L − = M ̂ + O L = MP =>
(eq. 24)
The above results show, for instance, that if a particle moves on a circle of constant radius
b, so that r& = 0, then the radial component of the acceleration is of magnitude bθ& 2 and is
directed inward toward the center of the circular path. The transverse component in this
case is bθ&& . On the other hand, if the particle moves along a fixed radial line — that is, if θ
is constant—then the radial component is just &r& and the transverse component is zero. If r
and θ both vary, then the general expression (eq 23) gives the acceleration.
Q
B B
(1) Show that = − ̂ (In fact this is equation 19).
(5) A car moves on a circle of constant radius R. The speed of the car increases with
time t according to the equation v = c t, where c is a positive constant. Calculate
[
the angle between the velocity and the acceleration at time = R T
(6) A particle moves on a circle of constant radius (5.6 m). The speed of the car
\
increases with time t according to the equation = '2.0 + .
]#
Calculate the angle between the velocity vector and the acceleration vector at time
t = 2.0 s.
(7) A small ball is fastened to a long rubber band and twirled around in such a way
that the ball moves in an elliptical path given by the equation
$% = ^ cos 3 + 2^ sin 3
where R and ω are constants. Find the speed of the ball as a function of time t. in
particular, find speed v at time t = 0 and at t= π/(2ω), at which times the ball is,
respectively, at its minimum and maximum distances from the origin.
(9) A bee goes out from its hive in a spiral path given in plane polar coordinates by
r = b ekt, θ=ct
where b, k, and c are positive constants.
(a) Show that the angle between the velocity vector and the acceleration vector
remains constant as the bee moves outward.
(b) For b=1.0 m, k=0.5 s-1, and θ = 4.0 rad/s; find the angle between the velocity
vector and the acceleration vector.
(c) What is the tangential and normal acceleration at time = 2 s, in the case (b)
r r r r
(10) Prove that v ⋅ a = vv& and, hence, that for a moving particle v and a are
perpendicular to each other if the speed v is constant.
r r 2
(Hint: Differentiate both sides of the equation v ⋅ v = v with respect to time t. Note, v& is not the
r
same as a . It is the magnitude of the acceleration of the particle along its instantaneous direction
of motion.)
(12) Show that the tangential component of the acceleration of a moving particle is
given by the expression
r r
v⋅a
aτ =
v
and the normal component is therefore
1
r r
2 (v ⋅ a )2 2
an = a −
v2
r r v3
(13) Prove that v × a = , where ρ is the radius of curvature of the path of a moving
ρ
particle.
End of chapter 2
19 June 2016