Professional Documents
Culture Documents
(Surinder Singh PHD, MSC, Dipce, Dipqs, Fie, Fis
(Surinder Singh PHD, MSC, Dipce, Dipqs, Fie, Fis
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MACMILLAN
© Surinder Singh 1994
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 15t edition 1994
All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of
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claims for damages.
my children
Rajwinder, Anjli, Sonia, Harmeen
and my grandchildren
Navreen and Gurmukh
Contents 3.4.2 Beams
3.4.3 Columns
22
41
3.4.4 Shear Walls 55
3.4.5 Total Structure 55
3.5 Effect of Number of Spans on
Constituent Quantities 57
3.6 Effect of Number of Shopping
Floors 60
3.7 Computing Constituent Quantities
for Structures 60
References 62
vii
viii Contents
x
My sincere thanks are also due to Professor I.H.
Acknowledgements Seeley, formerly Professor and Head of Department
of Surveying and Dean of the School of Environmental
Studies, Nottingham Trent University, and Visiting
Professor, National University of Singapore, for en-
couraging me to initiate the writing of this book and
further for the pains he took to edit it.
I am grateful to the following consulting organis-
ations who kindly allowed the collection of relevant
data of the completed projects for case studies:
xi
List of Symbols
XII
1 Introduction form work. In the absence of realistic information re-
lating to variations in the quantities of materials with
changes in sizes of column grids, structural scheme,
number of storeys and other design parameters, the
quantities assumed tend to be very approximate and
the percentage errors could be large. Where more
realistic estimates are required, the engineer works
out alternative structural schemes, and the most econ-
omical scheme consistent with the requirements is
selected after the quantity surveyor has calculated
the quantities and costs for the various schemes. It
1 .1 Background is extremely unsystematic and wasteful if structural
schemes have to be worked out and costs estimated
In a framed building, four major areas which con- every time a new building project comes up. How-
sume a substantial portion of the total project cost ever, in recent years, the emphasis on research re-
are the structural frame, architectural construction, lating to building cost techniques, especially through
foundations, and mechanical and electrical services. mathematical modelling and the availability of micro-
It is essential to explore all possibilities to achieve computers at the cost of electric typewriters, have
economy in each of these areas at the design stage, provided openings to overcome these problems.
since investigations have indicated that about 80 per Trimble and Jupp [2] at Loughborough University
cent of the project cost is committed by the time 20 of Technology developed cost models using regression
per cent of the design (sketch design stage) has been techniques for various facets of building work. Gould
completed [1]. Further, in the present age of ever- [3] produced a cost model which deals with the
increasing costs, the majority of the clients of build- capital cost of heating, ventilating and air condi-
ing projects are insisting on projects being designed tioning installations for various building types. Badby
and executed to give maximum value for money. [4], Wood [5], Baker [6], McCaffer [7], Newton [8]
Hence professionals are employed to work as a team and Schofield et al. [9] also produced cost models
to an increasing extent during the design stage. As related to the various aspects of building.
buildings become more complex and building cli-
ents more exacting in their requirements, so it be-
comes necessary to improve and refine the cost control 1.2 Aim
tools.
Cost planning and cost control are complemen- The aim of this book is to illustrate in the form of
tary. During cost planning, the commonly adopted charts, in relation to high-rise commercial buildings
approximate estimating methods for computing the ranging from 5 to 50 storeys, the effect of different
cost of structures are the percentage estimate method, design parameters on quantities of constituents us-
the superficial or floor area method (also known as ing traditional structural systems, namely the solid
the square metre method) and the approximate quan- slab and beam system, the flat slab/waffle slab sys-
tities method. A proper application of the first two tem, and the prestressed beam and slab system.
methods in practice requires, on the one hand, an Using the charts relationships, the user should be
in-depth knowledge of past historical cost informa- able to compute approximate quantities and hence
tion of completed projects and, on the other hand, the cost of the structure, given the structural scheme
a knowledge of the effect of design parameters on and other design parameters.
the construction cost. The latter, though not empha- The effect of design variables such as grid size,
sised in practice is very important, since buildings structural system/scheme, grid location, grade of con-
are not generally alike and rates have to be adjusted crete, number of storeys, continuity of structure, shear
for changes in design features. Besides, past histori- core size, etc. has been investigated by the author
cal cost information needs to be adjusted by the and is presented in this book. The above parameters,
application of the cost index which is rarely avail- in addition, facilitate a study of the effect of plan
able in the desired form, especially in developing shape and size on the building structure.
countries. The charts presented are useful for analysing the
In the approximate quantities method, cost estimates effect of the following on structural cost:
for new building works are often made by assuming
approximate quantities of concrete, reinforcement and • Variation in cost of alternative structural systems.
2 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings
• Variation in cost of alternative structural schemes Table 1.1 Esti mati ng accu racy.
within a specific structural system.
Estimating method Mean deviation Coefficient
• Variation in cost due to difference in number of of estimates of variation
storeys. from tenders (%) of errors (%)
• Plan shape and plan size.
1. Cost per square metre 18 22.5
• Beam and column spacings for optimum cost.
taken from one previous
• Cost variation due to continuity of a structure project
(number of spans). 2. Cost per square metre 15.5 19
• Reduction in area of columns to increase letting derived by averaging rates
space by either increasing grid size or by using from a number of previous
projects
high strength concrete in columns.
3. Elemental estimating based 10 13
• Varying frame grid to minimise column disruption on rates taken from one
to working areas. previous project
• Computation of additional cost involved for reducing 4. Elemental estimating based 9 11
beam depths to improve aesthetics. on rates derived by averagi ng
the rates taken from a number
• Additional cost involved, if any, to provide flat slab of previous projects
so as to permit services to run in both directions. 5. Elemental estimating based 6 7.5
on statistical analysis of all
The crux of the contents of this book is therefore relevant data in the database
6. Resource use and costs 5.5 6.5
to establish cost-generating data to help students to
based on contractors'
study the effect of design variables on structural cost estimating methods
and for professionals to achieve speed, reliability
and productivity in their cost advisory performance Source: Bennett, J. Cost planning and computers. In Building
at the architectural design stage. Cost Techniques: New Directions, edited by Brandon, P.S., Spon,
London, 1982, pp. 17-26.
4
Review of Previous Work 5
Table 2.1 Quantities and structural cost per sq m of structural floor for various buildings in Singapore.
Concrete Reinforcement Form work Total cost
Code name of building per sq m of
and description Quantity Cost Quantity Cost Quantity Cost structural
per sq m per sq m per sq m persq m per sq m per sq m floor
(cu m) ($) (kg) ($) (sq m) ($) ($)
Building E: multi-bay,
typical panel 5.26 m
x 7.92 m, reinforced
concrete (RC) beam 0.184 19.50 38.42 38.42 1.15 12.62 70.54
and slab, average of
span in two directions
= 6.5 m
Building G: multi-bay,
typical panel 8.53 m
x 6.7 m, RC beam 0.225 23.80 61.00 61.00 1.85 20.40 105.20
and slab, average of
span in two directions
= 7.62 M
Building D: multi-bay,
typical panel 10.36 m
x 8.23 m, RC beam 0.170 18.03 30.28 30.28 1.5 16.65 64.95
and slab, average of
span in two directions
= 9.30 m
Building I: multi-bay,
typical panel 10.21 m
x 10.59 m, RC beam 0.355 37.67 61.60 61.60 1.31 14.45 113.70
and slab, average of
span in two directions
= 10.40 m
Source: Murthy, C.K. Comparison of structural costs and structural systems for some commercial buildings in
Singapore. Proceedings of the Seminar on Our World in Concrete, 25 August 1976, pp. 31-50.
to be realistic. Further, it has been shown that of such factors. Murthy and Tharmaratnam [6] have
formwork and labour costs are the same in different investigated this problem and have provided guide-
structural systems, and this is again not convincing. lines in this respect, in quantitative terms.
In structural system type II, it has been assumed The results presented cannot be used for studying
that this system derives all its lateral stiffness and the effect of design variables within an individual
strength from only shear walls. This is not a good system, since neither the salient structural details
assumption from economy considerations. It is rec- adopted for any structural system are given nor are
ommended by the ACI committee that the contribu- the effects of any change in values of design vari-
tion of the frame be considered in the analysis [5]. ables presented.
In addition, the premiums for wind load resistance Khan and Iyengar have selected a non-variable base
depend on the plan shape of the building, basic wind for providing quantities of concrete and reinforcement
speeds and topography of the region, the structural for different structural systems, and for formwork and
system used and the number of spans. In the text labour, in lieu of quantities, cost in absolute currency
and the results presented, mention has not been made units per unit area is presented (converted by the au-
Review of Previous Work 7
E
80 0-
70
III
9 55.00
>
w
Ill:
:::l
-
~ 60 0 44.00
CD
Iii «
....I
33.00
~ 50 ~-----''''''''otY.Y.I all
u:: :.:
Ill: 22.00
~ 40 0
u.. ~ 11.00
o 30 :E
Ill: 70.00
Ill:
--
W 0
CD u..
:E 20 60.00
:::l E
.- ~~""=
:::: --
Z 50.00
-
0- .~
10 ..!!!.
CI
- r- ~ ",
~ ~
t::;.:o' ~ ~
:!! 40.00
,;:::.. p
--
II. v
~~
h'Y~'N.
~ 30.00
. STRUCTURAL SYSTEM U
Ill: 20.00
....
f?
z 0.00
Figure 2.2 Concrete structural systems for office iii
Ill:
0.51 _.0:
-
buildings. (Source: Khan, F.R. and
Iyengar, H.S. Optimisation approach E 0.45 ..>- ~ ~ ~ ~r-::::: --k?"'
\\1.~"L
• -
for concrete high-rise structures. In ..!!!.eO-
0.39 ~ ....... ~ ~ K~
.~ ~ f..--:: ~ f..-
Response of Multistorey High-rise .2 0.33
Concrete Structures to Lateral Forces.
F"" r""'"
~ 0.27
ACI Publication SP-36, Detroit, Ill:
~ 0.21
Michigan, pp. 61-74.) 8 0.15
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
thor into £ per unit area, Figure 2.3). This latter infor- NUMBER OF OFFICE STOREYS
mation is not a great deal of use since it changes over
time. Figure 2.3 Quantity curves for systems. (Source:
Singh [7] and Singh and Sofat [8] attempted to Khan, F.R. and Iyengar, H.S.
establish regression equations for different materials Optimisation approach for concrete
in framed residential structures based on completed high-rise structures. In Response of
buildings, and these in turn were recommended for Multistorey High-rise Concrete
approximate cost estimation, preparation of building Structures to Lateral Forces. ACI
cost indices and for materials budgeting. The math- Publication SP-36, Detroit, Michigan,
ematical equations were related to the floor area of pp. 61-74. Converted to metric units.)
the individual tenements. Then, based on the equa-
tions, nomograms were established to show the re- the whole building and no attempt was made to
quired quantities directly. This investigation was made base them on different aspects of construction such
for residential buildings but the methodology adopted as structural system, architectural work, etc. Lastly,
could well be used for other types of buildings, both the basic source of information used was quantities
for overall building as well as for individual build- in the final bills for respective completed buildings,
ing component/elements. and the effect of various design variables in differ-
It was a good idea to relate the floor area to the ent sizes of dwellings was not catered for separately.
quantities of individual materials/labour. For any given Cost analysis of completed buildings is another
floor area, overall quantities of constituents could important source of cost information for approximate
be calculated using the regression equations and the cost estimation. At present, in UK, elemental cost
former in turn could be used to compute the build- analyses are being published regularly for completed
ing cost by applying the prevailing market rates. buildings based on lists of standard elements devel-
However, the equations established in the quoted oped by the Building Cost Information Service of
works were based on a typical construction using a the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors. Previously,
specific set of specifications in different building el- this information had been prepared on a number of
ements, and thus it is not possible to use them for different forms and on the basis of a variety of ap-
studying the effect of any change in the design vari- proaches and element lists, which detracted from
ables. Further, the relationships arrived at were for their value for cost comparison purposes [9].
8 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings
Based on a cost analysis, quantity surveyors can grid size increases, although the extra structural costs
usually prepare estimates for proposed buildings by arising from increases in storey heights are relatively
employing the interpolation method since buildings small compared with those stemming from increase
are generally not alike. This appears to be logical in grid sizes. For example, increasing storey heights
except for structural elements such as frames, upper from 3 m to 4.5 m produces a 6 per cent addition
floors, roofs, stairs and shear walls, since with sim- to structural costs for single-storey buildings, rising
ple interpolation the effect of design variables on to 16 per cent for eight-storey blocks.
quantities is not automatically taken care of. Hence As far as different floor loadings are concerned,
there is a need to use means other than interpola- the Wilderness Group has shown that variations in
tion to prepare estimates for structural elements using design of floor loadings can have an appreciable
cost analysis. A rational solution for the above ap- effect on structural costs. Adopting a grid size of
pears to be the result of research investigations into 7.5 m x 7.5 m and a 3 m storey height, a compari-
the effect of design parameters on quantities of struc- son of structural costs for buildings with floor loadings
tural elements. of 2 and 10 kN/m2, respectively, shows an increase
in cost of about 20 per cent for two-storey build-
ings, rising to about 40 per cent for eight-storey
2.3 Research based on First Principles buildings for the higher floor loadings. Further in-
creases of 2 to 4 per cent occur if the storey height
The Wilderness Study Group [10] investigated the is increased to 4.5 m.
design cost relationships of a large number of hypo- The Wi Iderness Study Group investigations pro-
thetical steel-framed buildings of equal total floor vided useful guidelines in assessing the probable cost
area and similar specification, but with the accom- relationships of'different structural designs for a project,
modation arranged on one or more storeys in build- however the study made was limited to certain spe-
ings of varying shapes with varying bay sizes, column cific design parameters of steel-framed buildings of
spacings, storey heights and superimposed floor simple design with solid in situ reinforced concrete
loadings. The Study Group confined its investiga- floor and roof slabs.
tions on the functional components of roofs, floor Singh and Murthy [11] established statistical rela-
slabs, columns, beams, ties and column foundations, tionships between the quantities of constituents of
collectively termed 'the core'. The Group produced rei nforced concrete structures and floor areas for
a set of charts designed to indicate cost relation- various number of storeys and sizes of flats in Housing
ships under varying conditions of numbers of sto- and Development Board flats, Singapore. Based on
reys (one to eight), storey heights (mainly 3 to 4.5 this investigation it was reported that when the number
m), loadings (2 to 10 kN/m2) and column spacings of storeys is increased from 5 to 20, the increase in
(3 to 12 m), but all were limited to steel-framed the quantities of both the concrete and formwork is
buildings of simple design with solid in situ rein- about 19 per cent, while the increase in steel is sub-
forced concrete floor and roof slabs. stantially higher at 33 per cent. The variation in
An examination of these charts shows increasing the constituents due to the change in the sizes of
costs with the increase in grid size of columns. Adopt- flats is much smaller. The charts developed were
ing a storey height of 3 m and floor loadings of 5 found useful in making decisions about the number
kN/m 2, a comparison is made of the effect of in- of storeys at the planning stage, preparing approxi-
crease in cost due to the increase in grid size of mate cost estimates, cost indices, budgeting of ma-
4.5 m x 4.5 m to 12 m x 12 m. The increased cost of terials and for checking of estimates. Although the
the structure resulting from the above increased grid investigation was made for residential buildings, the
size in single-storey buildings is shown as 67 per methodology is equally applicable to other types of
cent, rising to over 100 per cent for eight-storey blocks. buildings.
If the storey height is increased to 4.5 m, the in- The quantities of constituents of rei nforced con-
creases in cost are less spectacular as they are par- crete structures were based on first principles by analy-
tially offset by the extra material in the extended sis, design and computation of quantities.
columns. The extra structural cost due to the more The adopted approach was considered superior to
widely spaced columns in blocks with 4.5 m storey the one based on past records of completed build-
heights rises from about 60 per cent in single-storey ings, since it allows one design variable to be varied
buildings to 90 per cent in eight-storey blocks. It is at a time while keeping the others the same in a
interesting to note that the variations in the costs of structural system.
structures due to different storey heights reduces as Bathurst and Butler [12] made a good attempt to
Review of Previous Work 9
investigate the cost of an industrialised structural frame minimal distribution of steel. In the case of rectan-
based on quantities of materials consumed and pre- gular plans, the authors concluded that the cost was
vailing market rates. They preferred this approach controlled by the length of the short span, the longer
since they believed it was useless to base cost on span not affecting the cost much.
'live' projects since the continual changes in the relative The authors followed a rational approach for the
costs of materials and labour quickly invalidate any investigation and have provided useful information
conclusions drawn from an actual design. for cost comparison, but the study has a limited scope
A formula (not presented in their book) was de- since it was carried out for simply supported condi-
vised to calculate the cost of an industrialised struc- tions and is applicable only to roof slabs.
tural frame in relation to the floor area for various A number of handbooks on building design and
modules specified by length and breadth. The gross construction provide design information for different
floor areas of the buildings ranged from 960 m2 to structural components. Merritt [14] included charts
1200 m 2 and scatter of costs per square metre of and tables which provide quantities of reinforced
floor area within this range of floor area was found concrete constituents given such design parameters
to be very erratic, making it impossible to establish as clear span of slab, permissible stress values of
a regular cost trend on the basis of gross floor area concrete/reinforcement and live load.
of building. However, a more useful yardstick was The material supplied in such handbooks has the
found to be cost related to 'density of columns' ex- following limitations:
pressed as the average number of square metres of
floor area served per column. A statistical relation- • The information supplied is for illustrative purposes
ship was then established between cost and column only and for a limited range of values.
density. • The time taken to compute the effects of various
The approach followed above is reasonable for in- design parameters is substantial and impractical
dustrial ized frames where components are of stan- at the initial decision-making stage.
dard size and there are only limited variations. • Often, using the information supplied in handbooks
However, in the case of a traditional in situ con- it is not possible to consider the effects of all the
crete frame there can be a number of variations in variables, and computations based on first princi-
each component; in beams, for example, the size of ples have to be resorted to.
beam, grade of concrete, beam category (main or
secondary), number of spans, etc. are some of the The setting up of a computer database for quanti-
parameters to be considered. Hence the approach ties and costs of structural components for different
needs to be modified to account for these variations. building configurations, structural systems, structural
Further, in the case of the traditional 1,1 situ con- schemes and structural materials based on analysis
crete frame, statistical relationships should be estab- and design from first principles would provide pro-
lished with quantities in lieu of cost, since the latter fessionals with quick access to information and a
changes with time while no significant change is rational approach to the selection of structural sys-
likely, in the former. tems/materials and the estimation of quantities/costs.
Cheema and Sood [13] carried out a cost investi- The work presented in this book is a first step in
gation of a reinforced concrete grid beam construc- this direction and the results can be updated as re-
tion both for square and rectangular plans based on quired and enlarged to include other building con-
the first principles of analysis, design and com- figurations, structural systems and materials.
putation of quantities. Grid intervals of 1.5 m, 2 m,
2.5 m and 3 m were adopted for square plans, while
a uniform grid interval of 2 m was maintained in References
rectangular plans. The grid floors had spans varying
between 4 m and 24 m and were assumed to be 1. Buchanan, J.A. Development of a cost model for
simply supported all along the boundaries. The de- the reinforced concrete frame of a building. MSc
sign was based on the Indian Standard 15:456-1978 thesis, Loughborough University of Technology,
code and the cost was computed on prevailing mar- UK, 1969.
ket rates. 2. Murthy, C.K. Comparison of structural costs and
For square plans it was shown that the quantities structural systems for some commercial build-
of constituents and cost were higher for smaller grid ings in Singapore. Proceedings of the Seminar
intervals (1.5 m and 2 m) owing to the large number on Our World in Concrete, 25 August 1976, pp.
of ribs and their steel requirement on the basis of a 31-50.
10 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings
3. Singh, S. and Murthy, C.K. Economics of struc- 9. Seeley, I,H. Cost analysis indices and data. In
tural floor systems. Proceedings of Seminar on Building Economics: Appraisal and Control of
Structural Systems for High-rise Buildings Applied Building Design Cost and Efficiency. Macmillan
Research Corporation, Singapore, 19 August 1983. Press, London, 3rd edn, 1983, pp. 142-170.
4. Khan, F.R. and Iyengar, H.S. Optimization ap- 10. Wilderness Cost of Building Study Group. An
proach for concrete high-rise structures. In Re- Investigation into Building Cost Relationships of
sponse of Multistorey Concrete Structures to Lateral the Following Design Variables: Storey Heights,
Forces. Publicaton SP-36, American Concrete Floor Loadings, Column Spacings, Number of
Institute, Detroit, Michigan, 1971, pp. 61-74. Storeys. Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors,
5. ACI Committee 442. Response of Buildings to lat- London, 1964.
eral forces. In Response of Multistorey Concrete 11. Singh, S. and Murthy, C.K. Cost estimation of re-
Structures to Lateral Forces. Publication SP-36, inforced concrete framed structures for high rise
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan, 1973, residential buildings. Proceedings of the Eighth ClB
pp.281-305. Triennial Congress, Oslo, June 1980, pp. 755-761.
6. Murthy, C.K. and Tharmaratnam, K. How high 12. Bathurst, P.E and Bulter, D.A. Cost research -
can we build framed structures without premium structural frames. In Building Cost Control Tech-
for wind loads? Proceedings of International Con- niques and Economies. Heinemann, London, 1973,
ference on Tall Buildings, Singapore, 22-26 pp. 134-138.
October 1984, pp. 477-483. 13. Cheema, N.S. and Sood, V.K. Cost studies of
7. Singh, S. Manpower and materials requirements reinforced concrete grid floors. Institution of Engin-
in buildings. Journal of the Institution of Survey- eers (India) Journal, Vol. 65, 1984, pp. 72-75.
ors (India), Vol. X, No.1, 1969, pp. 20-28. 14. Merritt, F.S. Building Design and Construction
8. Singh, S. and Sofat, G.c. Manpower and mate- Handbook. McGraw-Hili, London, 3rd edn, 1975,
rials requirements for framed structures. Indian pp. 10-61 to 10-63.
Concrete Journal, Vol. 15, No.3, 1973, pp. 16-
25.
structural arrangements as shown in Figure 3.1 were
3 Reinforced analysed for 5 to 50 storeys using the STRUDl [11
package on an IBM 3081 mainframe computer sys-
Concrete Beam tem. Based on the analysis the various structural
members of the building were designed using com-
and Slab System puter programs developed by the author, and quan-
tities of their constituents as obtained from the
computer print-out were used to establish statistical
relationships. loadings adopted and procedures for
the analysis of frames and the design of structural
members are explained below, followed by presen-
tation of the quantities of constituents of reinforced con-
The effects of column grid size, number of storeys, crete for different structural components.
location of structural components, grade of con-
crete, number of continuous spans and arrange-
ment of beams in structural systems on the quantities 3.2 Loading and Analysis of Frames
of various constituents of reinforced concrete con-
struction have been studied and presented in the 3.2. f Vertical Loading
form of charts for the reinforced concrete beam
and slab structural system. The charts give the re- A dead load comprising 1.2 kN/m 2 for finishes, 0.25
lationships between the quantities of each of the kN/m 2 for ceiling and 1.0 kN/m 2 for light-weight
constituents of reinforced concrete construction, partitions was considered in the analysis and the
namely concrete, reinforcement and formwork, and service loads were taken from the British Code of
each of the various parameters of the structure. Practice CP3, Chapter V, Part 1 [21. Sometimes, the
first 2 to 5 floors of commercial buildings are built
for shopping (live load 4.0 kN/m 2) and the remain-
3.1 Introduction ing for office blocks (live load 2.5 kN/m2). This trend
was not taken into account in the various structures
The solid slab, beam and column system (RC frame) of different number of storeys. However, for analy-
is an age-old structural system for reinforced con- sis purposes, only structures with office blocks were
crete for buildings, and even at the present time is considered. For structures with shopping floors, it is
still being extensively used for both low- and high- proposed that the necessary multiplying factors be
rise building structures in its original or modified computed so that the constituent quantities can be
form. Depending upon the length-width ratio, slabs calculated for any number of shopping floors in a
span either in one of the panel directions or in two building (Section 3.6). A floor-to-floor height of 3.5
directions at right angles. The column grid size varies m was assumed.
in practice and, unless there are special reasons to
the contrary, columns are arranged at regular inter- 3.2.2 Lateral Loading
vals on a square or rectangular grid.
For the low wind-speeds prevailing in london and The assessment of wind loads followed the rec-
similar locations, framed structures can be constructed ommendations of British Code of Practice CP3,
to considerable heights without any interacting shear Chapter V, Part 2 [3] based on a basic wind speed of
walls. However, reinforced concrete shear cores are 38 m/s in the context of london (UK). As an
generally used in multi-storey buildings to enclose alternative, a second case of ultimate horizontal
Iifts and other services. load equivalent to 1.5 per cent of the total charac-
The quantities of constituents of concrete are af- teristic dead load was also considered for stability
fected by a number of parameters such as column considerations (Section 3.1.4.2 of BS 8110) [4]. The
grid size, number of storeys, slab system, strength of statistical factors Sl and S3 were taken to be 1.0
concrete, number of continuous spans and dimen- and the ground roughness factor S2 at different heights
sional constraints of member components. To inves- was taken as that for a country with many wind-
tigate the effects of the above parameters three square breaks. loads due to earthquakes were not considered
grids with sides of 6, 8 and 10 metres and having since london is free from such hazards.
11
12 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings
• Alternate spans loaded with total ultimate load loading but retaining the pattern loading as described
(l.4Ck + 1.6Qk) and all other spans loaded with above.
minimum dead load (1.0Ck). Secondary beams over columns (Figure 3.1) - similar
• Any two adjacent spans loaded with total ultimate analysis as for main beams (but with appropriate
load (l.4Ck + 1.6Qk) and all other spans loaded loading) was carried out to determine the ultimate
with minimum dead load (1.0Ck). moment and shear force values in secondary beams
• All spans loaded with ultimate load of (1.2 Gk + over columns.
1.2 q) for combining later with results of wind load Secondary beams (Figure 3.1) - for structural
analysis (1.2 Wk). schemes involving one-way slabs, ultimate bending
moments and shear forces obtained from coefficients
In the case of structural schemes involving grid given in BS 8110 for over three or more spans (Table
beams and two-way slabs (Figure 3.1), plane grid 3.13, Section 3.5.2.4 of BS 8110) were used to design
analysis (Figure 3.3) was carried out for the vertical continuous secondary beams. However, in the case of
Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 13
INFINITELY
STIFF BE AMS
rLlNKSj
A.
.....
A.
SHEAR WALL IS
REPRESENTED BY
A.
A SINGLE VERTICAL
LINE
A.
." AI,
1 x FRAME 1 "'. "'''
.I1r
Ai'
2 x FRAME 3
.- II' I.Ir In Illr
4 x FRAME 2
AI.
, 2 2 2 3 3 2
3.3 Design of Structural Members
3.3.2 Beams
20. 0
«
w
/ In framed buildings, the depth of a beam is gener-
ally governed by architectural considerations pro-
vided it is structurally adequate, and it is the width
V
r::
~ 17.
II: and requirement of reinforcement which are to be
o
o...J decided according to the design forces. The program
u..
~ 15. 0 / for beams was therefore developed with this in mind
V and the width and depth of each beam were to be
/
w
(!) fed as input. The program has a number of sub-
~ routines relating to different aspects of design in ac-
Z
~ 12. 5 cordance with BS 8110. For main beams, a minimum
II:
w
V width and a minimum depth based on span-width
V
II..
and span-depth ratios of 22 and 16.5 respectively
«
were adopted. A number of other beam sections were
~ 10. 0
«
w V also considered in each grid by keeping the value
V
II: of bd2 , as obtained from above ratios, the same. For
« secondary beams the width was fixed at ~ of that of
w
~ 7. 5 V main beams, while the depth was varied from ~ to 1
u of the latter. The above variations were considered
w
u for structural schemes involving slabs spanning in one
:>
II:
w direction only, while for other schemes that are sel-
(/) 5. 0 dom used in practice a span-depth ratio of 15 was
w
(!)
« maintained for both main and secondary beams.
II:
w
~ 2. 5 3.3.3 Columns
~ fcu 30 N/sq mm I
0.175 f y 460 N/sq mm
In computing the quantities of concrete for beams,
the portion of the beam common with the slab has 0.170
been included with the latter in accordance with
the Standard Method of Measurement [9]. Similarly, 0.165
in slabs, the formwork has been reduced to the ex-
tent of the plan area of the beam webs, and the ~ 0.160
«
common portion of slabs, beams and columns has
~ 0.155
been accounted for in columns. For computing the ..J
en
quantities of reinforcement in beams and slabs, sim- ~ 0.150
plified rules for curtailment of bars as given in BS E
8110: 1985 were followed. C" 0.145
..'!!.
E
0.140
3.4.1 Solid Slabs ::l
"
~ 0.135
The quantities of concrete and reinforcement per U.J
a:
u
square metre of floor area for solid slabs spanning Z 0.130
o
in one direction are shown in Figures 3.7 to 3.9 for u
different I ive loads. Further, the quantities of re- 0.125
LIVE LOAD:
• 2.5 kN/sq m
• 4.0 kN/sq m
--J
7.5
f cu 30 N/sq mm 11
fy 460 N/sq mm
7· LIVE LOAD 2.5 kN/sq m
8.75
8.50
6.5
8.25
<I:
UJ
a: 8 I-- ~ f cu 30 N/sq mm
<I: fy 460 N/sq mm
III 6 LIVE LOAD 4 kN/sq m
<I: 7.75
....J
(Jl
u.. 7.50
0
E 5.5
7.25
cr <I:
~ UJ
a:
Cl
<I: 7
~
5 III
~ <I:
Z 6.75
/
....J
UJ (Jl
~ u..
UJ
u 0 6.50
a: 4.5 E
/
0
cr 6.25
/1
u..
Z ~
UJ Cl
a: ~ 6
4
~
Z 5.75
UJ
~
UJ
3.5 u 5.50
a:
~
0
u..
z 5.25
UJ
a: 5
3
4.75
2.5 4.50
2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
SPAN (m) 4.25
Panels: 4 .//
• End 3.75
3.50
:t'
• First interior 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5
SPAN (m)
!> Interior
Panels:
0.150
/
I
I
/
0.145
t cu 31 . N1Sq mm
fv 460 N/sq mm
LIVE LOAD 2.5 or 4.0 kN/sq m
/
0.140
II
c( 0.135
w
a:
c(
a:
I
0
/
0
......
....I
0.130 5.5
Iff ycu 30 N/sq mm I
460 N/sq mm
/
0 LIVE LOAD 2.5 kN/sq m
E
/
IT 0.125
~
V-
5
E
2 '" c(
w
a:
w 0.120 c(
I-
w 1/ a:
a: I
/
u 0 4.5
.f V·/
z
0
u 0.115
...
0
....I
...
/
0
E
IT
4
~
/ VI VL
0.110 CI
V :!
j
I-
Z
w
::i:
w
u 3.5
V
V
0.105
a:
...Z
I / VL
0
0.100 / w
a:
/
2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 3
SQUARE PANEL (m) V
Panels:
• Two adjacent
edges discontinuous
• One long or short
edge discontinuous
6 Interior
V
LIVE LOAD 4.0 kN/sq m
6
0.20
/
<{
w 5.5
a: GRID (m) SCHEME
<{
0.19
a:
a
a I
V
...J 5 0.18
V
u.
u. 10 x 10 B1
a
/ <{ 0.17
E w
a:
/ /
r:r 4.5
V
<{
~ a: 0.16
Cl a
~ a
...J
I- 0.15
/v
u.
Z
w / u.
a
V v/
/
4 10 x 10 A1
~
w E 0.14 8x8 B1
U r:r
a: '"
au.
z E 0.13
W 3.5 V
:::l
/
a: £ 10 x 10 B2
w 0.12
I- 8X8 A1
w
a:
u 0.11
3 z 6x6 B1
V
a
u
0.10 6x6 A1
2.5 0.09
0.08
2
2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 0.07
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
SQUARE PANEL (m)
NUMBER OF STOREYS
Panels:
• Two adjacent Figure 3.13 Quantities of concrete for slabs.
edges discontinuous
• One long or short
edge discontinuous
A Interior
0.890
0.885
0.880
0.875 ~
-....:
.............
~~~
~ r-
--
0.870 .........
~
~ ~ r--.-
~
<:{
w 0.865 """"""'!
a:
<:{ ~~
a:
0 0.860
0
....
u..
u.. 0.855
0
E
r::r 0.850
Je
E
r::r 0.845
~ .............
~
~
a:
0.840
'..............
0 .............
~
-- .--- ---.
-...........
--
:E ...........
a: 0.835
0
u.. -........:
~ ~ .... r-- ............
r- . . . . .
r--._
' ~
0.830
............:::
f...':::-:' ...... -....,
'~ ....,
r-_ r--....
'
0.825
... ::::::;
-
9.5
K~ ..........
0.820
9.0
GRID (m) SCHEME
0.815
8.5
<:{
w 10 x 10 B1
0.810 a: 8.0
<:{
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 a:
NUMBER OF STOREYS 0
0
....
u..
7.5
u..
GRID (m) SCHEME 0 7.0
E
• 6x6 B1 ., 6x6 A1 r::r
III
6.5 8x8 B1
Ci
10 x 10 B1 ~
G I!I 10 x 10 A1 ~
zw 6.0
Do 8x8 B1 • 8 x 8 A1 :E
w
u 5.5
10 x 10 A1
a:
0 10 x 10 B2
v 10 x 10 B2 u..
z 5.0
jjj
a: 6x6 B1
4.5 8x8 A1
Figure 3.14 Quantities of formwork for slabs.
6x6 A1
4.0
3.5
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
10.0
GRID (m) SCHEME
9.5
10 x 10 B1
9.0
«
U.J
a::
« 8.5
a::
0
0 8.0
...J
u..
u..
0
7.5 8x8 B1
E
C'
10 x 10 A1
'" 7.0
a.
~
I- 6.5
z
U.J 10 x 10 B2
::?i
U.J
u 6.0
a::
0 8x8 A1
u..
z 5.5
W 6x6 B1
a::
5.0
6x6 A1
4.5
4.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
10.0
4.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
3.4.2 Beams
,-
0.046
to be made depending upon whether or not the beams
are running over columns. This is considered necessary 0.044
since the design forces and hence quantities of con- ~--..,
'--..,
~-
stituents depend on this parameter. 0.042
The quantities of concrete and formwork for main
0.040
beams and for various storeys of construction, grid
sizes and structural schemes are shown in Figures
0.038
3.18 and 3.19 respectively. The quantities of re- "- ~
inforcement for combinations of vertical and lateral 0.036
<C( ~ I'---
loadings are shown in Figures 3.20 to 3.22 for dif- w
~ 0.034 I'--- I
ferent locations of the main beam. The basic wind
r:c
speed considered in calculating these constituents is 0
0 0.032
38 m/s. Alternative quantities of reinforcement for ...J
LL
0.30 12.0
0.29 I-
11.5
W
-
LOADING 1.2(Gk + (\ + Wk")
I-
11.0 * Wind load based on basic wind speed 38 m/s
--
1-
0.28 10.5 GRID (m) SCHEME
0.27 « 10.0
- --
w
"----.,
'- -- a:
« 9.5
0.26 a:
0 9.0
0
...J
u..
---
0.25 u.. 8.5 6X 6 A1
«
w
0
a: E 8.0
0.24
« a-
U>
a: 7.5
--
0 0.23 C.
0 :!! 7.0
...J
I- V 8 x8 A1
-- -
u..
zw
u..
0 0.22
~
6.5 -
w
E u 6.0
a- 0.21 a: ,/
U> 0 ..........
::::: u.. 5.5
./ ~
Z
E iii 10X10 A1
a- 0.20 a: 5.0
V
.!!!
~
a: 0.19 4.5 -..-::- - - - - Broken lines indicate
0 values for gravity
~ 4.0 loading while solid
~ 0.18 lines indicate values
a: 3.5
0 for gravity plus
u.. wind loading
0.17 3.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0.16 NUMBER OF STOREYS
• 8x8 A1
0 10 x 10 A1
6 x 6 A1
"
0 10 x 10 B2
6- 8 x 8 B1
)( 6 x 6 B1
v 10 x 10 B1
10.0
1
9.5
9.0
W ~.)
LOADING 1.2iCit + Otc +
• Wind load based on basic wind speed 38 mls
«w 8.0
«a: 7.5
10 X 10 B1
a:
0 7.0 _i:::
-
0
....I
LL
6.5
-
--- --
LL
0 10 X 10 B2
E 6.0
c-
Ol 8x8 B1
5.5
Ci
:!! 5.0
r-
-~
--' - ~
-~ -1
V 6x6 B1
zw 4.5 lL
V
~
w
u 4.0 V
a:
0 ~ ~ -1-- 1-- 1-- 1--
LL 3.5
z
iii
a: 3.0
2.5 Broken lines indicate
values for gravity
2.0 loading while solid
lines indicate values
1.5
for gravity plus 12.0
1.0 wind loading
I I I I
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
11.5
11.0
W LOADING 1.2iCit + 0;, + ~""l
•• Load based on 1.5% of lola I dead load
10.5
Figure 3.21 Quantities of reinforcement for main ~ 10.0
first interior beams for different a:
« 9.5
numbers of storeys and grid sizes: a:
0 I.-' ~ GRID (m) SCHEME
loading = 1.2(Gk + Qk + W k)
9.0
9
(continued).
LL
LL
0
8.5 ::.~ ~~
---- -- 10x 10 A1
E 8.0
c-
Ol
7.5
~ 7.0
V axa
I-
zw ..;~ '" A1
~
w
u
6.5
6.0
i'---' ~ ..:-'" "=..;. -- -- -- ~
a:
0
LL 5.5 k-" 6X6 A1
z
iii ~
V
a: 5.0
I...--"" ~
4.5
4.0
-~ -- -- -- -- -- - Broken lines indicate
values for gravity
loading while solid
lines indicate values
3.5
for gravity plus
3.0 wind loading
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
11.0
10.5
~ LOADING 1.2(~ + 0(. + WJc""l
10.0 ** Load based on 1.5% of total dead load
9.5
<I:
9.0
UJ GRID (m) SCHEME
a::
<I: 8.5
a::
0 8.0
0
-'
u. 7.5 ./
u. 10 X 10 B1
~~
0
E 7.0 --- -- --
C'
'"
./ 10 X 10 B2
--
6.5
0.-, ~
~
0,
"7
-
:!! 6.0
~
zUJ 5.5
.........
:!: ,..- ~ ~
--- -- -- V --
UJ 8X8 B1
u 5.0
a::
0 4.5
u.
z ~
u::;
a:: 4.0
./ 6X6 B1
V
V
3.5
3.0
~ f--
-- -- -- r- -- Broken lines indicate
values for gravity
loading while solid
lines indicate values 12.0
2.5
for gravity plus
2.0 wind loading 11.5
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 ~ LOADING 1.21Gk + 0(. + W~)
11.0 * Wind load based on basic wind speed 38 mil
NUMBER OF STOREYS
10.5
<I: 10.0
Figure 3.23 Quantities of reinforcement for main UJ
a::
first interior beams for different <I: 9.5 GRID (m) SCHEME
a::
numbers of storeys and grid sizes: 0
0 9.0
loading = 1.2(Ck + Qk + W k') -'
u.
u. 8.5
(continued}. 0 - - -f-- 10 X 10 A1
E 8.0
C'
'" 7.5
0,
:!! 7.0
f-
Z
UJ 6.5
:!:
UJ
u
a::
6.0 - - -f-- - 8 X8 A1
0
u. 5.5 ./
z
u::;
a:: 5.0
~ 6 X 6 A1
/ ~
4.5 ....- Broken lines indicate
4.0
~ -- f-- f-- -- f-- f-- values for gravity
loading while soliri
lines indicate values
3.5
for gravity plus
3.0 wind loading
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
12.0
11.5
11.0
K LOADING 1.2(Gk + OJ, + Wk*)
* Wind load based on basic wind speed 38 m/s
10.5
«w 10.0
a:
« 9.5 GRID (m) SCHEME
a:
a
a
...J
9.0
u.
- - -
u. 8.5
a 10 X 10 A1
E 8.0
a-
m
7.5
C.
~ 7.0
I- 8X8 A1
Z .".;
-- -- -...,
w 6.5
~
w
u 6.0
a:
a
u.
Z
5.5
I
W L 6x6 A1
a: 5.0
,.. V
- - - - -
4.5 Broken lines indicate
~ values for gravity
4.0 loading while solid
lines indicate values
3.5
for gravity plus
11.0 3.0 wind loading
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
W*
10.5
LOADING 1.2(Gj. + OJ, + Wj,*)
NUMBER OF STOREYS
10.0 Wind load based on basic wind speed 38 m/s
9.5
Figure 3.26 Quantities of reinforcement for main
«w 9.0 first interior beams for different
a: numbers of storeys and grid sizes:
« 8.5 GRID (m) SCHEME
a
a: loading = 1.2(G k + Q k + W k)·
a...J 8.0
u.
u. 7.5
a
E 7.0
a-
U)
- - 10x10 B1
6.5
......
C.
~
I-
Z
6.0 --- -- -- 10 X 10 B2
w 5.5
.....,
-- - -- -
~
w 8 x8 B1
u
a:
5.0 --;
au. 4.5
)
z
W
a: 4.0 / 6X6 B1
~
~
- - - - -
3.5 Broken lines indicate
~ values for gravity
3.0 loading while solid
2.5 lines indicate values
for gravity plus
2.0 wind loading
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
12.0
11.5
~ LOADING 1.2(Gk + Ok + Wk"") ~
11.0 -H Load based on 1.5% of total dead load
10.5
GRID (m) SCHEME
« 10.0
UJ
a:
« 9.5
10X1Q A1
a:
0 9.0
/
0
....J
u.. r""'"
-
~
8.5
u..
0 --- - --
E 8.0
rr
<J)
7.5
C,
~ 7.0 L
I- 8 x8 A1
Z ~
UJ
:E
6.5
..... .......-'l
UJ
u 6.0
-- -- - -- -~
a: /
0
u.. 5.5 ./'
z
W
a: 5.0
V 6 X 6 A1
!..--'""1 V
-- - - - - -
4.5 Broken lines indicate
.... r:::- values for gravity
4.0 loading while solid
3.5 lines indicate values
for gravity plus
11.0 3.0 wind loading
10.5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
~ LOADING 1.2(Gk + Ok + Wk"1 NUMBER OF STOREYS
10.0 * Wind load based on basic wind speed 38 m/s
9.5
Figure 3.28 Quantities of reinforcement for main
«
UJ
9.0 first interior beams for different
a: numbers of storeys and grid sizes:
« 8.5 GRID (m) SCHEME
a:
0
0 8.0
loading = 1.2(G k + Qk + W k')
....J
u..
(continued) .
u.. 7.5
0
E 7.0 .... 10X10 B1
--- - -
-
rr
<J)
6.5
C,
~
I-
6.0 -- --- 10 X 10 B2
Z
UJ 5.5 ..1
:E .,/'
I
UJ ...-' 8x8 B1
u 5.0
a:
0
u.. 4.5
~
UJ
4.0
/V 6 X 6 B1
a:
11.0
10.5
10.0
H LOADING 1.2(Gk + ot. + WJ.*")
** Load baoed on 1.6% of total dead load
~
9.5
<t: 9.0
w GRID (m) SCHEME
!iIE: 8.5
0 8.0
0
..J
u.. ~ 10 X 10 Bl
u.. 7.5
....... ........
0 t'
E
i
7.0
- --- -- -- I--
...- i...--"
- --- -- -- --,
6.5 10 X 10 B2
c;
:!! 6.0
I-
zw V 8x8 Bl
..- V
r
5.5
~
w
u
IE:
5.0 --;
0
u.. 4.5
z /J/ 6x 6 Bl
W
IE: 4.0
V
3.5
3.0
.....- --- - -- -- Broken lines indicate
values for gravity
loading while solid
lines indicate values
2.5
for gravity plus
wind loading 12.0
2.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
NUMBER OF STOREYS
45 50 11.5
11.0
H LOADING 1.2(Gk + ot. + Wk*")
** load based on 1.5% oftotal dead load
~
10.5
Figure 3.29 Quantities of reinforcement for main
<t: 10.0
first interior beams for different w
IE:
GRID (m) SCHEME
<t: 9.5
numbers of storeys and grid sizes: IE:
loading = 1.2(G k + Qk + W k') 0
0 9.0
(continued).
..J
u.. ........, ~
.....
-- - -
u.. 8.5 10 X 10 Al
0
E 8.0
C'
(/)
7.5
c;
:!! 7.0
I-
Z
w 6.5
/ 8x8 Al
~
w
u
IE:
6.0 - - -.,.-"
- -
0
u.. 5.5
z
W
IE: 5.0
~ 6X6 Al
V
4.5 ,... V Broken lines indicate
4.0 -- ~ -- - -- values for gravity
loading while solid
3.5 lines indicate values
for gravity plus
3.0 wind loading
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
11.0
I
W 1-
i I
10.5
LOADING 1.2(Gk + Ok + Wk*")
10.0 ** Load based on 1.5% oftotal dead load
~+ ..-
9.5
9.0 r- I
t1 t-I ~-
!!~-
<{
UJ
a:: ! GRID (m) SCHEME
<{ 8.5 r-~
r~
a::
0 8.0 t----- t---
0
~-
...J
u..
u.. 7.5 r-- r--~--
0 V 10X10 B1
~
E 7.0
C" -- -- -
(/)
6.5 L
10 X 10 B2
C,
::! .... k:-::~
2
6.0
I-
Z
UJ 5.5 --~
~--.~
::iE ~ 8 8 B1
--
X
UJ
u
a::
5.0 ~ ---
0 /
u.. 4.5
z
jjj
r-- ~v
--
a:: 4.0 r--~~ r--~
6X6 B1
3.5
V Broken lines indicate
-- -- -- - -
,.-,!~ b-
values for gravity
3.0 -
loading while solid
~
~
I-
~
30 X 30
Z
UJ I I
::iE 1."....-: ~V
--
UJ
u 4.0
a:: ...-:::::: !<"*"
Ir"': r'"
0
u..
Z
jjj
a:: 3.0 --r--
i
2.0 J
!
I
1.0 I I I I
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.019
0.018
0.017
r-- ~
~ r-- !t- It--
-
0.016
I'-
c( 0.015
-
- r--
w I'-- r--
a::
c( r--
a::
0 0.014
0
...J
II-
II-
0 0.013
E
CT
:!:
E 0.012
.e
~
w 0.011
I-
w
a::
u
Z
0 0.010
u
--
10.0
0.009
GRID(m) 6x6 ~
1'---" ' - -
9.0 LOADING 1.2 (~+ C\ + Wk·") r--- i'-- '--
** Horizontal load baNd on
1.5% of total dead laid 0.008
(Section 3.1.2.2. CP 110)
c( 8.0
w
a:: 0.007
c(
a::
0 7.0
0
...J
II-
0.006
II- 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0 PLAN SIZE
(mxm) NUMBER OF STOREYS
E 6.0
CT
III
30 X 78
~ 5.0 ~ 30 X 54
GRID (m)
10 x 10
SCHEME
ty • B2
v-::: ~ ~
I- 30 X 30
Z
~
w • 10 x 10 B1
4.0
~
II-
~~ f" iii. 8 x 8 B1
Z
iii
a:: 3.0
v 6 x 6 B1
2.0
Figure 3.34 Quantities of concrete for secondary
beams over columns.
1.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.1350
0.1325
~
0.1300 ~
~
~ r---..
<{
0.1275
w
a:
<{ ~
a:
0
0 0.1250 r-... ~
"" ~
"'"~
...J
LL.
'"
LL.
0
E
e- 0.1225
:g
E
~ ~
e-
2- ~ ~ r"-..
'"'""""
0.1200
"" ~ ~
~
"'"
a:
0
~
~
3.50
::E
a:
0 0.1175
~
"-
~ 0.....
LL.
GRID (m) SCHEME
3.25
10 x 10 Bl
0.1150 t'-..
3.00
"-"
~ <{
0.1125 ~ w
a:
<{
a:
2.75
0
0
...J
LL.
LL. 2.50
0.1100 0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 E
NUMBER OF STOREYS
-e-
li)
CD
~
2.25 axa Bl
1.25 +---+-+--+-+--+-1---+----+---1
Figure 3.35 Quantities of formwork for secondary
beams over columns.
1.00 +--+-+---4--.j....-I--I-+--+~
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
4.00
3.75
«w
~ 3.25 10 x 10 B1
a:
0
9
u.
u. 3.00
0
E
i
.... 2.75
i
I-
Z
w 2.50
::E
w
(.)
a: 8x8 Bl
0
u. 2.25
z
iii
a:
2.00 10 x 10 B2
1.75 +-+-+----+--t-+--+----l-i---t
6x6 B1
4.50
Figure 3.37 Quantities of reinforcement for « 4.25
w
secondary beams over columns - a:
« 4.00
first interior beams. a:
0
0 3.75 GRID (m) SCHEME
...J
u.
u. 3.50
0
E 3.25
C" 10 x 10 81
~ 3.00
i
I-
2.75
zw
2.50
::E
w 8x8 81
a: 2.25
(.)
0
u. 2.00 10 x 10 82
z
iii
a: 1.75
6x6 81
1.50
1.25 +--+-t--t--t-+--+----l---t----t
1.00 +--+--1-+--+--1-+--+--I----!
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.036
0.034
0.032
0.30
0.030
0.028
0.28
«
w
a:
« 0.026
a:
0 0.26
0
...J
u. 0.024
u.
0
E
c-
0.022 «
w
0.24
o!!!. a:
E «
a:
:::l 0.020 0
~ 0 0.22
...J
w u.
I-
w U.
a: 0.018 0
u
Z E
0 c- 0.20
u
0.016 ~
E
c-
~
0.014 :.t 0.18
a:
0
~
0.012 :!!
a:
0 0.16
u.
0.010
,- ,..-r-- I'- - I'- - I'-- to--
0.008 0.14
5 10 15 20 25 30
NUMBER OF STOREYS
35 40 45 50
I- I"--1'-- ~- ..- ...- J--
GRID (m) SCHEME 0.12
•
0
10 x 10
10 x 10
B2
A1
• 8 x 8 A1 0.10
40
0 6 x 6 A1 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 45 50
A 10 x 10 B1 NUMBER OF STOREYS
x 8x8 B1
v 6 x 6 B1 GRID (m) SCHEME
• 10 x 10
8x8
B2
0 A1
Figure 3.39 Quantities of concrete for secondary
• 10 x 10 A1
beams running over main beams for
different numbers of storey and grid
0
A
6 x 6
8x8
- A1
B1
sizes. x 10 x 10 B1
v 6x6 B1
7.0
6.5
GRID (m) SCHEME
6.0
<I:
UJ
a: 5.5 10 x 10 B2
<I:
a:
a
a
....I 5.0
U.
U.
a 4.5 10 x 10 B1
E
.,C' 10 x 10 A1
4.0
Ci
~
I- 3.5
z
UJ ax8 B1
::!: ax8 A1
UJ
u 3.0
a:
au. 6x6 B1
z 2.5
6x6 A1
ijj
a:
2.0
1.5
1.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
7.0
Figure 3.42 Quantities of reinforcement in first
6.5
interior secondary beams.
6.0
<I: GRID (m) SCHEME
UJ
a: 5.5
<I: 10x10 B2
a:
a
a
....I 5.0
U.
U.
a 4.5
E 10 x 10 B1
.,
C'
4.0
Ci 10x 10 A1
~
I- 3.5
z
UJ
::!:
UJ
ax a B1
3.0
u
a: ax a A1
au.
z 2.5 6x6 B1
ijj 6x 6 A1
a:
2.0
1.5
1.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.028
0.027
t-- r-- r--
0.026 I'--
-- r--. r---,
t-- ""-
-
0.025
r-- r-- i'--IL
0.024
I'-- I"'"-.
I'-- it--
- r---
0.023 ~
r-- r---
r-- r-- P- r-- 1'---
« ~
w
a:: 0.022
r-- -
- -- -- ----
« ~ r-- ~
a::
0 0.021
r-- r-- r--
r-
......
0
r-- '-- '--
....I
0.020
0
E
C' 0.019
~
E 0.018
---.
::J
.2
w 0.017
I-
'-- -.. '--. ~
r-
-.., ..-.
w
a::
u 0.016
z
0 ~
u
0.015
0.014
7.0
0.013
6.5
GRID (m) SCHEME 0.012
6.0
«w 0.011
«a:: 5.5 10 x 10 B2
a:: 0.010
0 5 15 40
10 20 25 30 35 45 50
......
0 5.0
....I
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0
4.5
..
E
C'
4.0
10x 10
10 x 10
B1
A1
GRID (m)/ BEAM
SCHEME SECTION (mm) • 10 x 10 B1 450 x 670
C.
:!! A 10 x 10 B2 695 x 540 A 8 x 8 B1 445 x 495
I- 3.5
zw
8x8 B1 0 10 x 10 B2 560 x 600 0 8 x 8 B1 360 x 550
::l1
w 3.0 8x8 A1
u x 10 x 10 B1 695 x 540 )( 8 x 8 B1 300 x 605
a::
...0z 2.5 6x6 B1 v 10 x 10 82 450 x 670 v 6 x 6 B1 270 x 400
iii 6x6 A1
a::
2.0
• 10 x 10 B1 560 x 600 • 6 x 6 B1 225 x 440
12
11
ilOADING 1.2( Gk + OJ, + Wk">
* Wind load based on basic wind speed 38 m/s
l BEAM
GRID (m)1
SCHEME SECTION
(mm)
10
0.144
0.142 t'-.."'C «
UJ
II:
9
« 10x1081 560 X 600
~~ -~
II:
g8
N ~"
0.140 ..J
~ u..
'" N ~ "- ~
o ,....-;~
0.138
~ E 7
11
I
~ C,
""""~"
~ 0.136 :!! 6
~~
I-
~~
270 X 400
~
II: 6 X 6 81
« Z
./
UJ
II:
g 0.134 ~ ~
UJ
V
N
u 5 I-
........... ~ II: 6 X 681 225 X 440
~
,: '"
ou..
v'
..J
~ r....
u..
~
"-
u.. Z
o 0.132 :::".. ......... A
""'"
~ 4
~
"~ ~
E
~ ""'" '-"'" ~
~
C'
.!!!. ~
E ~ ~
'---' ~
""
0.130 3
~
~~ ~
C'
~
:.;:
~ 0.128
t-.... ~ ~
'" ~ ~
~"- ~ "-
2
:=~ 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
II:
ou.. r... ~,
'"
0.126
~~ ~
~
Figure 3.46 Effect of different beam sections on
'"~ ~
0.124
quantities of reinforcement for main
~ interior beams: loading = 1.2(G k +
~ wiJ;
""
0.122 Qk + 6 x 681;10 x 10 81.
~
0.120
0.118 -
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
12.0
LOADING 1.21Gk + OJ. + Wk"*) GRID (m)1 BEAM
11.5
11.0
I ** Load based on 1.5% of total dead load
I SCHEME SECTION
(mm)
<
UJ
9.5
10x10B1 560 X 600
a:: .J
< 9.0
~
a::
0 ./
0 8.5 ~~
-'
u..
u.. 8.0 10x10B1 450 X 670
V
_........
0
E 7.5
C"
--en
CI)
7.0
~ 6.5
I-
z
UJ 6.0
~
UJ
6 X 6 B1 270 X 400
u 5.5
a::
0
u.. 5.0
V 6 X 6 B1 225 X 440
z
W
a:: 4.5
t' /
~ ./V
i>'"
9.0
4.0 ;....-
...... ..........
{LOADING 1.21~
+ OJ. + Wk") ,~ GRID Im)/ BEAM 3.5 ,-
8.5 * Wind load based on basic wind speed 38 m/s SCHEME SECTION
Imm) 3.0
< 7.5
UJ
a:: Figure 3.48 Effect of different beam sections on
<
a:: 10x10B2 560 X 600 quantities of reinforcement for main
g
-'
7.0
~
interior beams: loading = 1.2(G k +
u..
u..
o
Qk + Wk'); 6 x 6 B1; lax 10 B1.
E 6.5
g- 10 X 10 B2 450 X 670
4.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
10.0
-
0 10 X 10 B2 560 600 0.040
8.0
r-- r-- r--
X
V
....I
u..
r--- ~
- ---
u..
0 ~
7.5 0.038
E
10 X 10 B2 450 X 670
c- Ii-- P--
-
Ol
t::
7.0 0.036
C.
:!!
V V 8 X 8 Bl 445 X 495
-)
--
~
z 6.5
~
0.034
-
;.u
::?! 8 X 8 Bl 360 X 550
w 6.0 0.032
u ......
a:
0
u.. I000o'' '"'
V «
Z 5.5 ~ 0.030
iii
a:
~ 8 X 8 B1 300 X 605 «
5.0 ~ ga: 0.028
~ ~It" ....I
u..
4.5 u.. 0.026
o
4.0 E 0.024
C-
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 .!!?
NUMBER OF STOREYS E
:>
0.022
2
~ 0.020
Figure 3.49 Effect of different beam sections on w
a:
quantities of reinforcement for main ~ 0.018
interior beams: loading = 1.2(G k + o
u
Qk + Wk'); 8 x 881; 10 x 10 82. 0.016
0.014
0.012
0.010
0.008
0.006
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
6.1
GRID (m)1 BEAM
5.7 +--+-+--+-f---+--+-+--+--I SCHEME SECTION
(mm)
0.26 3.7
C, 8 x 8 Bl 420 x 600
::!
f- 3.3
0.25 z
UJ 10xl0Bl 335 x 670
:2
UJ
0.24 u 2.9
a::
< 0
u. 8 x 8 Bl 340 x 495
UJ
a:: 0.23 z 2.5
< jjj
a:: 8 x 8 Bl 275 x 550
a::
0 0.22 2.1 8 x 8 Bl 225 x 605
0
...J 6 x 6 Bl 245 x 360
U.
u. 0.21 1.7 6 x 6 Bl 200 x 400
0
6 x 6 Bl 165 x 440
E
C" 0.20 1.3 +--+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+--1
-"!. 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
E 0.19 NUMBER OF STOREYS
C"
~
a:: 0.18
~
0.14
0.13
0.12
0.038 +-+-+--+---+-+--+-+-+----1
......._~-+-.....- .....-+_._+--t10x 10B2 335x670
0.036 +--+-+--+-+---+--+-+--+-----1
0.034 -+---+-+--+-+---+--+--t----t------I
~ 0.032 +-+----1f-----t--+-+-+---+--t-----t
<
:s 0.030 +-+-+--+-t----+--I-+--+-----t
9
...... 0.02a +--+-+--+-+---+--+-+--+-----1
~ 0.026
II 0.024 +--+-t--+----t-+--+---t-t---1
E 0.022 +--+-+-+--+-t----+--+-1----1
i :::~:~::;::;;;t::t~;;;~;t~~
::I
10 x 10 B1 515 x 540
10 x 10 B1 420 x 600
~ 0.016-t:::t~~t::::t:~:::t=:t:=t~ 10 x 10 B1 335 x 670
u axa B1 340 x 495
0.014 . .-tjI-IIt-....- i t -...-tIo-~~--tt: axa B1 275x 550
axa B1 225x 605
0.012 +--+-+--+----i-+---t-+----t---t
GRID (m)1 BEAM
6x6 B1 245 x 360 SCHEME SECTION
0.010 t=!;::;!:!=~!====!::!=! 6x6 B1 200 x 400
0.29
(mm)
o.ooa +--+-t---+--+-1---+---+-+----1 6x6 B1 165 x 440 1OX10B2335x670
0.2a
0.006 +-+~r--+--+---+-+-+-+---l 10x 10 B2 420x600
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 0.27 10 x 10 B2 515 x 540
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.26
0.25
Figure 3.53 Effect of different beam sections on <
w
quantities of concrete for interior and
!1i 0.24
a:
first interior secondary beams. o 0.23
9
...
...
o
0.22
E 0.21
II 0.20
E 0.19
!:..: 0.1a
a:
~
0.17
a: 0.16
...o 0.15
axaB1 225 x 605
0.14 6x6B1 165x440
axaB1 275 x 550
0.13 10x10B1335x670
axaB1 340 x 495
0.12 6 x 6 B1 200 x 400
10x 10 B1 420x600
0.11 10x10B1515x54O
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 506x6B1 245 x 360
NUMBER OF STOREYS
B.2 0.090
7.B 30 N/sq mm
GRID (m)/ BEAM
0.OB5
~ f,"
/;
SCHEME SECTION fy 460 N/sq mm
<{ 7.4
w (mm)
a:
<{ 7.0
10 x 10 B2 515 x 540 O.OBO
VI/.
a:
0
0 6.6
...J
u..
II If
u.. 6.2 0.075
0 10 x 10 B2 420 x 600
E 5.B
~ VI
0-
U)
10x10B1 515 x 540 0.070
..... 5.4 10x 10 B2 335 x 670
0,
<{
:!! 5.0 10x 10 B1 420 x 600 w
t- a: 0.065
I
~ V~
Z <{
w 4.6
~ a:
w 10x 10 B1 335 x 670 0
ILrL V/;
u 4.2 0 0.060
a: ...J
0 u..
u.. 3.B u..
z 0 0.055
iii a x B B1 340 x 495
VIL ~
a: 3.4 E
a x a B1 275 x 550
3.0
0-
..re 0.050 .L
~ "I-V
a x B B1 225 x 605
2.6 6 x 6 B1 245 x 360 E
r
:::I
6 x 6 B1 200 x 400 2
2.2 w 0.045
~ rfL
6 x 6 B1 165 x 440 t-
w
1.B a:
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 u 0.040
50 z
Ii ~ ~
NUMBER OF STOREYS 0
u
0.035
~
Figure 3.55 Effect of different beam sections on
0.030 ~
I)
quantities of reinforcement for
secondary interior beams.
0.025
0.020
ldV
0.015
V
3.4.3 Columns 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
The quantities of constituents for the interior column
of different grid sizes and structural schemes in terms GRID (m) SCHEME
of concrete, formwork and reinforcement are shown l> 10 x 10 B1
in Figures 3.56 to 3.58, while for the exterior and BxB
0 B1
corner columns the same parameters are shown in
Figures 3.59 to 3.61 and Figures 3.62 to 3.64 re- v 10 x 10 A1
spectively. • 10 x 10 B2
The use of higher grades of concrete helps in re-
ducing the section of the column and this in turn • axB A1
In
0.32 30
I I
0.3 1 M I
feu 30 N/sq mm I
L W feu 30 N/sq mm I
VI
fy 460 N/sq mm 28 f y 460 N/sq mrr
0.30
j '/
I VI
0.29
1/ V 26
J '/
0.28
JIfj~V
24
0.27
/)
7, 7 /
Iii~LII
0.26 22
<
w
<
w 0.25 a:
a:
< j 'j /
<
'/V/
a:
~VI
20
a: 0.24 0
0
0 l/ ~
V 0
...J
:/
~
V
0.23
V
...J
VIVI
18
/
~ ~
~ 0
0
Vj /
0.22
/
E
E J
II VI
C"
V
16
C" 0.21
j! V
~
V
~
/ / ~ CI
::!
E 0.20
/ /./ /
'1/ I)V
~~
I- 14
C"
!! j// z
w
0.19
:.!
a:
0 ~/
/
~/ / ~~
::!:
w
u J
:=:::E
L 1/ / / I/;II /
0.18 a: 12
a: 0.17 / ~~
0
~
z
0
7/ / ./' / ~ w
i ~1/
~
a: 10
0.16
V V / W
7
0.15 8
0.14
V
/
~
~
~ ~V
V
--L 6
0.13
0.12
V ~rr
~~
4
0,11 .,..~ ~
/
0.10 2
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS NUMBER OF STOREYS
!J 6x6 Al 0 10 X 10 A1
10 10 B2
V 8x8 Bl " X
• 8x8 Al • 8 X 8 B1
• 10 X 10 Bl • 8 X 8 A1
X 10 X 10 Al X 6 X 6 B1
0 10 X 10 B2 !J 6x6 A1
Figure 3.57 Quantities of formwork for interior Figure 3.58 Quantities of reinforcement for
columns: feu = 30 N/sq mm 2 • interior columns: feu = 30 N/sq
mm 2 .
Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 43
0.050 0.24
V
w
/
a: 0.038 a: 0.19
< <
a: a:
0.036
,; 0
I V /
0 0.18
~
0 0
/ ....I
/
....I
/ II V
u. 0.034 U.
/
0 0.17
a:
/
0
/ //
a: 0.032 (!)
//' I /
(!)
I
u.
0 0.16
/
u.
0
V ~
.1 II
0.030
E E
,g 0.15
/
'i
/
./
C'
.!!? 0.028
E h .j
/ E
C' 0.14 - L
/
0.026
.e"
I If I ~
~
w
I- 0.024
~
a: 0.13 - /
II /
w 0
a:
u
z 0.022 / ~
~ ~ / ~
II. '/ V
0 a: 0.12
'/ ~
u 0
u.
0.020
/'
/) // / 0.11
0.018
/: W: V 0.10 / ~
0.016
~V /o~
lY.
0.09
0.014
0.012 V 0.08
0.010 0.07 -
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS NUMBER OF STOREYS
Bl
'" 10 x 10 Bl
'" 6 x 6
a 10 x 10 B2 0 8 x 8 Bl
v 8 x 8 Bl v 10 x 10 Bl
• 6 x 6 Bl • 10 x 10 B2
Figure 3.59 Quantities of concrete for exterior Figure 3.60 Quantities of formwork for exterior
columns: feu = 30 N sq mm 2 . columns: feu = 30 N sq mm 2 •
44 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings
16 0.027
VI
14 0.024
If// 0.023
13
jj / 0.022
/ II
II l
hrr /
c( 12
0.021
'/ /
w c(
cc w
CC
c(
c(
cc
1/ I
11 0.020
0
0
CC
0
0 / I /
II /
~
u.. ~ 0.019
;J " /
10 u..
c c 0.018
/ VI
ii:
CI CC
/
Jr !
CI
u.. 9 u.. 0.017
1/1 /
0
0
E E 0.016 /
JCl/ /
C"
ji
8 C"
~ V ~
E
CI
~
I- 7
J ::l
0.015
7/V /
zw
~
w ~
~
J
V ~
w
I-
w
0.014
I 'II /
u CC 0.013
// V
f
6 -/
cc
0
u..
A
/ u
Z
0.012
/ f/ /
Z 0
It
U
W 5
cc
/ 0.011
J // /
4
V 0.010
/h V/ /
~
0.009
~ (/ /
3
,/
0.008
2 V /
0.007
/
1 0.006
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS NUMBER OF STOREYS
0 10 x 10 B2
0 10 x 10 B2
V 8x8 Bl
v 8 x 8 Bl
• 6 x 6 Bl • 6 x 6 Bl
Figure 3.61 Quantities of reinforcement for Figure 3.62 Quantities of concrete for corner
exterior columns: feu = 30 N/mm 2• columns: feu = 30 N/mm 2 •
Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 45
0.125 8.5
0.120
1 1 J
.1
II
8
/V
feu 30 N/sq mm feu 30 N/sq mm
f y 460 N/sq mm f y 460 N/sq mm
0.115
/ 7.5
0.110
/
/
7
J.W
/
0.105
/
y !!JV /
/(f /
c(
c( 6.5
w
w 0.100 ~ a:
a:
c(
/ / c(
II
a: 6·
a:
L'1 0 II
V
0 0.095 0
0
.....
u.. V .....
u..
I
/
/
5.5
!JV
0
0.090
V
0
V ~
~
CJ
/ ,/ CJ
u..
1/
u.. 0.085 0 5
0
E V /
V
/ V E
C7 I
;) V
0.080
~ 4.5
/ /
C7
~ V Cl I
E
0.075 /' ~
YV
C7 I-
V
"if /
~ zw 4
~
a: 0.070
y
/' ~
V/
w
iI /
0 u 3.5
~
~
0.065 / a:
0
u..
/'t'
a:
/ /
0 Z
v:/ ./
u.. w 3
V
~ f/
a:
0.060
v: fL
2.5
0.055 V
2 J
~t'
0.050
0.045
V/ / 1.5
.All
V ~
0.040 1
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS NUMBER OF STOREYS
0 8 X 8 B1 0 10 X 10 B2
V 10 X 10 B1 V 8x8 B1
• 10 X 10 B2 • 6 X 6 B1
Figure 3.63 Quantities of formwork for corner Figure 3.64 Quantities of reinforcement for corner
columns: feu = 30 N/mm 2 • columns: feu = 30 N/mm 2 •
46 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings
0.070 0.32
/ 0.31
H GRID (m) 6 x 6 I
r
j
H GRID (m) 6 x 6 SCHEME B1
W
0.065
SCHEME B1 I 0.30
~
/)
0.060 0.29
0.28 II J
V V
}V V
0.055
A
rV VI /
«w «
w
0.27
a:
a: 0.050 «
« a: 0.26
a:
0
0 /
0
0
...J
u. 0.25
j /
J.b1 /
/(1 /
...J
u. 0.045
u.
u. 0
0
III /
E 0.24
E
V/
0.040 C"
C"
!!: !!:
E 0.23
~ V/
E C"
WV
::l o!!
Wi V
2 0.035 0.22
~
w a:
I- 0
w
1 f7
a: ~ 0.21
u ~
z 0.030
~V
a:
0 0
u u. 0.20
){j
V
0.025 0.19
~ ~ff; I
!JV
0.020 / 0.18
~
~
W
0.17
0.015
0.16
IV
0.010 - 0.15
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS NUMBER OF STOREYS
GRADE OF GRADE OF
CONCRETE CONCRETE
A 30 A 30
0 35 o 35
• 40 • 40
Figure 3.65 Effect of grade of concrete on Figure 3.66 Effect of grade of concrete on
quantities of concrete for interior quantities of formwork for interior
columns: 6 m x 6 m; Scheme B1. columns: 6 m x 6 m; Scheme B1.
Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 47
26 0.090
24 .J GRID (m) 6 x 6
SCHEME B1 l 0.085
H GRID (m) 8 x 8
SCHEME B1
I
J
0.080 I
..L
/
/
22
/ /
0.075
/
20
/ JV
0.070
/
«
w
«
V /;
a: 18 0.065
« 1/
~
w
/
a:
a:
0
«
Lrt /
0 a: 0.060
16
V
0
V
...J
~
u. 0
U. ...J
U.
0
/ 0.055
jVi V
u.
E 14 0
~
C"
V kf~ E
0.050
VL ~
C"
CI
-!!!.
Vkf
~ j
12
..... E
zw ::> 0.045
.e
~
w 10 w
~~
~ If
u .....
w 0.040
a:
/ ty~
a:
0 u
u. z
z 0 0.035
0
w 8 u
/~
a:
0.030 /
V
rf 1~
6
~
If:V
0.025
4
~~
0.020
2 ~
0.015
V
o 0.010 -
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 lO 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS NUMBER OF STOREYS
GRADE OF GRADE OF
CONCRETE CONCRETE
t. 30 :. 30
0 35 o 35
• 40 • 40
Figure 3.67 Effect of grade of concrete on Figure 3.68 Effect of grade of concrete on
quantities of reinforcement for interior quantities of concrete for interior
columns: 6 m x 6 m; Scheme B1. columns: 8 m x 8 m; Scheme B1.
48 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings
0.27 32
I I /
tL
0.24
V 26
0.23
/ L V
VI ~ / /
24
i /;V
0( 0(
w 0.22 w
a:: a:: 22
0(
L J
0(
a:: 0.21 a::
J
J ~V
0 0
20
VVV
0 0
...J ...J
IL
IL
V
0.20 IL
I, V V
IL
0 18
)V J
0
E E
VIVj
IT 0.19 IT
~ 16
LL
~
i
CI
E :!!
!
/ VI
0.18 I- 14
VL ~L
Z
:w: w
a:: :::E
0 0.17
V;; V
w
u 12
V V
lL VL
~ a::
:::E
a:: ) 0
IL
V) V
0 0.16 Z 10
£ VJ
IL w
a::
II)V;I
0.15 8
V
0.14 6 ~~
0.13
~~
V
4 ~V
V
0.12 2 ~
0.11 o
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS NUMBER OF STOREYS
GRADE OF
CONCRETE GRADE OF
CONCRETE
A 30
A 30
o 35
o 35
• 40
• 40
Figure 3.69 Effect of grade of concrete on Figure 3.70 Effect of grade of concrete on
quantities of formwork for interior quantities of reinforcement for interior
columns: 8 m x 8 m; Scheme B1. columns: 8 m x 8 m; Scheme B1.
Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 49
0.095 0.22
0.090
.-1 GRID (m) 10 x 10 I
I
~ GRID (m) 10 x 10
SCHEME B1
I
V
SCHEME B1 0.21
0.085
I/ / V~
0.20
0.080
j i
/ r;l;
0.075 0.19
/ /1
J LV
0.070 <t
V
<t w 0.18
w
/ v~
rc rc
<t
VI tL
<t 0.065
rc rc
0
~V
0 0 0.17
0
/W
0.060 ...J
...J
u.. u..
u.. u..
0 L
v;;V
0
I~ V
0.16
0.055 E
E
C"
~
C"
0.050 J ~
VI V ~V
E E 0.15
C"
2'" 0.045
~
/~
~
w
WV
I- rc 0.14
w 0
rc ~
J t:'l
0.040
u
z ~
rc
0 0 0.13
j,~
u 0.035 u..
~V
IfV
0.030 0.12
0.025 j) ~
l/V 0.11
0.020
0.015
V 0.10 ~
V
0.010 0.09
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS NUMBER OF STOREYS
GRADE OF GRADE OF
CONCRETE CONCRETE
.!l. 30 .!l. 30
o 35 0 35
• 40
• 40
Figure 3.71 Effect of grade of concrete on Figure 3.72 Effect of grade of concrete on
quantities of concrete for interior quantities of formwork for interior
columns: 10 m x 10 m; Scheme B1. columns: 10m x 10m; Scheme B1.
50 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings
32 U.U!l5
/ ~
/
28
!j
0.075
/ I
26
!J
0.070
/
24
I 7 /
/
;,f/ /
0.065
«w ), «w
// /
a: 22
« a:
«
1/II
a: 0.060
0 20 a:
I II /
0 0
..J
u.. 0
/) 1//
..J
u.. u.. 0.055
0 18
V/ fI u..
E
V 0
I E
71V V ;:VJ
C"
C" 0.050
~ 16
Ol ..!!? V
::! E
/77
I- 14
!j /
z :l 0.045
w .£
~ w
w I-
VI /
u 12 w
~!
a: a: 0.040
0 u
u.. z
z 10 0
u
~~
Y
w
j
a: 0.035
~~ 0.030
6
/~
J~
~ V-
0.025
4
~
I'
0.Q20
2
o 0.015
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS NUMBER OF STOREYS
30 A 30
o 35 o 35
• 40 • 40
Figure 3.73 Effect of grade of concrete on Figure 3.74 Effect of grade of concrete on
quantities of reinforcement for interior quantities of concrete for interior
columns: 10m x 10m; Scheme B1. columns: 10m x 10m; Scheme B2.
Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 51
0.21 29
-J I WGRID 1m) 10 x 10 I
WI
GRID 1m) 10 x 10
/
0.20 SCHEME B2 27 SCHEME 82
25
W I
0.19
~
/ II Jj
23
l} I
0.18
V ~
21
/ V/
~
~ w f/
w II:
a: 0.17
/;VI
~
~
a: V II:
19
0
V
J
0 0
I
0 --'
--' 0.16 u..
u..
V
IIVI
u..
1/V
17
I
u.. 0
0
E
E cr
0.15
/II;lL /
~ 15
V
C'
/)1/
~ 0>
E ~
I-
/ V
C'
z 13
VI
!!!. 0.14 w
~
a: V ~
~
w
0 U
)V;:V
~ II: 11
VI
~ 0.13 0
V
u..
v: ~
a: Z
0
;)
u.. W
9
) r;
II:
0.12
V 7
0.11
V ~~
~
5
r;?'
0.10
IV 3 ~
V
0.09 1
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS NUMBER OF STOREYS
GRADE OF GRADE OF
CONCRETE CONCRETE
f). 30 A 30
o 35 o 35
• 40 • 40
Figure 3.75 Effect of grade of concrete on Figure 3.76 Effect of grade of concrete on
quantities of formwork for interior quantities of reinforcement for interior
columns: 10m x 10m; Scheme B2. columns: 10m x 10m; Scheme B2.
52 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings
0.038 0.23
!/)
0.036 0.22
/
V V
0.034 0.21
)
V
0.20
V'l
0.032
0.19
/
0.030 V
~V /
<
<
w
a:: /
/v
w < 0.18
a::
IIj
0.028
<
a:: V a::
0
/
V
0 0.17
0
1/
....I
II II
) u..
0 0.026
....I
u.. 'I 0
u.. a:C1
V V
0.16
0
VV/
0.024 u..
E 0 /
r:r
/ E 0.15
V V V
VI
~ 0.022 r:r
E .!!!. /
E 0.14
V" V
:::J
J
~
2
w 0.020 r:r
/
I-
;j / V ~ /
r/
:.;: 0.13
V
W
a:: a:: V
u
z 0
/
~V V
0.018
0 ~
u :E 0.12
a::
0
)/ ,~ V
~V V
0.016 u..
0.11 /
V V
0.014
V ~
d~
0.10
0.012
0.09
~ ~
~ '/
0.010 0.08
/
/'
0.008 0.07
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS NUMBER OF STOREYS
I> 10 x 10 B1 l> 6 x 6 B1
o 10 x 10 B2 o 8 x 8 B1
v 10 x 10 B1
v 8 x 8 B1
• 10 x 10 B2
• 6 x 6 B1
Figure 3.77 Quantities of concrete for exterior Figure 3.78 Quantities of formwork for exterior
columns: feu = 40 N/mm 2 • columns: feu = 40 N/mm 2 .
Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 53
13 o.02
o.022 f---- '.40 NIMI mm
I fc • 40 N/sq mm I GRID 1m) SCHEME
12 o.021
/ o.0
J
10 x 10 B1
,IJ
11 o.01 10 x 10 B2
//
'(II
.011 Ixl B1
~ 0
Ij
10 ~ 0.017
c:(
f /)V
~
w
a:: Ixl B1
0 .01
~I i
c:(
~I !
~
II.
9 o 0.01
o
....I
Ii.
E
! 0 .01
IA I /
C E j,~ /
V!
a: 8
! 0 .01
CJ
Ii.
o ~ J
/ ~
.A
.012
0 I' /
~V
E
CT
7
8 0.011
('
~
o.01 A~
.l!W~V
~
IIV
I- 6
zw o
::E o.008 W.V
~V
w
)V
~ 5
o o.007
Ii.
Z
iii o.008 ~ :I
'/
I)V
a:: 4
o
II 10 111 20 211 30 35 40 " 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
I.V
3
6 10 x 10 B1
c 10 x 10 B2
9 8x8 B1
• 6x6 B1
0.125
0.110 II x II B1
0.105
... V
/V
...C
V
0.100
II:
C
0.095
II:
8.... 0.090 ./
V 8 x8 B1
I&-
~ 0.085 /" ./
V
E
IE 0.080
V /
V
! 0.075
V
/ 10 x 10 B1
..:
II:
0.070
..IV ~ 10 x 10 B2
~
:I 0.085
II:
/
V
/. Y
/ ~ Y'
0
I&-
0.080
0.055
V ./ ~"
0.050 ~V
0.045
~V
0.040 ~ 9.0
0.035
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 too ..0 N/lq mm I
NUMBER OF STOREYS 8.0 r-- GRID (m) SCHEME
~
10 ~ 10 B2
c 8 x 8 B1
~ 11.0
V
~~-
I&-
o 5.0
I
~ 8x8 B1
~//
E '/
I
~
!Z A
f V"
4. 0
~
)
~:I;VV
~
II:
~ 3.0
/
Z
i1
2. 0
V
-- r--
~
1. o~ ~
O. 0
5 ro ~ ~ ~ 30 ~ 40 ~ 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
o.50
concrete, formwork and reinforcement.
V
II
10 x 10 A1. 81. 82
o.25 /
V
o.20 /~
/
~
0.1 8
0.1 7 f - -
I
f. 30 N/eq mm o.15 5 10 15 20 25 30 3l; 40 45 50
0.1 If-- fy 480 Nleq mm
NUMIER OF STOREYS
0.1
E
I iL IlL
E 0.08
0.08
If/V
~ 0.07
II /
~ 0.08
/J '/
8 0.05
/, ~
0.04 ~
0.03
~
o. 02 /~
o. 01~
~
o. 00
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
18.0
14.0
§ Ixl Al, B1
II.
~ 10.0 ~ axa
10 x 10
A1, Bl
A1, B1, B2
l0V ~
E
!
~ a.0
!Z
~
~
~ I .0
~ ~
~~
II.
Z
i!
4 .0
2 .0
~~
~~
17.0
NUMBER OF STOREYS
14.0
Figure 3.85 Quantities of reinforcement in shear
GRID 1m) SCHEME
walls: feu = 30 N/mm 2 • Loading ~
= 1,2(G k + Qk + W k)· 8
~
12.0
axl A1,· B1
..... ax a
j
II. A1, Bl
iJ r
10 x 10 Al, B1
~ 10 x 10 B2
E 10.0
!
~
!Z
II
8. 0
...
~
~
r
~
II:
o
~ I. 0
iii
II: t'
4.0 ~
~
r-
2. 0
~
0.0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 411 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
3.5 Effect of Number of Spans on in Figures 3.90 to 3.92 for columns and in Figure
Constituent Quantities 3.93 for shear walls. The effett for different grid sizes
was similar. Using the above results multiplying fac-
In building projects, the number of continuous spans tors for different numbers of spans, considering re-
varies from project to project. Analyses were there- spective constituents quantities as 1 for 5 spans, were
fore made, both with gravity and lateral loads and computed and multiplying factors were established
with different numbers of continuous spans varying (Tables 3.1 to 3.3). Using these factors it is possible
from 2 to 4 (Section 3.2.3). The structural components to compute quantities for any continuity, i.e. number
were designed and constituent quantities were com- of spans (2 to 4) based on the quantities for 5 spans
puted. The comparative effect for different numbers for which various figures have been developed in
of spans is shown in Figures 3.87 to 3.89 for beams, this chapter.
10.0
10.0
GRID 1m) 6 x 6
SCHEME B1 •
GRID 1m) 6 x 6 9.0 LOADING 1.2 IGk + Ok + W k )
SCHEME B1
9.0 r--- LOADING 1.2 IGk + 0 + W;) r--- - * Wind load based on basic wind speed 38 m/s
'Wind load based on basic
wind speed 38 mls
<
w
B.O
cr:
8.0 <
cr:
I, 0
7.0
<
w
0
...J
a:: I :
NUMBER OF u.
< SPANS u. NUMBER OF
a:: 7.0 0
0 SPANS
0 E 6.0
I
...J
u.. CT 4
u.. '"
0
E
6.0
V
3 C,
= 5.0
I/; 5
V
V /' ~~
0- I-
~ Z
CD 5 w
:!! ::E
I- 5.0
V
/'
u
w
4.0
V
VV~
Z
...-:::::: :::;:.... ~
w cr:
~ 0
w u.
u
a::
0
4.0
./ . / Z
u::;
cr: 3.0
""-
u.. ;.--
z .,/ ,..-/
W ~ ~
a::
2.0
3.0
1.0
2.0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
1.0 I
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Figure 3.88 Effect of number of continuous spans
NUMBER OF STOREYS on quantities of reinforcement for
main first interior beams: Grid (m)
Figure 3.87 Effect of number of continuous spans 6 x 6; Scheme B1. Loading = 1.2(G k
on quantities of reinforcement for +Qk+Wk).
main interior beams: Grid (m) 6 x 6;
Scheme B1. Loading = 1.2( G k + Qk +
W k)·
58 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings
10.0
GRID (m) 6 x 6
SCHEME 61 •
9.0 LOADING 1.2 (Gk + Ok + Wk)
«
w
8.0
a:
« NUMBER OF
a:
0 SPANS
0 7.0
...J
r
U.
U. 2
0 I
E 6.0
c-
UI
3
C» 4
:! 5.0 /
5
~~
~
I-
Z
~
w
::!:
w
u 4.0
~ ~
a:
0
Ir-::::::: ~ .....:::: V
u.
Z
W
a: 3.0
2.0
36. a
1.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 34 .Ot--
I
GRID 1m) 6x6
NUMBER OF STOREYS SCHEME B1
32 .Ot--
~
4
o 5
g
...... 22 .0
o 20 .0 4V
hW
E
~ 18 .0
~
~ 16.0
@
w
::;: 14.0
l@
w
u
a:
o... 12 .0 ~~
.AI ~
z
~ 10.0
.0 £
6 .0 IL
.OV ~
.0
a.0 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
19.0
18. 0 -
I
I
GRID 1m) 6x6
SCHEME Bl I
17. 0 -
NUMBER OF
16.0 SPANS
15 .0
;';'i 14.0
a:
«
a: 13.0 I /J.
o
f//;
I
g
LL 12 .0
LL
o
E 11 .0
j;, ~
<7
:!t?: 10.0 W
~
!z 9 .0 IA ~
Iff!
,.
w
a:J 8 .0
A
u
a:
~ 7.0
z
,,-
iii
a: 6 .0 ~
~
.,
5 .0
~
.0 ~ I
.ol/ ~
.0 10.0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
I(j!J
a:
o
g
j;, r;
6.5
LL
LL
o 6. 0
E
<7
~ 5.5
VI/;
~
>- 5.0 ~V
zw
WL
,
ill 4. 5
U
a:
~ 4. 0
J, V
~
Z
iii
a: 3. 5
3. 0
2. 5 ~
2. 0 L
1.
:vL 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
18. 0
NUMBER OF Con tin u ity/ Multiplying factors for
SPANS
15.0 No. of storeys
Interior First interior End
~ 14. 0 beams beams beams
..
~ 13.0
/, 3 Two continuous spans
9
IIJ Storeys 5 1.00
12.0
IL
IL
o 5 10 1.03
/1 VI
11. 0
E 15 1.05
~ 10.0 20 1.07
~
!z 9.0
I~ 25 1.10
w
~ 8. 0 IfA~ 30
35
1.14
1.16
u
~ 7.0
/,W 40 1.19
45 1.21
~
Z
2! 8. 0 50 1.23
1.0
....... 't' 25
30
1.10
1.12
1.06
1.09
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
35 1.13 1.10
NUMBER OF STOREYS
40 1.13 1.14
45 1.14 1.16
50 1.14 1.17
Figure 3.93 Effect of number of continuous spans
on quantities of reinforcement for Four continuous spans
shear walls: Grid (m) 6 x 6; Scheme Storeys 5 1.00 1.00
B1; feu = 30N/sq mm 2 • 10 1.01 1.02
15 1.01 1.02
20 1.02 1.03
25 1.02 1.03
30 1.03 1.04
35 1.03 1.04
40 1.04 1.05
45 1.04 1.06
50 1.05 1.07
3.6 Effect of Number of Shopping Floors
In the charts developed so far the number of shop- grid. For example, for an exterior grid, the constitu-
ping floors taken is nil (Section 3.2.1). However, to ent quantities for half interior column and one exte-
adjust the constituent quantities for any number of rior column are to be added together. Likewise for a
shopping floors, appropriate multiplying factors have corner grid, the constituent quantities for a quarter
been worked out (Table 3.4). The factors established interior column, one exterior column and one corner
are related constituent quantities for respective number column are to be considered.
of office floors taken as 1.
Table 3.2 Multiplying factors for effect of different Table 3.3 Multiplying factors for effect of numbers
numbers of continuous spans on quantities of of continuous spans on quantities of reinforcement
reinforcement in columns (compared with 5 in shear walls (compared with 5 continuous spans
continuous spans taken as 1). taken as 1).
Continuity/ Modification factors for Continuity/ Multiplication factor
No. of storeys No. of storeys
Interior Exterior Corner
columns columns columns Two continuous spans
Two continuous spans Storeys 5 1.06
Storeys 5 1.00 1.00 1.01 10 1.07
10 1.01 1.01 1.02 15 1.08
15 1.02 1.03 1.04 20 1.09
20 1.03 1.05 1.06
1.04 1.07 1.08
25 1.10
25
30 1.05 1.09 1.10 30 1.12
35 1.06 1.11 1.12 35 1.14
40 1.07 1.13 1.14 40 1.16
45 1.11 1.15 1.16 45 1.18
50 1.13 1.17 1.19
50 1.21
Three continuous spans
Storeys 5 1.00 1.00 1.01 Three continuous spans
10 1.01 1.01 1.02 Storeys 5 1.05
25 1.02 1.02 1.03
10 1.06
30 1.03 1.04 1.05
35 1.04 1.06 1.07 15 1.07
40 1.06 1.08 1.09 20 1.08
45 1.08 1.10 1.11 25 1.09
50 1.10 1.12 1.13 30 1.10
Four continuous spans
35 1.11
Storeys 5 1.00 1.00 1.00 40 1.12
10 1.00 1.01 1.01 45 1.13
15 1.01 1.02 1.02 50 1.15
20 1.02 1.03 1.03
25 1.03 1.04 1.04
30 1.04 1.05 1.05
Four continuous spans
35 1.05 1.06 1.07 Storeys 5 1.01
40 1.06 1.07 1.09 10 1.02
45 1.07 1.08 1.10 15 1.02
50 1.08 1.09 1.11 20 1.03
25 1.03
30 1.04
35 1.04
40 1.05
45 1.06
50 1.08
62 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings
Beams
Concrete References
5 1.105 1.073 1.062 1.050 1.041 1.032
4 1.083 1.071 1.060 1.041 1.032 1.020 1. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Research
3 1.071 1.062 1.051 1.031 1.021 1.018 Report R68-91. ICES STRUDL-II. The Structural
2 1.061 1.052 1.048 1.019 1.017 1.010
1 1.049 1.038 1.032 1.015 1.010 1.008
Design Language Engineering User's Manual. Vol-
Reinforcement ume I, Frame Analysis. ICES Users Group, Inc.,
5 1.205 1.102 1.051 1.034 1.026 1.020 Cranston, Rhode Island, 1979.
4 1.164 1.082 1.041 1.027 1.021 1.016 2. BS CP3. Code of Basic Data for the Design of
3 1.123 1.061 1.031 1.021 1.053 1.012 Buildings. Chapter V, Part 1: Dead and imposed
2 1.082 1.041 1.021 1.011 1.009 1.008
1.041 1.021 1.010 1.007 1.005 1.004
loads. British Standards Institution, London, 1972.
Formwork 3. BS CP3. Code of Basic Data for the Design of
5 1.091 1.052 1.022 1.018 1.010 1.006 Buildings. Chapter V, Part 2: Wind loads. British
4 1.072 1.031 1.015 1.009 1.006 1.004 Standards Institution, London, 1972.
3 1.050 1.020 1.011 1.006 1.004 1.002 4. BS 87 70: Part 7: British Standard for the Struc-
2 1.033 1.012 1.007 1.005 1.003 1.001
l 1.020 1.008 1.006 1.004 1.002 1.001 tural Use of Concrete - Code of Practice for De-
sign and Construction. British Standard Institution,
Columns London, 1985.
Concrete 5. ACI Committee 442. Response of buildings to lat-
5 1.057 1.041 1.031 1.020 1.014 1.009
4 1.039 1.035
eral forces. In Response of Multistorey Concrete
1.024 1.017 1.010 1.006
3 1.029 1.026 1.020 1.013 1.007 1.004 Structures to Lateral Forces. Publication SP-36,
2 1.021 1.019 1.014 1.008 1.005 1.001 American Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan,
1 1.019 1.014 1.009 1.006 1.004 1.001 1973, pp. 281-306.
Reinforcement 6. Khan, F.R. and Iyengar, H.S. Optimization approach
5 1.601 1.032 1.152 1.1 01 1.075 1.062
4 1.482
for concrete high-rise buildings. In Response of
1.241 1.121 1.082 1.061 1.048
3 1.360 1.180 1.091 1.062 1.045 1.036 Multistorey Concrete Structures to Lateral Forces.
2 1.241 1.123 1.062 1.041 1.032 1.024 Publication SP-36, American Concrete Institute, De-
l 1.121 1.062 1.031 1.023 1.015 1.012 troit, Michigan, 1973, pp. 61-74.
Formwork 7. Cowan, H.J. and Gero, J.5. Design of Building Frames.
5 1.093 1.074 1.055 1.038 1.020 1.017
4 1.071 1.058
Applied Science Publishers, London, 1976, p. 366.
1.039 1.025 1.017 1.012
3 1.057 1.040 1.022 1.018 1.013 1.009 8. ACI Committee 435. Allowable Deflections. ACI
2 1.039 1.024 1.019 1.013 1.009 1.006 Journal, Proceedings, Vol. 65, No.6, June 1968,
1 1.024 1.019 1.014 1.010 1.007 1.003 pp. 433-444.
9. Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors and Build-
ing Employers Confederation. Standard Method of
Measurement of Building Works, 7th edn, Lon-
don, 1988.
4 Flat Slab can be economical to use mild steel in lieu of high
yield steel reinforcement since the resulting higher
Systems
of this, at places where the difference in cost of high
yield steel and mild steel is negligible, the use of
the former can be considered by permitting lower
values of stresses in the design. The effects of the
column grid size, number of storeys, use of mild/
high yield steel reinforcement, location of structural
element, grade of concrete and provision of column
heads on the quantities of various constituents of
The effects of column grid size, number of sto- reinforced concrete construction using flat and waffle
reys, use of mild/high yield steel reinforcement, slabs have been studied in different grid sizes and
location of structural element, grade of concrete number of storeys ranging from 5 to 50 in denomina-
and provision of column heads in structural sys- tions of 5 storeys, and the results presented in the
tems on the quantities of various constituents of form of charts and statistical relationships.
reinforced concrete construction using flat slabs and
waffle slabs have been studied and presented in
the form of charts and mathematical equations. The 4.2 Structures, Loading and Analysis of
charts give relationships between the quantities of Frames
each of the constituents of reinforced concrete con-
struction, namely concrete, reinforcements and Three square grids, with sides of 6, 8 and 10m for
formwork, and each of the various parameters of structural schemes with flat slabs (Figure 4.1 a & b)
the structure. and with sides of 6.4, 8 and 10.4 m for those with
waffle slabs (Figure 4.2) were considered. The grid
sizes in the latter case were varied so as to accommo-
4.1 Introduction date the standard moulds available in the UK [2].
The analysis and design were carried out in ac-
A flat slab construction has many advantages over cordance with the limit state design proposed in British
the traditional beam and slab floor. It permits much Standard BS 8110: Part I: 1985, the service loads
simpler formwork and helps to reduce storey heights. being taken from British Code of Practice CP3, Chapter
Windows can extend up to the underside of the slab V, Parts 1 and 2: 1972. As in the previous chapter,
and there are no beams to obstruct the light and the all structures considered are for office floors. Dead
circulation of air. Further, unlike slab and beam con- loads of 1.2 kN/m 2 for finishes, 0.25 kN/m 2 for ceil-
struction, service ducts can run directly under the ing and 1.0 N/m 2 for light-weight partitions have been
flat slab in either direction without obstruction from considered in the design. A floor-to-floor height of
beams. It is also claimed that the absence of sharp 3.5 m was assumed.
corners gives greater fire resistance since there is less The assessment of wind load is in accordance with
danger of the concrete spalling and exposing the British Code of Practice CP3 incorporating a basic
reinforcement [1]. wind speed of 38 m/s in the context of London (UK).
In flat slab construction (Figure 4.1), slabs without As an alternative, a second case of ultimate hori-
drops are not common since they are more expensive zontal load equivalent to 1.5 per cent of the total
compared to those with drops. characteristic dead load was also considered from
Where standard forms are available, waffle slabs stability considerations (Section 3.1.4.2 of BS 8110).
which are lighter may provide a suitable alternative However, for the design of structural components,
to flat slabs. Though waffle slabs are about 40 per most severe forces due to the above loadings were
cent deeper than flat slabs, the reduction in con- considered and the results presented in this book
crete and steel quantities is considerable and where (Section 3.4.2). The statistical factors SI and S3 were
exposed, they are aesthetically appealing. taken to be 1.0 and the ground roughness factors S2
An important aspect in the design of flat and waffle at different heights were taken as for a country with
slab floors is the calculation of punching shear at many windbreaks. Load due to earthquake was not
the head of the columns and at the change in depth considered since London is free from such hazards.
of the slab, if drop panels are used. In this respect it Shear core sizes and allied information to deter-
63
64 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings
- 1 - - - - L _ _ _.....,~Jo
r--' r--,
~~-:-.--:--------:-._:~--;1
L. .. _~ L. __ .J
A
~
. . ---1
L
r--,
: :
r- -,
: :
L __ .J '- __ oJ
I I
.J...-- L ------J..
I. SLAB WITH DROP AND COLUMN b. SLAB WITH DROP AND COLUMN
WITH COLUMN HEAD WITHOUT COLUMN HEAD
c. SLAB WITHOUT DROP AND COLUMN d. SLAB WITHOUT DROP AND COLUMN
WITH COLUMN HEAD WITHOUT COLUMN HEAD
a. COLUMN WITH COLUMN HEAD
SECTION A-A
Computer programs were developed to design re- b. COLUMN WITHOUT COLUMN HEAD
inforced concrete flat and waffle slabs and columns
[3] with the additional capability of computing the
quantities of concrete, reinforcement and formwork. SECTION A-A
Characteristic strengths of 30 N/mm2, 250 N/mm 2 and
460 N/mm 2 were considered for concrete, hot rolled Figure 4.2 Waffle slab construction.
mild steel and high yield steel respectively.
4.3.1 Flat and Waffle Slabs drop panels in flat slabs were kept as half of the
corresponding dimensions of those of the slab panel.
Flat slabs and waffle slabs were designed with and
without column heads according to the empirical 4.3.2 Columns
method codified in BS 8110: Part I: 1985 (Section
3.7). The effect of the use of mild steel in lieu of Square column sections were considered in denomina-
high yield steel in flat slabs was studied, maintain- tions of 75 mm keeping 400 x 400 mm as the mini-
ing the provision of high yield steel reinforcement in mum section. After every 5-storey intervals, the sections
columns in both cases. The width and thickness of of columns were reduced where possible for economy,
Flat Slab and Waffle Slab Systems 65
-
~ 0.28
ture be provided by shear walls designed to resist 9u... 10 x 10 MS
all the lateral forces, hence the latter were designed u...
likewise. A minimum thickness of 150 mm was con- oE 026
.
sidered from practical considerations and the forces go 8X8 HY
obtained from the analysis were taken for the design E 0.24
along with other parameters as discussed in Section
3.3.4.
~
:>
....
~
-
~ 0.22 8X8 MS
u
z
4.4 Quantities of Constituents 8
0.20
6X6 HY
The relationships between the number of storeys and Figure 4.3 Quantities of concrete in slabs, for flat
quantities per square metre of floor area for an in- slab construction, using mild steel
terior panel are shown in Figures 4.3 to 4.6 for con- (MS)/high yield steel (HY)
crete, formwork and reinforcement respectively in flat reinforcement (for schemes both with
slab using mild steel and alternatively high yield steel and without column heads).
reinforcement. The quantities of reinforcement are
affected by the provision of column heads or flares,
so these quantities were computed both with and 4.11 respectively for different grid sizes and storeys
without column heads but maintaining the same slab of construction. The quantities of reinforcement were
thickness. studied both with and without column heads while
The location of the slab panel affects the quantity keeping the same slab thickness.
of reinforcement in it. The quantities were therefore The quantities of reinforcement for an exterior panel
computed for exterior slab panels using both mild using waffle slabs both with and without column heads
steel and high yield steel reinforcement and the re- are shown in Figure 4.12.
sults are shown in Figure 4.7 and 4.8 for flat slabs
with and without column heads respectively. 4.4.3 Columns
4.4.2 Waffle Slabs The relationships between the number of storeys and
the quantities per square metre of floor area for dif-
Having established the effect, on quantities, of the ferent grid sizes in interior columns are shown in
use of mild steel in lieu of high yield steel re- Figures 4.13 to 4.17 for flat slabs, and similar results
inforcement in flat slabs (Section 4.4.1) it was not are shown in Figures 4.18 to 4.21 for waffle slab
considered worthwhile to repeat the calculations for construction.
waffle slabs since similar differences were expected. The effects of the grade of concrete on quantities
Hence, the use of high yield steel reinforcement was of constituents for different grid sizes and number of
considered for waffle slabs. The quantities per unit storeys in interior columns using flat slabs (without
area for an interior panel, for concrete, formwork column heads) are shown in Figures 4.22 to 4.31.
and reinforcement, are illustrated in Figures 4.9 to Similar results for exterior columns are shown in
66 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings
1.032
1.030
INTERIOR PANEL
1.028
1.026
1.02 4~
1.02
~'\ ~
2~
~
~ 1.02 Ot\: ~'\ ~
8...... 1.018 \
~ 1'.'\ ~
l!; 1.01 6
r\ ~'\ ~ l"'\
E
Ii
1\" r\.~ ~ 1"'-
"
1.01 4
!'E 1.01 2
'\ ~~
~ "- GRID 1m' STEEL'
\ '\ ~~ "-
"- '\l\ ,
'"
111 1.01 0
~
::Ii 1.008 '\ '\ ~ ~ 6x6 HY
~
... 1.006
1,\
6x6 MS
,~
1.004 ~ 8x8 HY
\
~
10 x 10 HY
1.00 2
1.000
\ 8x8 MS
6x 6 HY
5.0
* MS Mild steel
HY High yield steel
0.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
36.0
INTERIOR PANEL
32.0
«
w
2a.o GRID (m) STEEL*
IE:
«
IE:
0 10x 10 MS
0 24.0
....I
u..
u..
0
E 20.0
c-
UI
axa MS
Ci
~ 16.0
I-
zw
10 x 10 HY
~
w 6x6 MS
u 12.0
IE:
0
u.. axa HY
Z
W
IE: a.o
6x6 HY
4.0
* MS Mild steel
HY High yield steel 45.0
0.0
I
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 EXTERIOR PANEL
NUMBER OF STOREYS 40.0
g
i - axa MS
20.0
!zw 10 x 10 HY
~
w
~ 15.0 6x6 MS
f2z axa HY
W
IE: 10.0
6x6 HY
5.0
* MS Mild steel
HY High yield steel
0.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.32
GRID (ml
0.29
0.27
0(
w
!f 0.26
Ie
§ 0.25
u..
~ 0.24
E
~ 0.23
E
.2 0.22
8.0 x 8.0
~ 0.2 1
Ie
u
z 0.20
o
u
0.19
0.18
0.1 7
0.16
36.0 6.4. x 6.4
0.15
EXTERIOR PANEL
0.14
32.0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
GRID (m) STEEL * NUMBER OF STOREYS
«
w
28.0
a: Figure 4.9 Quantities of concrete in slabs for
« 10 x 10 MS
waffle slab construction (for schemes
a:
0
0
-oJ
24.0 without column heads).
u..
u..
0
E 20.0 8X8 MS
e-
li)
Ci
:!! 16.0
I- 10 x 10 HY
zw
~ 6x6 MS
w
u 12.0
a:
0 8X8 HY
u..
Z
jjj
a: 8.0
6x6 HY
4.0
• MS Mild steel
HY High yield steel
0.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
14.0
I
INTERIOR PANEL
-
13.0 GRID (m) STEEL *
"- ~ ~
--.. ~
--.. "-
~ 12.0 10.4 x 10.4 WCH
a:
<
a:
o
o 11.0
....I
~ 10.4 x 10.4 CH
~
o
E 10.0
g
-a
::!! f-., ~
9.0 ""'1'-...,
I-
Z
w h '-...,
h h
-
~
w '-..., 8x8 WCH
u 8.0 -., ~
a:
0 '"- 8x8 CH
z
~
1.00
6.0
* CH Column head
~~~
INTERIOR PANEL
WCH Without column
0.99 head
5.0
I": ~
~ ~~ TOTAL QUANTITIES
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
~.9 8
~~~, GRIO 1m)
........
~
~~
6.4 x 6.4
8x8
Figure 4.11 Quantities of reinforcement in slabs
~ 0.97
10.4 x 10.4 for waffle slab construction with (CH)
~ and without (WCH) column heads -
II:
interior panel.
9
u.
0.9
~
u. ~
o
E
~ 0.80
E PORTION WITH
,g 0.7 0
WAFFLES
'"~ 0.6
~
§ ,
II:
~
0.2 5
t!!!oo. PORTION WITH
0.2 4 SOLID SLAB
o.~ 3
~
~ t;::: t-- ~ GRID 1m)
6.4 x 6.4
0.2 2
~
~ t::::: 8x8
10.4 x 10.4
0.2 1
0.2 0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
15.0
EXTERIOR PANEL
14.0 GRID (m) STEEL *
~
~ 10......,
10......,
~ 10......,
< 13.0
"'"- 10.4 x 10.4 WCH
w
II:
<
II:
812.0
......
....I
10.4 x 10.4 CH
o
E 11.0
-
g
]i ........,
;:: 10.0
Z ~~
w ~ 10......,
~
W r--. r--.. 8.0 x 8.0 WCH
~ 9.0
...
o
z
.........
~~
10......,
iii ~
8.0 x 8.0 CH
II: 8.0
~ 6.4 x 6.4 WCH
6.4 x 6.4 CH
7.0
• CH Column head
WCH Without column
head
6.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 GRID Iml
0.10 5
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.100
to x 10
0.09 5
Figure 4.12 Quantities of reinforcement in slabs
for waffle slab construction with (CH) 0.09 V
and without (WCH) column heads - 0.08 5 I 8 x 8
exterior panel.
0.080
/ /
/
~
II:
0.Q7 5 / 6x6
/
<{
II:
o I /
...g 0.Q7 0
o 0.06 5
/ / I
E
/ j
/
~ 0.060
Q
E
0.05 5
/ V/
~ / /
j
Vj /'
0.050
II:
u
/ V//
~ 0.045
u
0.040
0.03 5
VI V
0.03 0 / ~
0.02 5 / //
0.02
/~
01(/
0.01 5
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.40
0.38
0.36
I
0.34
0.32
«
w 6 x 6
a::
« 0.30
.....-:
a::
0
0 0.28 /'
....J
u.
u.
0 0.26
/
E / 8 x 8
0" 0.24
~
E V ./
,/'
0.22
. . .V ",V
0"
!!
><
a::
0
;;::
0.20
y V V
10 x 10
/
,/ /V 0.4 0
0.12
/ ,/'
0.10 /' 0.38
;"
0.3 4
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS 0.3 2
«
w 6 x 6
~ 0.3 0
/'
0.06
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
40. 0
10 x 10
/
/
35. 0
«
w 8x8
a::
« 30. 0 I
I J /I
a::
9
LI- 6x6
J
~V
LI-
o 25.0
E V
I
I-
'"
:!!
20.0 /
z
w
~ /
~ '/
:::!:
~
a::
~V
~ 15.0
z
W
a::
5.0
,.,j ~~ 40.0
~
0.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 35.0
NUMBER OF STOREYS
« 10 x 10
/
w
a::
«
30.0
V
a::
0
Figure 4.16 Quantities of reinforcement in interior 0
8x8
/ I
-'
columns for flat slab construction LI-
\.L.
0
without column heads (with high :::!: 25.0
V
///
yield reinforcement in slabs). 0
6x6
~
(.'l
~
20.0
./ /
I-
~/
Z
w
:::!:
w
u
a::
0 15.0 I
~V
Ll-
z
W
~V
a::
10.0
V
5.0
f; ~
"f""
~
0.0
5 10 15 20 25 o 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.08 5
/
/1 8.0 x 8.0 WCH
0.080 / ! '/
«
w I
~/
~
a;
o
0.07 5
0.07
I,- j/V 6.4 x 6.4 CH
~
a 0.06 5
//
J / // 6.4 x 6.4 WCH
~ 0.060
/ 11/ / /V
~, 0.05 5
I
If V / / V
u
~ 0.050
I / / / 1'/
w
a;
~ 0.04
/ I /. ./
/
o .II (/ /
u
0.04
o / Ij
0.035 i / /
0.03 oL ~ / /
V
• CH With column heads
WCH Without column heads
0.02
J1/- ./
5 "
0.02
0
~
0.Q1 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.3 4
0.3 2
~
~ 0.30
6.4)( 6.4 CH
a;
o " 6.4 X 6.4 WCH
~ 0.2 8
/
o 0.2 6
/ ~ B.O 8.0 CH
// .-'" ....-'
X
E
.g 0.2 4
./ 8.0 X 8.0 WCH
E 0.2 2
/'" / 1,.../
/"
,/
~
'" -;:-- V
--
." ~
~ 0.2 0
.,/ .... 10.4 X 10.4 CH
~;'
~ 01 8
/ /" .... 10.4 X 10,4 WCH
a;
~ V /- /-
V
."..,.,
0.1 6
1 ...-: V' /f-'
0.1 4
.... I'
0.1 2 / ~ *CH With column heads
0.1
0/
0.08
6
0.0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
'oo 30 N/oq mm I
40.0
10.4 x 10.4
35. 0
/
~
~ 30.0
/ 8.0 x 8.0
/ /
~ / I
~ 25 8.4 x 8.4
E
/ / /
I!z 20
,I /
V/
V
/
Ii
III '/
:I /
~
J / /
u//
~ 15.0
z /
iii
II:
/
/1
/
/~
/'
/ r-
10.0
II
~>
v'
/.
/'
Ii.o~
I~ ~/
8 .0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 ~
45.0
NUMBER OF STOREYS
I I I I
'oo 30 N/aq mm 1
40.0 GRID em. Figure 4.21 Quantities of reinforcement in interior
columns for waffle slab construction
with column heads.
3&.0
10.4 x 10.4
l0V '/
II:
~
~ 2&.0
~ /
E 8.4 x 8.4
!
itz J J
tIV
20.0
V
VJ
III
:I
~...z 15.0
VV
~V V
iii
II:
10.0 /
~
5.o ~ ~V
~
0.05
w ~ 20 ~ 30 3& 40 45 ~
NUMBER OF STOREYS
GRADE OF
0.1 CONCRETE
IN/8q mm)
GRID 1m) 8)( 8 I
0.09 30
0.08
/ 35
I~ ~
40
r;
~
~ 0.07
L~
a:
9
LL
~ 0.0
V
L~
E
IE
" 0.05
.e
~a:
li
8
0.04 ~~
0.03 ~~
V
2~ ~
"
0.0
o.1
I
GRID 1m) 8)( 8 I GRADE OF
CONCRETE 1
INJoq mm) 0.0 5 10 15 20 26 30 35 40 45 60
o
NUMBER OF STOREYS
If II
a:: V 40 without column heads. Grid (m)
...o~ 0
8 x 8.
~/
E
IE
! 0.06
~
VV
f/
8~ 0.0
o A eV
o.02 ~~
~
o.01
6 10 15 20 25 30 36 40 46 60
NUMBER OF STOREYS
GRADE OF
CONCRETE
(N/sq mm)
30
/
0.1 0 - GRADE (m) 10 x 10
35
/ I;
0.0
40
/ (;
0.0
;:I J /
fj
~ 0.07
~
a:
o
o
.....
u..
0.06
/
V
~
~
E
"
~ 0.05 I
V
I~
I!:!
w
a:
~ 0.0 4
/; ~
o
u
~V
0.03
36.0 GRADE OF
CONCRETE
(N/sq mm)
GRADE (m) 6 x 6 I
0.0
32.0
0.0 1
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 28. 0
NUMBER OF STOREYS
..: 30
/
w
a:
~ 24.0
I
o
Figure 4.24 Effect of grade of concrete on o.....
quantities of concrete in interior
... 35
~ ~
V V
40
columns for flat slab construction E 20.0
~
w
U
a:
~ 12.0
~~
Z
iii
a:
8.0 /.
I
V
4.0 /~
~v
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
36.0 GRADE OF
CONCRETE
GRID (m) 8 x 8 I (N/oq mm)
32.0
30
28.0
J
V 35
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a: 40
9
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8.0
4. O~
V
~ GRADE OF
CONCRETE
36 (N/lq mm)
30
I
0.0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 GRID (m) 10 x 10 I
NUMBER OF STOREYS
32
'IT 35
I~ / V
24 .0
a:
8 x 8.
9
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rl V
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I
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5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
36 .0
GRID (m) 6 x 6 1
32 .0
28 .0 GRADE OF
CONCRETE
(N/sq mm)
«
w
a:
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o
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0.42 GRIO (m) GRADE OF
CONCRETE
~
0.40 (N/sq mm)
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0.38
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.36
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E /.
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v-: V
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NUMBER OF STOREYS
36.0 GRADE OF
i CONCRETE
GRID (m) 10 x 10 I (N/sq mm)
/
32.0
30
35
V/
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4.
32.0 GRADE OF
CONCRETE
V
(N/sq mm)
o. 0 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
28.0 30
j
NUMBER OF STOREYS
«
w
y
a:: 35
« 24.0 Figure 4.31 Effect of grade of concrete on
a::
~
0
0
...J
quantities of reinforcement in interior
LL
LL 40 columns for flat slab construction
0 20.0
/
without column heads (using mild
I~~
E
~
C'
steel in flat slab). Grid (m) lOx 10.
~
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f- 16.0
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LL
12.0 /
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4.0 ...--:: ~~
~
0.05 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
Figures 4.32 to 4.40 and for corner columns in Figures 0.055 GRID (m)
4.41 to 4.49.
The effects of grade of concrete on quantities of
t," 35 N/sq mm l 10 x 10
V
~ 0.04 0
«
c
I
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7
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0.1 2 GRID (m)
10 x 10
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too 30 N/sq m m 0.02 0
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II
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0.1 1
V 0.01
~
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0.1 0 / V
/ 8 x 8
/ ;. 0.01 0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
V
0.0 9 NUMBER OF STOREYS
«
w V
/
0::
« 6 x 6 Figure 4.33 Quantities of concrete in exterior
/
/ /I V
~ 0.0 8 columns for flat slab construction
o...J
...... without column heads: 35 N/mm 2 •
o
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V'/ / .I
E 0.0 7
~ V
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2
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l/
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0.03 L~
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5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
40 .0
GRID IMI
'00 30 N/sq m m I
10 x 10
/
36.0
//
32 .0
8 x 8
///
28 .0
w 6 x 6
a:
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GRID Iml a:
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I
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0.050 10 x 10
~
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«
w / O. a
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
./ I
~ 0.040 8 x 8 NUMBER OF STOREYS
o
a:
(!)
u. Figure 4.35 Quantities of reinforcement in
V V[7 V
o 0.035 6 x 6
E exterior columns for flat slab
.g construction without column heads:
E / ) 30 N/mm 2 •
Vf/V
~ 0.030
LU
[7
f-
LU
a:
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/ V
0.025
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0.020
V
0.Q15
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0.Q1°5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
f," 35 N/sq mm I
10 x 10
II
16. 0
8 x8
II V
14.0
<
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V V
~ 12. 0
6 x 6
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c
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18. 0 GRID 1m)
2.0 ~/ 16. 0
f," 40 N/sq mm 1
14. 0 10 x 10
/
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
<
w 8x8
/ 7/
Figure 4.36 Quantities of reinforcement in ~ 12. 0
c
exterior columns for flat slab a:t!l 6x6
construction without column heads: IL
) J
~tI
o 10.0
35 N/mm 2 , E 7
!
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l/
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0.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
o. 55
'" 30 N/sq mm I
o. 50
6x6
o. 45
V
V
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~ O. 40
V
V
II:
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9
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V
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10 x 10
V
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II:
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f,. 35 N/sq mm I
0.2 50
0.1 0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.2 25
f/ 6x6
'"
II:
~
V V
V
V
V
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V V ..
1
/
o
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0.05 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.045
feu 30 N/sq mm 1
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10 x 10
)
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5 10 15 20 25 o 35 40 45 50
". 40 N/sq mm l
0.2 50
Figure 4.41 Quantities of concrete in corner
columns for flat slab construction
without column heads: 30 N/mm 2 .
0.2 25
6x6
/
~ 0.2
/
!Ii
o /
a:
Cl
V
V
~ 0.1 75
E
V V 8 x 8
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/
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0.0505
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.04
'" 40 N/sq mm J
0.040
0.03 5
GRID (m)
<{
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o
a: 10 x 10
...o
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C"
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0.0 0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0.04 5
NUMBER OF STOREYS
'" 35 N/sq mm I
0.04 0 Figure 4.43 Quantities of concrete in corner
columns for flat slab construction
GRID (m)
without column heads: 40 N/mm 2 .
0.03 5
<{
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o 10 x 10
a:
(!)
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6 x 6
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0.00
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5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
12. 0
10 x 10
1/'
10 .0
9 .0
//
8 x 8
I II I
8. 0
«
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a:
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10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
i
E
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:I / /
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5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
12.0
11.0
'" 40 N/sq mm I
10.0
«
w
a:
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c
a: 10 x 10
Cl
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0 7.0 /
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5.0 /
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u
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4.0
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2.0 ~~ 0.18
V
1.0 ~
V
~ 0.17
0.16
- '" 30 N/sq mm
GRID (m)
0.0 0.15
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS 0.14 / 6x 6
/.
V
0.13
Figure 4.46 Quantities of reinforcement in corner «
w
a:
columns for flat slab construction « 0.12
><
:5 0.07 V /'
V
v
/'
~
~
a: 0.06 /' V
0 V V
IL
0.05 ./
0.04
V
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.13 6 x 6
<{
w
a: V
<( 0.12 /"
'/
C
a: 0.11
V
l!)
LL
0
A ../ 8 x 8
E 0.10
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,/
C"
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V v
C"
~ 0.08 ./' V 10 x 10
~
a:
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V /" /
V
~ f"'"
::!:
a: 0.06
0
V /
LL
../
V ./
./'
0.05
0.04
.,,/V
0.03
0.1 8
0.02
0.1 7 - f" 35 N/sq m m
0.01
GRID (m)
0.1 6
0.00
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0.1 <
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.1 4 6 x 6
0.1 3
. . .V Figure 4.49 Quantities of formwork in corner
<(
w ./ columns for flat slab construction
~ 0.1 2 / without column heads: 40 N/mm 2 .
C
a: 0.1 1 L
V
l!)
V
LL 8 x 8
o
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C"
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10 x 10
E
C"
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a:
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::!:
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.,/
LL
V ./
0.0 5
V
0.0 4
0.0 3
0.0 2
0.0 1
0.00
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STORE'yS
GRADE OF
0.10 CONCRETE
(N/sq mm)
GRID (m) 8 x 8 J
1/
0.09 30
35
.1~
0.08
40
«
w
VjI;
0.07
V
II:
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0
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u..
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C'
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f-
w
II:
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z
~~
0
u
GRADE OF
0.10 CONCRETE
f
0.03
1/
o
~ 35 quantities of concrete in interior
o 0.06
(!)
columns for waffle slab construction
40
~/
E without column heads. Grid (m)
C'
8.0 x 8.0.
~
~
E /
V
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~ V
~
w
f-
w
II:
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y::
U
z 0.04
o
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0.03 ~~
;/
0.02 ~~
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0.01
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
GRADE OF
CONCRETE
0.10 (N/sq mm)
/
30
GRID (m) 10.4 x 10.4 I
0.09
35
//
r;
40
0.08
«
w
II:
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V
/ V~
II:
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0
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LL
LL
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E
C"
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0.05
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f-
w
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z 0.04
V
~
0
u
36.0 GRADE OF
I CONCRETE
I; ~
32.0
0.02
'/
28.0
0.01
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
«
w
II:
« 30
/
NUMBER OF STOREYS 24.0
II:
0
0
...J
Figure 4.52 /
LL
Effect of grade of concrete on LL
35
0 20.0
quantities of concrete in interior V
V/ ~
E
columns for waffle slab construction ~
C" 40
C>
without column heads. Grid (m) ~
/ V
f-
16.0
10.4 x 10.4. zw
/ A~
::!:
w
U
II:
0 12.0
V
~
LL
z
l0~
W
II:
8.0
~~
~
4.0
;:;.-""
~
0.0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
36.0 GRADE OF
CONCRETE
GRID 1m) 8 x 8 I IN/sq mm)
32.0
30
28.0 J
4: V 35
/
w
a:
4: 24.0 J
a:
0
0 VV 40
/ / /
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LL
LL
VVV
0 20.0
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C'
g
~
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I- 16.0
z
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w
U
a:
L
I;;~
0
V
LL
12.0
z
W GRADE OF
a: CONCRETE
36. 0
I I
(N/sq mm)
I
8.0 30
I
~ ~ /
GRID (m) 10.4 x 10.4
~
/
32. 0
4.0
V 35
J J
VV
28 .0
0.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
4: 40
NUMBER OF STOREYS w
a:
4: I / )
VV
24 .0
~/
a:
0
Figure 4.54 Effect of grade of concrete on 0
:;V
...J
J
LL
quantities of reinforcement in interior LL
0 20
columns for waffle slab construction E
without column heads. Grid (m) C'
I
~
8.0 x 8.0. ~
V
I- 16.0
z
!J ~
w
::;;
w
u
a::
0
LL 12 .0
(IV
V
Z
~
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a::
8 .0
V
4 .o~ ~
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5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
I NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.1 2
0.1 0
0.0 9
GRADE OF
«w CONCRETE
ex:
« 0.08 IN/sq mml
ex:
o
30
~ 35
~ 0.0 7
~~
E 40
cr
~ 0.06
V /
.....ww 0.0 5 .L ~~
VV
~~
ex:
u
~ 0.0 4
u
V
0.0 3 ~~
V
0.0 2~ ~
0.0 1
0.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
...--:: ~ V
w
a:
« 0.24 8.0 x 8.0 30
0
,/
a:
~ 0.22
/' ~ 35
V /" ~ ~
40
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E
v 10.4 x 10.4 30
.g 0.18
~ V /. ~ V
35
E ~~
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40
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0.10
0.08
~
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.0 0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.12
35
J /
7
/
0.09
40
..:
w
/ /
jj /
II:
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II:
0
0
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u. 0.07
/
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0
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V
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0
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0.02
0.1 2
0.01
GRID Iml 8.0 x 8.0 I
0.1 1
GRADE OF
CONCRETE 0.00
IIN/sq mml 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0.1 0
NUMBER OF STOREYS
30
0.09
..: 35
Figure 4.59 Effect of grade of concrete on
w )1),
II:
quantities of concrete in interior
~/
..: 0.0 8
II:
o 40 columns for waffle slab construction
g
0.0 7 / with column heads. Grid (m)
,/C07
LL.
U.
o
E
10.4 x 10.4.
0' 0.0 6
~ ./
w 0.0 5
~~
./~
0-
w
II:
U
~
is 0.0 4
~
~
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0.0 3/
~
0.0 2
0.0 1
0.0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
45 .0
35 .0 .- -
«
w
~ 30 .0 GRADE OF
a: CONCRETE
o (N/sq mm)
o....I
o
u..
25. 0 30
~
~
E
C"
Cl
20. 0 /
V 35
/
V ~~
I- 40
Z
w
::!:
w
u
15 15. 0
u..
z ./ ~
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a:
10. 0
V~
~~
~
45. 0
~ 40. 0
~
O.
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 35. 0 GRADE OF
CONCRETE
NUMBER OF STOREYS
(N/sq mm)
«
w
a:
« I 30
Figure 4.60 Effect of grade of concrete on 30. 0
V
a:
o
quantities of reinforcement in interior o
....I
i
;
u.. 35
columns for waffle slab construction u..
o 25. 0 J
with column heads. Grid (m) E / V
//V
6.4 x 6.4. ~
C" 40
~'"
I- 20. 0
z
/
~~
w
::!:
w
u
a:
J
V
~ 15
~~
Z
W
a: I
~
10 .0
y
5. ~~
o~ y I
o. 0 I
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
45.0
35.0
30
<{
w
~ 30.0 /
/
a:
o
o...J I I I
VIJr
U. 35
~ 25. 0 J 40
E
C"
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V V
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w
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u.
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W
a:
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~ 0.42
5.
o~
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0.40 f-.--
0.38
GRID (m) 6.4 x 6.4
0.36
o. 0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 0.34 GRADE OF
CONCRETE
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.32 (N/sq mm)
<{ I
w
a:
<{ 0.30
Figure 4.62 Effect of grade of concrete on a:
30
~ ~V
with column heads. Grid (m) !
E ,
10.4 x 10.4. C" 0.24
~
E
~- ~V
0.22
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C"
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v
:;:
~ 0.18
~~
a:
0
IV
u.
0.16
I I
1 ,
0.14
0.12
0.10 I
~
0.08 I--- t-- i
0.06
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.4 2
0.38
0.3 6
0.3 4
0.32
«
w
~ 0.30
a:
o
9 0.28
LL
~ 0.26 GRADE OF
CONCRETE
E (N/sq mm)
~ 0.24
E
.,. 0.22
.!! 30
~ 0.20 35
~::!! 0.18
~ l.:::::: ~ 40
V
~~~
a:
o
u.. 0.1 6
0.14
.........::: ~ ~V
0.42
0.12
~~
0.40 - GRID (m) 8.0 x 8.0
0.10
0.38
0.08
0.36
0.06
0.34 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
«
w
0.32
~ GRADE OF
a:
o
0.30
CONCRETE
Figure 4.65 Effect of grade of concrete on
o (N/sq mm) quantities of formwork in interior
it 0.28
...o columns for waffle slab construction
30
E 0.26
.,. ..,...-1
/< 35
with column heads. Grid (m)
~ 0.24 10.4 x 10.4.
V
40
~~
E
~ 0.22
..:
a:
o 0.20 V ~~
~ ../ ~ ~V
...
~ 0.18
~
V
0.16 ./ ~
V
0.14 ~
0.12
0.10
0.08
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
GRID (m)
0.055
f~ 35 N/sq mm I
0.050
10.4 x 10.4
)
0.045
/
..:
Ii!
/ 8.0 x 8.0
/ //
0.040
..:
Cl
0:
<!l
6.4 x 6.4
V/ 7 /
~ 0.035
E
~
E I /'
/ VV
V
0.030
~
V
'"
~
w
0:
U j
z 0.02 5
o
/ /
/
u
/ i/
/ 1/'
0.02 0
0.01 5 j /
0.01 0
~~
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0.055 GRID (m)
NUMBER OF STOREYS
1 10.4 10.4
/
X
feu 30 N/sq mm
Figure 4.67 Quantities of concrete in exterior
0.050
7 columns for waffle slab construction
) 8.0 X 8.0
without column heads: 35 N/mm 2 •
/ 7
0.045
..:
Ii!
7
0.040
..:
V1.;
Cl
0:
...
<!l
) J
6.4 X 6.4
V/
o 0.035
E /
~
E
V
VV /
~ 0.030
'"
w
....
w
0:
U
15
) J
V) /
0.025
u V
/
V
0.020
V
0.015 I ~~
V
~
0.010
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.05 5
10.4 x 10.4
V
0.04 5
«
::! 0.040 -'-
«
o
a:
V 8.0 x 8.0
<!l
~ 0.035 / /
/ .; V
E V
~
E 6.4 x 6.4
I
" 0.030
~
~ V
w
a::
u / /
V/
Z 0.025
/
o
u
/ /
VV
0.020
V
0.015 VV V V
0.010
~~ GRID 1m)
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 18.0
~
Figure 4.68 Quantities of concrete in exterior
columns for waffle slab construction
without column heads: 40 N/mm 2 . 14.0 J
«w
«
a::
12.0 1 ~V .1.
6.4 x 6.4
~/
0
a:
...<!l
0
I
/ V/
E 10.0
C"
~
~
:; V
....Z 8.0
w
J~ /
:;;
w
u
a::
~
V/ ~
6.0
Z
W
a::
eV
4.0 l~
2.f)
0.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
18.0
10.4 x 10.4
)
V
14. 0
8.0 x 8.0
<
w
II:
< 12 .0 I
VV
"a:
...0CI 6.4 x 6.4
VV I V
E 10.0
.,.
~
g
I /
V
!zw 8 .0
V
:;
w
U
:§ ) / /
~
iii
6.n
~ VV
~v/
II:
.0
.O/,
I v~V
o.0 18.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 4 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
'" 40 N/sq mm I
16
GRID 1m)
Figure 4.70 Quantities of reinforcement in
exterior columns for waffle slab
construction without column heads: 14.0
10.4 x 10.4
II
35 N/mm 2 • <
W
II:
< 12 .0
8.0 x 8.0
a:CI"
...o
E 10
// 6.4 x 6.4
!zw I~ I / L
V/
8 .0
:; V
w
~
U
II:
o
~ 6
'/ V
~ /'
iii
II:
/-
V
4. 0
V
'v
~0#
o
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
f", 35 N/sq mm I
0.2 50
0.2 25
6.4 x 6.4
<
w
a: 0.2 00
<
V
c V
0:
CJ
LL
0 0.1 75 /
V
8.0 x 8.0
V
E
~
'" V /
! 0.1 50 / --
V V
/v
10.4 x 10.4
'"a:0
/' /.
~
:;
a: 0.1 25 / V
0 /'
/ V
/
LL
0.1 00
V V
V V
V V
0.07 /
V
0.0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0.27 5 GRID 1m)
NUMBER OF STOREYS
f" 30 N/sq mm I
0.250
Figure 4.73 Quantities of formwork in exterior
columns for waffle slab construction
without column heads: 35 N/mm 2 .
0.22 5
6.4 x 6.4
< V
VV
~ 0.200
<
c
0:
V
CJ 8.0 x 8.0
LL
o 0.17 5 L
E
V /
r'"
~
!
E
0.15 0
/V V 10.4 x 10.4
/'
V /
~
'"
a:
:; 0.12 5 V V VV
/"
/
a:
./ V V
oLL V
V ./
°v V
0.10
0.07
VV
0.05
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.045
fw 30 N/sq mm I
0.040
GRID (m)
0.03 5
~
c B.O X B.O
/
iE
(!l
o 0.025
E
Y.
~
/~ /'
6.4 x 6.4
yV V
E
~ 0.02 0
£
~V
~
w
a:
u
~V
~ 0.01 5
V
u
0.01 0 / V
~ ~
0.00 5
~V
0.00
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0.27 5 NUMBER OF STOREYS
feu 40 N/sq mm I
0.250 Figure 4.75 Quantities of concrete in corner
columns for waffle slab construction
without column heads: 30 N/mm 2 ,
0.22 5 GRID (m)
..:
~ 0.20 0 6.4 X 6.4
..:
c V
iE
...o
(!l V
0.17 5 /'
E
V V
B.O X B.O
~
E )/ /'
!
""o
0.150
VV /' 10.4 X 10.4
/V V
II:
~ :,/' /.
~ 0.12 5
...o V V
V V
~
0.10
v/ /
V
,/
V
/
/
0.07
\./
0.05 0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
o.04
f.. 35 N/sq mm I
o.040
o.036
GRID Im(
00(
::!
00(
0.0
c 10.4 x 10.4
ii:
CI
o
IL
O.02 / 8.0 x 8.0
~V
.,.
E
..!!!.
8.4 x 8.4
E / L
0.020
V/
"
,g
~
a::
8 o.
U
016 / ~/
V
o.010 ~~
/.
~
~V
o.00·
~~
o
5 10 15 20 26 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS 0.04
f.. 40 N/sq mm I
Figure 4.76 Quantities of concrete in corner 0.040
i
GRID Im(
0.03
c
ii:
,.
V ;:,
CI 10.4 x 10.4
~ 0.02
.,.
E 8.0 x 8.0
..!!!.
E
" 0.02
V 8.4 x 8.4
~~ /
,g
~
W
II:
U
/
0.01 5
~V V
~
u
0.01 A ~ /'
~ V
0.005
~ ~
0.000 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
12.00
feu 30 N/sq mm I
11.00 GRID (m)
10.00
10.4 X 10.4
9.00 /
..: / 8.0 X 8.0
/
w
a: /
..: 8.00
0
a:
...0
(!) /; /
6.4 6.4
V
7.00 X
/
~
E
~ 6.00
~
....z
w 5.00
/; / /
;)/ / /
::;:
w
u
a:
~ 4.00
z '/ ."
/~ ,/
W
a:
3.00
2.00 h ~/ V
1.00 ~~
0.00
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS 12.0
feu 35 N/sq mm j
11.0
Figure 4.78 Quantities of reinforcement in corner
columns for waffle slab construction 10.0 GRID (m)
~
E
C"
6.0
1//
/
J~ /
6.4 6.4
~ X
....
zw 5.0
/ ~ /
::;:
w
u
a:
~ /
Vj V V
4.0
z
iii V
a:
~/ V
3.0
V
2.0
/,
~, /
1.0 ~ /'
,./
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.1 8
0.1 6
0.1 4
LL
o 0.1 0 V /.
!
E
0.09 ~
/' / 10.4 x 10.4
E
./ ./
V ,/
! ./
V
0.0
/V ,/"
""a::
VV
0.0
~
~ 0.06
7/
/
V
~
0.0 5
. . . .V V
V
0.0 4/
0.0 3
0.0 2
0.0 1
0.00
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
12.0 NUMBER OF STOREYS
fw 40 N/sq mm I
11.0
Figure 4.81 Quantities of formwork in corner
10.0
columns for waffle slab construction
without column heads: 30 N/mm 2 •
9.0
GRID (m)
«w
It:
« 8.0
c
1C
c:> 10.4 x 10.4
7.0
:5
.,.E
;g, 6.0
/ 8.0 x 8.0
'"
:!
....
/ /
z / / 6.4 x 6.4
V/ /
w 5.0
::<
w
/
U
It:
0 4.0 /
l0/ V
LL
Z
iii
It:
3.0
("
~ ~V
V
2.0
V
~
1.0 r? . /
,/'
0.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.1 8
0.1 6
0.1 5
0.1 3
~ 6.4 x 8.4
V
0:: 0.1 2
«
c ./
iii: 0.1 1
...o
C)
0.1 0
V V'
8.0 x 8.0
E V 1/
./
~
E
0.0
V ./
V
! 10.4 x 10.4
V
0.08 i.-'"
V
/
:w:
~~
0.0
0.06
7v ../
V
V
V
V
... ./
V V
0.05
0.04
V "'"
0.03
0.0 2
0.0 1
0.00
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
o. 18 NUMBER OF STOREYS
o. 17 f--- f~ 35 Nlsq mm
"
It: 0.07
V
V ./
V
./
V
~ V ./
V
~ 0.06
o...
0.0 5
vV' ./
V
0.0 4 . /V
0.0 3
0.0 2
0.0 1
0.0
5 10 15 20 2~ 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
Constituent Quantities o. 0 / ~v
o. 02 ~ ~
The effect of different numbers of spans on constitu-
ent quantities for structures using flat and waffle slabs o. 01 ~~
is similar to that discussed in the previous chapter. o.0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Thus the multiplying factors shown in Tables 3.2 and NUMBER OF STOREYS
3.3 to adjust the constituent quantities for columns
and shear walls can be used, if required.
Figure 4.84 Quantities of concrete in shear walls
for flat or waffle slab construction.
4.6 Effect of Number of Shopping Floors
o.80 GRID(m,
o
o.75
o.7 )
c 0
I
II!
c 0.80 J / 8)(8
~ V jV/ 10)( 10
9 0.E
II.
V VV ~
/V
.EA
V
.4
/ V. V
.... )j~ Y'
~V
-
o.211 ~V
;;.-'
o.20 ./ ~
o. 15 ~
o.10
o.05
o.0
6 10 III 20 25 30 311 40 45 50
18.0 GRID 1m)
NUMBER OF STOREYS
cW 8)(8
II:
l7~
~ 12
10)( 10
v, 1/
l!; 10.0
~Cl
E
~
g
I- 8 .0
z
~~
w
~
~
V
~ 8
~
z
iii
II:
4.0
/
2.0
~~
~~
o.0 5 10 15 20 26 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
References
I
18 GRID 1m)
I
LOADING 1.2(Gk + Q k + W;')
"*Horizontal load based on 1.5% 1. Mosley, W.H. and Bungey, J.H. Reinforced Con-
of total dead load
16. 0 - crete Design. Macmillan Press, London, 4th edn,
1990, pp. 114.
2. GKN (UK) Pte. Ltd. CKN Floors M Moulds, April
1/
14 .0 6.4 x 6.4
1977, London.
~
w
II:
3. Singh, S. Cost models for approximate cost esti-
/ 7;
~
II:
12 .0 8.0 x 8.0 mation of structural systems in commercial high
0
0
...J rise buildings. PhD thesis, Vol. 2, National Uni-
u..
u..
0
10.4 x 10.4
versity of Singapore, 1986.
10.0
E
/ 4. BS 8110: Part 1: British Standard for the Struc-
I
~
...
zw
8 .0
/~ tural Use of Concrete - Code of Practice for De-
sign and Construction. British Standard Institution,
~ ~v
:lE London, 1985.
w
5. Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors and Build-
/~r
U
II:
l2z 6
ing Employers Confederation. Standard Method of
iii
II: Measurement of Building Works, 7th edn, London,
1988.
I'
~ ~
~ ~
F===' ......
o
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
Concrete Beam
and Reinforced
Concrete Slab
SCHEME A2 SCHEME B2
System MB SBC
SCHEME A3 SCHEME B3
Using a prestressed concrete beam and an RC slab
system, the effects of design parameters such as NOTATION: MB - MAIN BEAM
SB - SECONDARY BEAM
column grid size, location of structural element, SBC - SECONDARY BEAM OVER
number of storeys, arrangement of beams and the COLUMNS
109
110 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings
3.2.5 were used in the analyses to determine moments and final stages exceed the permissible limits, the
and shears for the ultimate limit state design. depth of the beam section is increased and the de-
sign process is repeated.
For main beams a minimum width based on a span-
5.5 Design of Structural Members width ratio of 22 was considered and for depth, span-
depth ratios of 18.75 to 19.4 were taken, the higher
Design of structural members was carried out ac- figure being for the longer spans. For secondary beams,
cording to the requirements given in British Stan- the width was fixed at three-quarters that of main
dard BS 8110: Part 1: 1985 using computer programs beams while keeping the same depth as that of main
developed by the author with the additional capa- beams from deflection considerations.
bility of computing the quantities of concrete, re-
inforcement and formwork. Characteristic strengths
of 35 N/mm2, 460 N/mm 2 and 1874 N/mm 2 were 5.5.3 Columns
considered for concrete, high yield steel and pre-
stressing strands respectively. The computer program described in Section 3.3.3 was
used to design columns in denominations of 75 mm.
5.5.1 Solid Slabs As before, square column sections were considered
for interior columns and the elevation of exposed
The computer program described in Section 3.3.1 was columns was maintained the same in any specific
used to design slabs spanning in one or two direc- number of storeys for aesthetic considerations. Fur-
tions at right angles. The coefficients given in BS ther, after every 5-storey interval, the sections of
8110 for one-way continuous slabs and two-way re- columns were reduced where possible for economy
strained slabs were used. A minimum slab thickness and within the same section the reinforcement was
of 100 mm was assumed. Requirements of minimum varied for each storey if feasible, depending upon
and maximum areas of reinforcements as codified the values of the forces.
were adopted and reinforcement spacing rules to
control cracking were taken care of. Further, overall 5.5.4 Shear Walls
depth of slab and spacing of reinforcement were ad-
justed so as to be in modules of 5 mm. Shear walls were designed for different numbers of
storeys of construction based on the considerations
5.5.2 Prestressed Beams described in Section 3.3.4.
0.24
fcu 35 N/mm2
fy 460 N/mm2
0.22
0.20
<
w
a:: GRID (m) SCHEME
<
a::
0 0.18
0
..J
u..
u..
0 0.16 B2
14 x 14
..
E
0'
12 x 12 B2
E 0.14 14 x 14 A2
"
~
83
w 14 x 14
I-
w { 10 x 10 B2
a:: 0.12 12 x 12 A2
U
Z
0 14 x 14 A3
U 10 x 10 A2
0.10
0.08
0.06
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
12.0
fcu 35 N/mm2
Figure 5.2 Quantities of concrete in slabs for fy 460 N/mm2
11.0
prestressed concrete beam and RC
slab construction.
GRID (m) SCHEME
<
LU
10.0
a::
<
a::
0
0 9.0
..J
u..
u..
14 x 14 B2
0
.
E
0'
8.0
12 x 12 B2
C,
~
I-
7.0
Z 14 x 14 B3
LU
~
LU
U
14 x 14 A2
a:: 6.0
0 14 x 14 A3
u..
Z
UJ 12 x 12 A2
a:: 5.0 10 x 10 B2
10 x 10 A2
4.0
3.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
12.0
fcu 35 N/mm2
fy 460 N/mm2
11.0
l
I-
7.0
14 x 14 A2
Z
14 x 14 B3
w 14 x 14 A3
:1:
w 12 x 12 A2
u 6.0
a: 10 x 10 B2
0
z
~
10 x 10 A2
iii
a: 5.0
4.0
12.0
3.0 fcu 35 N/mm2
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
fy 460 N/mm2
NUMBER OF STOREYS 11.0
GRID (m) SCHEME
4.0
3.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
.8
.8
- '-- '"'-
- '--
r--
GRID (ml
12 x 12
SCHEME
B2
5.6.2 Prestressed Beams
- --
.81 to 5.13 for reinforcement, Figures 5.14 to 5.16 for
prestressing strands and Figures 5.17 to 5.19 for
~ .7
r-- formwork.
:i -"r--, r-- 14 x 14 The quantities of constituents in prestressed sec-
--
9
a: B3
O. 78
ondary beams are shown in Figures 5.20, 5.21 to
-- --
... 0 .77
l5 r-- "-- 5.25 and 5.26 for concrete, reinforcement and
'-- '--
-
E 0 .7
....., r- formwork respectively.
~
-- -
12 x 12 A2
E 0.7 ~
The quantities of constituents in prestressed sec-
! '-- ~ 10 x 10 A2
"a: O.
7( '--- ondary beams over columns are shown in Figures
o
~ 0.7
I -r- 14 x 14 A2 5.27 and 5.28, Figures 5.29 to 5.32, Figures 5.33
::Ii
a:
5! O.72
and 5.34 and Figures 5.35 and 5.36 for concrete,
reinforcement, prestressing strands and formwork re-
O. 71
spectively .
o.7
-
o.8
o
.87
ro
r-- '--- '--
~ W ~
-
~
NUMBER OF STOREYS
~
.........,
~
r--
~ ~
,.)( " A3
f pu 1874 N/mm2
0.07
«w
:i 0.06 GRID (ml SCHEME
~ ~
r- ---r-r-r-
-
~ 0.05 14 X '4 A3
E ~ "- 14)(14 A2
~
E
~
~
0.04
- 12 X 12 A2
a: 10 X 10 A2
~ 0.03
o
u
14)(14 B3
14)(14 82
0.02 12 12
X B2
10 X 10 B2
0.G1
0.00
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
o.0
I
f .. 36 N/mm2
460 N/mm2
o.0 8 - f,
- -- --
o. 07
:-- r--, r--
-
'-- r-
I:li
~ O. 0
r-- '-- ~
:-- 14 x 14 A3
14x14 A2
0:
~ '- r--
r- r - - ......
~ O. 05 12 x 12 A2
E
IE '-
10 x 10 A2
i:J O.04
14 x '4 B3
~0: 14x14 B2
8 o.
U
0
12 x 12 B2
10 x 10 B2
o. 02
o. 01
o.
ro ~ w ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
NUMBER OF STOREYS
I
fall 35 N/mm2
-
r-, '-- ~~ ~4N~7:~2 GRID 1M) SCHEME
0.0
8r--. '-- .......... -.., r--
r- ~ r--, r-
~ r-- :-- 14 X 14 A3
~ ~
~
E
0.05
- 10 X 10 A2
I
....
; 0.04
.!! 14 X 14 B3
~
0:
14 xU B2
~ 0.03
8 12 X 12 B2
10 X 10 B2
0.02
0.0 1
0.0 5
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
20.0
feu 35 N/mm2
19.0
fy 460 N/mm2
18.0
fpu 1874 N/mm2
17.0
-
0
0 14.0
..J
u.. 14X 14 A3
u.. 13.0
0
E 12.0
0-
m
...... ~ 14x14 A2
11.0
C,
~ 10.0
I-
Z
w 14 X 14 B3
::E
9.0 ..... 12 X 12 A2
w
--
u 8.0 14 X 14 B2
a:
0
u..
z 7.0 ~ 10 X 10 A2
12 X 12 B2
W
a: 6.0 10 X 10 B2
I>-
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
20.0
«
II:
15.0 j--- r-- t- ..... 14X14 A3
a:
0
0 14.0 1 - ---- I---- -
..J
u.. 14X 14 A2
u.. 13.0
0
E 12.0 r-- --
r--- t-
0-
m
11.0 - f--- i--+--
+
C,
~ 10.0
I- 12 X 12 A2
Z
uu 9.0 ..... 14 X 14 B2
-
::E ,
LU 14 X 14 B3
U
a: 8.0 10 X 10 A2
0 12 X 12 B2
u.. 7.0
Z
W
II: 6.0 10 X 10 B2
5.0
,
4.0
3.0
2.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
23.0
--
w
u 11.0 12 X 12 A2
a:
0 14 X 14 B3
u. 10.0
Z 14 X 14 B2
W 12 X 12 B2
a: 9.0
10 X 10 B2
8.0 10 X 10 B2
7.0
6.0
5.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
23.0
feu 35 N/mm2
22.0
fy 460 N/mm2 Figure 5.13 Quantities of reinforcement in main
21.0 1874 N/mm2
fpu
beams in the corner grid.
20.0
«
w
19.0
a: GRID (m) SCHEME
« 18.0
a:
0
0 17.0
...J
U.
u. 16.0 14X14 A3
0
E 15.0 14X14 A2
C"
II)
14.0
C, I
::! 13.0
I-
z
w 12.0
::iE
w
u 11.0
a: 12X12 A2
-~
--- ~
0 14 X 14 B2
u.
z 10.0 14 X 14 B3
W
a: 9.0 12 X 12 B2
I.....-- lOx 10 A2
8.0 10 X 10 B2
!
7.0
I I
6.0
5.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
4.5
fcu 35 N/mm2
fy 460 N/mm2
4.0 1874 N/mm2
/pu
«
UJ
GRID (m) SCHEME
cr:
« 3.5
cr: 14x14 A3
0
0
...J
u..
u.. 3.0
0
E
c-
en
2.5
~
~ 14 x 14 A2
0
z 2.0
«
cr:
14 x 14 B3
14 x 14 B2
I-
00 12 x 12 A2
(!)
z 1.5 12 x 12 B2
Vi
00
UJ 10 x 10 A2
cr:
I-
00
UJ
1.0 10 x 10 B2
cr:
c..
0.5
0.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
4.5
NUMBER OF STOREYS
fcu 35 N/mm2
fy 460 N/mm2
4.0 Figure 5.15 Quantities of prestressing strands in
/pu 1874 N/mm2
0.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
4.5
35 N/mm2
!
feu !
I
fy 460 N/mm2 I
4.0 --- I----j----
fpu 1874 N/mm2
, I I
t~-
«w I
t--
! GRID (m) SCHEME
a:::
« 3.5 f--'--
!
1--- ---
a:::
0
......
0
..J
1 i 1 14X 14 A3
3.0
;
----i---i
0 I :! i
E I I• I
--I !
I
C'
III
2.5 I
---.. " t - - -r :--1--- :--1-- 14 X 14 A2
C. ,
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0
z 2.0
I i ! 14 X 14 B3
«
a::: 14 X 14 B2
ti 12 X 12 A2
(!)
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iii
I/)
w
a::: 10 X 10 A2
l-
I/)
1.0 1 10 X 10 B2
w
a:::
!
1: I~
Q"
I
!
0.5 --+ I
i
0.0
5
J
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
1
i
I
I
45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.26
1"-1'
~ l"--
i
_ 0.2 4
~ ~ l"-- r-.... GRID 1m, SCHEME
r"'- ~ ~ ~ ~
~ r--..... l'-... :--...", ~~
t--.
~ 0.2
r-...... r-..., 10 x 10 A2
f', ~
E M)( '4 A3
IE ~ 14 x 14 A2
! ~
. 0.2 12 x 12 A2
0:
~
~
0:
0.1 3
~
r- r-- r-
0.1 2
~
- r--:- ""- 14 x 14
10 x 10
B3
82
0.1 I 12 x 12
x"
82
14 B2
0.1
5 ro ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.36
I
0.3 5 t-- feu 35 N/mm2
f, .60 N/mm2
0.3 4 t--
f pOJ 1874 N/mm2
0.33
0.3
r--
2r---.
-
GRID (ml SCHEME
II:
..:
II:
o
0.3
r-- r-- ~ r=:::: ~ ~
~ 0.29 -.., 14 14 A3
... t-- ~ ~ ~
X
10 X 10 A2
o
r-
0.28 14x14 A2
E 12 X 12 A2
D' 0.2 7
~
! 0.26
'" •
~ ~
-- - ---
~ 0.20
~
0.1
9!--
o. 18 !--
""- 14 X 14 B3
0.1 7
...... 10
12
14
X
X
X
10
12
14
B2
B2
B2
0.1 6
o. 15
o. 14
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
r--
',"
0.4 1
35 N/mm2
f pu 1874 N/mm2
0.39
0.38 .....
i'-- 1'--..
0.37
.......
~ ~ J"-.. r--....
..:
w GRID (ml SCHEME
~ 0.3
r--.., r--..... i""
II:
~ 0.35
~ b::: ::::--..
--
...o r-.......,
t"---. 0........:::: ~ ~
14 x 14 A3
0.34 10 x 10 A2
E
........ 14 x 14 A2
.............
:l 0.33
......... 12 x 12 A2
E
! 0.32
'"
~ ~
~ 0.20
~
----
o. 191--
0.1 8
~
r-- ' -
0.1 7
r-- r-- 14 x 14
10 x 10
B3
B2
12 x 12 B2
0.1 6
"""" 14 x 14 B2
0.1 5
0.1 4
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
16.5
feu 35 N/mm2
fy 460 N/mm2
15.0
fpu 1874 N/mm2
<I: 13.5
w
a:
<I:
a:
0
0 12.0
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LL.
LL.
0
E 10.5
c-
eo
GRID (m) SCHEME
C»
:!! 9.0
f-
Z 14 X 14 A3
w
~ 14 X 14 B2
w
u 7.5
a:
0
LL. 12 X 12 B2
Z
iii 14 X 14 B3
a: 6.0
10 X 10 B2
14 X 14 A2
4.5
12 X 12 A2
10 X 10 A2
3.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.1 ,
0.1 3 14 x 14 A3
~
~ 0.1 2
a:
o 0.1 1
~
b 0.1 0
E
,[ 0.0
14 x '4 A2
~ 0.0
~ 0.0 7 12 x 12 A2
a: '4 x 14 B3
~ 0.06
o
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0.05
0.0 , 14 x '4 82
12 x 12 B2
0.0 3
10 x 10 B2
0.0 2
0.0 1
0.00
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
16.5
fcu 35 N/mm2
fy 460 N/mm2
15.0
tilu 1874 N/mm2
<C 13.5
w
a: GRID (m) SCHEME
<C
a:
0
0 12.0
...J
u.
U.
0
E 10.5
C"
en 14 x 14 A3
Oi
::!!
I- 9.0
Z 14 x 14 B~
w
::iE
w
u
a: 7.5 12 x 12 B2
0 14 x 14
u. B3
z
iii
a: 6.0 14 x 14 A2
10 x 10 B2
12 x 12 A2
4.5
10 x 10 A2
3.0
16.5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
fcu 35 N/mm2
fy 460 N/mm2
15.0
tilu 1874 N/mm2
Figure 5.23 Quantities of reinforcement in
secondary beams in the external grid.
<C 13.5
w
a:
<C
a:
0 GRID (m) SCHEME
9
u.
12.0
u.
0
E 10.5
i
14 x 14 B2
~ 9.0 14 x 14 A3
I-
Z
w
::iE 14X 14 B3
w
w
7.5 12 x 12 B2
u
a:
0
u.
z
iii 6.0
a: 14 x 14 A2
10 x 10 B2
12 x 12 A2
4.5
10 x 10 A2
3.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
16.5
feu 35 N/mm2
fy 460 N/mm2
15.0 1874 N/mm2
fi,u
13.5
«
LU GRID 1m) SCHEME
II:
«
II:
0 12.0
0
...J
u..
'0
E 10.5 14 x 14 A3
C'
II)
C.
:!! 9.0
f- 14 x 14 B2
Z
LU
~
LU
u 7.5 12 x 12 B2
II:
0 14 x 14 B3
u..
Z
Ui
II: 6.0
14 x 14 A2
10 x 10 B2
12 x 12 A2
4.5
10 x 10 A2
3.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
.4 f - -
Figure 5.24 Quantities of reinforcement in f" 35 Nlmm'
.3 f - - f, 460 Nlmm'
secondary beams in the corner grid.
f., 1874 Nlmm'
.2 f - -
GRID Iml SCHEME
.1
«
w
a: .0 14 x 14 B3
«
a:
o 1.9
9...
...
o
E .7
14 x 14 B2
~
~1 .6
14 x 14 A2
o
~ 1.5
~ 1.4
(!)
z
iii 1 12 x 12 B2
'"a:w
t;; 1.2
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g: .1
12 x 12 A2
.0 14 x 14 A3
10 x 10 A2. B2
.8
.7
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
.9
,'" 35 N/mml
.8i-- "
,~
460 N/mm2
14 x 14 A3
.7
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w
a;
'o"
a;
.6
~
~ .5
E 10 x 10 A2
12 x 12 A2
IE '4 x 14 A2
.4
14 x 14 B3
.3
10 x 10 B2
14 x 14 B2
12 x 12 B2
.2
.1
o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
"
460 N/mm2
0.03 21--
, 0" 1874 N/mm2
0.03 0
0.02 8
a 0.02
E 14 x '4 B3
~ 0.01 8
14 x 14 B2
E
a 0.01 6 I
~ 0.01 4 12 x 12 B2
a;
u
15 0.01 2 10 x 10 B2
u
0.01 0
0.00 8
0.00 6
0.00 4
0.00 2
0.00
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
5.5
feu 35 N/mm2
fy 460 N/mm2
5.0 1874 N/mm2
fpu
4.5
<I:
UJ
a::
<I:
a::
0 4.0
0
...J
u..
....0 GRID (m) SCHEME
E 3.5
C'
'"
C,
~ 3.0 14 X 14 B2
I-
Z
UJ
~
UJ
u 2.5
a:: 12 X 12 B2
0
u..
Z
W
a:: 2.0
10 X 10 B2
14x14 B3
1.5
1.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.038
" 0.03
-
w
a:
" 0.03 4
a: GRID 1m) SCHEME
o
~ 0.032
...o 0.03 ~
......... ~ ........
- .........
E
......... '"- ~ ...... 14 x 14 B3
;[ 0.02
E ~ ........
2 0 .02 6 ~
14 x 14 B2
•h
w
tu 0.02
a:
u
is 0.02 2
~~ .........
--..,
u ~ '""- 12 x 12 B2
0.02 0
0.01 8 10 x 10 B2
0.01 6
0.01 4
0.01 2
0.01 0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
6.0
fcu 35 N/mm2
fy 460 N/mm2
5.5
(pu 1874 N/mm2
5.0
«
UJ
a:
«
a:
0 4.5
0
...J
LL
0
E 4.0
c-
eil
GRID (m) SCHEME
C»
~ 3.5
I-
zUJ 14x14 B2
~
UJ
u 3.0
a:
0
LL 12 x 12 B2
Z
Ui
a: 2.5
10x 10 B2
2.0
14x 14 B3
1.5
6.0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
35 N/mm2 NUMBER OF STOREYS
fcu
fy 460 N/mm2
5.5
(pu 1874 N/mm2
Figure 5.31 Quantities of reinforcement in
secondary beams over columns -
«LJ.J 5.0 external grid.
a:
«
a:
0 4.5
0
...J
....0
LL
C» 14 x 14 B2
~ 3.5
I-
z
LJ.J
~
LJ.J
U 3.0
a:
0 12 x 12 B2
LL
~
UJ
a: 2.5
14x14 B3
10 x 10 B2
2.0
1.5
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
6.0
feu 35 N/mm2
fy 460 N/mm2
5.5 1874 N/mm2
fpu
5.0
«
UJ
a:
«
a:
0 4.5
0
-'
u.
....0 GRID (ml SCHEME
E 4.0
e-
rn 14 X 14 B2
C,
~ 3.5
r
z
UJ
:::!: 12 X 12 B2
UJ
u 3.0
a:
0
u.
Z
W
a: 2.5
10x10 B2
14x14 B3
2.0
1.5
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
.9
.7
~
a:
<
a: 14 x 14 B2
o
.
~
o
0.6
E
~
0-
0 .5 12 x 12 B2
14 x 14 B3
~
"
z
<
~ 0.4
'z"
iii
10 x 10 B2
i:!'" 0 .3
~
a:
0..
o. 2
.,
'0 '5 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
1.2
," 35 N/mm2
-
',."
1.1 460 N/mm2
1874 N/mm2
1.0
:1i
a:
'"
a:
0
0.9
GRID 1m) SCHEME
~
u.
0
O.B
E
C"
~
~ 14x14 82
c 0.7
z
'a:"
I-
U)
(!)
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iii
"x14 83
~
a:
I-
~
a: 0.5
"-
0.4 lOxl0 82
0.3
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
f po 1874 N/mm2
0.12 5
:1i
a:
a: 0.12 0
'"
o
~
u.
o 0.11 5
E
C"
.........
............ GRID 1m) SCHEME
~
E r-----.,
g 0.11
............
O~ "-....,
"" ~
~ ~ ~ b- ~ ............
~
~ 0.10 5 14 x 14 B3
fr t::::::::
~~
~
10 x 10 82
12 x 12 B2
0.100 14 x 14 B2
0.09
0.09
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.1 801-- f, 460 N/mm2 GRID 1m) SCHEME The quantities of constituents for the interior column
f pu 1874 N/mm2 of different grid sizes and structural schemes in terms
r- r-- r-- of concrete, reinforcement and formwork are shown
«w
0.17 5
--r--.r---r-- r--. r--. in Figures 5.37 to 5.39, while for exterior and corner
columns the same parameters are shown in Figures
~ 0.17 0
Ux14 83
5.40 to 5.42 and Figures 5.43 to 5.45 respectively.
~ ~
The quantities of constituents for the interior column,
~
-
-....::::
~ 0.16
........ ~ t - 10 x 10 B2
using grade 40 concrete, are shown in Figures 5.46
14x14 B2
E ~ 12 x 12 82 to 5.48.
IE
!
.
a:
0.180
~
c
a:
0.155
fr
0.150
0.14 5
~, 0.05
.!!
~
w
a:
u
Z 0.04
0
U
0.01~"""+'_1--I--I_-I-"""+'_+--I---1
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.2
0.2 I f - -
f •• 35 N/mm2
f, 480 N/n')m 2 I
0.2 10 x 10 A2
10 x 10 B2
0.1 ~
~~
« 0.1
12 x 12 A2
w
a: ~f' / 12 x 12 B2
~ 0.1 7
8it 0.' ~
". /. ~ 14 x 14 A3
14 x'4 A2
...0 0 .1 ~ /. Y ~
'4 x 14 B2
5 14 x 14 B3
~ V~ ~ ~
E
~
! 0.1 4
E
! 0.1
V ~ ~~
IV
"~ 0.1 2
/ ~ V..I. ~
0:
::; V # ~V
V ~ /; V
~ 0.1
0.1
0.0 / ~ V"
0.0 ~ ""
0.0 7
0.0
0.05
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
32.0
14 x 14 A3
28.0+---+-+--l--+--f--+-+--+-f-I
14 x 14 A2
;:Ii UxU B2
a: 14 x 14 B3
~ 24.0t---+-+--t--+--I--+-t---fIcf-lllt 12 x 12
12 x 12
A2
B2
o
~ 10 x 10 A2
10 x 10 B2
!
~
!z 16.0+--t--+-+---+--f-1~P>L+7'-f--f
w
::;
tl
a:
o
~
W
a:
0.01'5-1±0~-:l:15:---::I20::---::I2:-5--::31::-0---:3b5--:4:1:0-4±5~50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
4-
2-
f '"
f,
35 N/mm2
460 N/mm2
J
I GRID (m) SCHEME
0 UxU A3
8
I 14 x 14 A2
«
lLL 14x14
14x14
82
83
w
0:
« 24
jVh 12 x 12
12 x 12
A2
82
~ V~ W 10 x 10
~ 2 A2
u.
o 20 L ~ f/1 10 x 10 82
~
E
18 ~ WV-
~
...Z 16
,~ WW
"'~ /~ r~
14
;.r
u
a:
~ 12 ~ ~~
Z
W
a: 10 ~r-~ V
8
A ~~
~~
6~ ~~
4~
2
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
UxU A3
o.
'4 x 14 A2
« 14 x 14 B2
"'«0: 12 x 12 A2
0:
0
~ 12 x 12 B2
10 x 10 A2
~
E 10 x 10 B2
~
E 0.0
~
~
"'
0:
U
Z
0
U
0.0
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.11
14 x 14 A3
14 x 14 A2
..
..
14 x 1• B2
w
II:
12 x 12 A2
II: 14 x 14 B3
0
12 x 12 B2
~
...0 10 x 10 A2
E 10 x 10 B2
~
E
,
"
~
II:
U
Z
0
U
0.02:1--±-+-""""*-±--:l::--±---1--I----4
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.24 -
" 460 N/mm2
10 x 10 A2
0.23
0.2 2
// 10 x 10
12 x 12
B2
A2
.. 0.2 1 ~ Y': 12 x 12 B2
~~ /
w 14 x 14 A3
~ 0.20 '4 x 14 A2
~ 'l: '/ ~ x 14
II: 14 B2
o
14 x 14 B3
/-V/ Y' ~V
~ 0.19
~ 0.18
E
cr 0.17
~ '/ ~V
~ - V~~~
V ~ ~ /"
--
~ 0.16
~ I
./'W. ~ /"
0.15
~
::; 0.14 I
/;V
~V
II:
~
~
0.13
I
0.12
0.11
~~ V I
0.10
V
0.09 I
0.08
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
38
I GRID 1m' SCHEME
I
34f-
' .. 35 N/mm2
32- f., 480 N/mm'
'4 x,4 A3
/ 14 x 14 A2
'l
2S
14 x 14 B2
U. x '4 B3
h~
2 12 x 12 A2
12 x 12 B2
2
VjJ, W 10 x 10 A2
lIA- r/ 7
2
1S
~~ ~
~ W/)
1
14
12
~b
~ V..,j
$}
1
!V
8~
t~ ~
4~
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.27 '--
'eu
fv
35 N/mm2
480 N/mm2
Ii / 10 x 10 B2
0.2 6 / ~ 12 x 12 A2
~ 7) 12 x 12 B2
0.25
« 0.24
/J / '/ 14 x 14
14 x 14
A3
A2
w
~ ~ /j / ,# Ux14 B3
)V1 '/ 7 /
0.23 14 x 14- B2
'"
9
... 0.22
W,Vj
~ 0.21
A ~
l
E
,~ '~ V), ~)
Vg ~ 7
0.20
!
E
J vJ.
V V. ~ /
0.19
"~
'/ ~ / I'
0.18
~
ill 0.17
fi'
0.16 / .h .IV
~.., ~
0.15 ""),
0.14 ~~
0.13 h
~
0.12
0.11
5 10 15 20 2 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.0I S -
f""
f,
45 N/mm2
460 N/mm2 I GRID 1m) SCHEME
0.08
14x14 A3
UxU A2
~
~ 0.0 7
j '4 x 14 B2
14)( 14 B3
~~
II: 12 x 12 A2
o 12 x 12 B2
~
~ 0.0
~7
~V
E
I
~
~V
0.0
~II:
~ 0.0
• I.
~
8
0.0 ~~
V
0.0 ~ ~ ~
~
0.0 1
5 10 15 20 25 30 3 .0 .5 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
460 N/mm2 l
28. GRID 1m) SCHEME
0(
w
~
II:
24
...o~
Ux , .. A3
20. 0
'4 x '4 A2
E
~
14><14 B2
14><14 B3
~
~~
12 x 12 A2
~ 12 x 12 B2
~ 16
~
u
II:
f2 12.
/-
z
/'"
h ~~
W
II:
8. 0
V
~
~
.~.,.. P'
~
o
10 1 20 25 30 35 .0 .5 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
~ 0.1 3
~
V
~ !?' can be built up based on the results of elements al-
ready covered (Sections 5.6.1to 5.6.4). However, for
E
i 0.1 2
~
V
~V an interior grid and different grid sizes, charts have
E
! 0.1 1
~ -d~ been developed and are shown in Figures 7.10 to
~ 0.1 0 / ~ ~ 7.13.
~~ l/ A ~
V. ~
0.09
~
f? 0.08
5.7 Effect of Number of Spans on
0.0 7~ Constituent Quantities
0.06
0.09!--
feu 35 N/mmz
ff 460 N/mm2 I
10 X 10 A2. 62
/
0.0
;1i
V./
~ 0.07
12 x 12 A2.62
a:
o
~
a
VVII
0.06
E 14x14 A2. 62. A3. 63
~
E 0.0
~
a:
! /V
•
/
~ 0.0
o
u
V /
0.0 / J
V
0.0 2 ~~
1~ ~
~
0.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUM6ER OF STOREYS
effect of varying continuity (less than 5) was studied, 10.8'~-.---r-""--.---r-""--.---r----. GRID Iml SCHEME
and based on this investigation multiplying factors 10 x 10 A2
LOADING 1.2(Gk + Ok + W;')
were established. These showed similar results to those **Lateral load based on 1.5% 10 x 10 82
9.6 of total dead load
in Chapter 3. For structures having fewer than 5 spans,
the constituent quantities as obtained using the charts
12 x 12 A2
in this chapter need to be adjusted by using multi- 8.41+----1---+-+
12 x 12 82
V
0.45
II
0.40
:5a: 12 x 12 A2, 82
J
oct:
a:
o
0.35
v [7
~
a 0.30 / V
I /V/
E
l/
14 x 14 A2. B2. A3, B3
C"
.!"
E
.¥ 0.2 5
Y V
V .// V
V VV
0
0.15
k;:; ~ V./
~
0.1 0
5
0.0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUM8ER OF STOREYS
137
138 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings
Structural scheme Grid size Table 6.1a Reinforced concrete beam and slab
(m) construction (quantities/cost per sq m of floor
Prestressed beam and RC 14.0 x 14.0 area).
slab with two
SALIENT FEATURES
secondary beams
Grid size (m): 6.0 x 6.0 Grid location: Interior
(Scheme B2, Figure 5.1) Number of storeys: 40 Scheme: B1
Prestressed beam and RC 14.0 x 14.0
slab with three Element Concrete Concrete Steel Form work Cost
grade
secondary beams (sq m)
(NIsq mm) (cu m) (kg) (£)
(Scheme B3, Figure 5.1)
Slab 30 0.110 4.7 0.87 22.89
Prevailing rates of materials (London, 1993): Main beams 30 0.012 4.5 0.12 5.19
Secondary
beams 30 0.009 2.5 0.13 4.32
Concrete (f/cu m) grade 30 N/sq mm Secondary beams
Slab 65.82 over columns 30 0.009 1.6 0.11 3.54
Beams 69.10 Columns 35 0.053 14.0 0.27 12.54
grade 35 N/sq mm Shear walls 35 0.080 8.3 0.45 18.96
Slab 67.22 Total 67.44
Beams 70.50 Add 17.5 per cent for preliminaries and oncosts 11.80
Columns 77.96 Total structure 79.24
Shear walls 68.32
Reinforcement (f/kg) High yield steel
Slab 0.49
Beams 0.43
Columns 0.43 Table 6.1 bRei nforced concrete beam and slab
Shear walls 0.49 construction (quantities/cost per sq m of floor
Prestressi ng strands (f/kg) 3.00 area).
Formwork (f/sq m)
SALIENT FEATURES
Solid slab and beam construction Grid size (m): 8.0 x 8.0 Grid location: Interior
Slab 15.34 Number of storeys: 40 Scheme: B1
Beams 20.24
Columns 19.62 Element Concrete Concrete Steel Form work Cost
grade
Shear walls 20.94 (NIsq mm) (cu m) (kg) (sq m) (£)
Flat slab and column construction
Slab 5.34 Slab 30 0.140 6.5 0.86 22.59
Columns 19.62 Main beams 30 0.016 4.5 0.13 5.67
Secondary beams 30 0.013 3.3 0.14 5.15
Shear walls 20.94
Secondary beams
Waffle slab 25.34 over columns 30 0.012 2.3 0.12 4.25
Columns 35 0.061 18.7 0.22 16.66
The solution obtained using the appropriate charts Shear walls 35 0.079 8.0 0.45 18.74
developed in Chapters 3 to 5 is shown in Tables Total 76.06
6.1 a-j. In the solution it has been assumed that the Add 17.5 per cent for preliminaries and oncosts 13.31
structure has five continuous spans and is meant for Total structure 89.37
an office block.
The reader should recall that the charts developed
are for office floors and for structures having five
continuous spans. In cases where it is desired to
compute constituent quantities/cost for structures
having fewer than 5 continuous spans, the quantities 6.2.2 Problem 2 - Structural Schemes
read from the charts need to be adjusted using the
appropriate multiplying factors (Tables 3.1 to 3.3). Evaluate the comparative economics of using the
Likewise, if the lower part of the structure has a few following structural schemes for a 30-storey commer-
floors for shoppi ng, mu Itiplyi ng factors (Table 3.4) cial building. A uniform column grid size of 8.0 m
need to be applied. x 8.0 m is proposed for use.
Applications 139
Table 6.1 c Reinforced concrete beam and slab Table 6.1 e Reinforced concrete flat slab
construction (quantities/cost per sq m of floor construction (quantities/cost per sq m of floor
area). area).
SALIENT FEATURES SALIENT FEATURES
Grid size (m): 10.0 x 10.0 Grid location: Interior Grid size (m): 10.0 x 10.0 Grid location: Interior
Number of storeys: 40 Scheme: Bl Number of storeys: 40 Scheme: 2*
Element Concrete Concrete Steel Formwork Cost Element Concrete Concrete Steel Form work Cost
grade grade
(N/sq mm) (sq m) (£) (N/sq mm) (eu m) (kg) (sq m) (£)
SALIENT FEATURES
Grid size (m): 10.0 x 10.0 Grid location: Interior Table 6.lf Reinforced concrete waffle slab
Number of storeys: 40 Scheme: B2 construction (quantities/cost per sq m of floor
area).
Element Concrete Concrete Steel Form work Cost
grade SALIENT FEATURES
(N/sq mm) (cu m) (kg) (sq m) (£)
Grid size (m): 10.0 x 10.0 Grid location: Interior
Number of storeys: 40 Scheme: 2*
Slab 30 0.120 5.3 0.83 23.23
Main beams 30 0.022 6.3 0.14 7.06
Element Concrete Concrete Steel Formwork Cost
Secondary beams 30 0.035 5.4 0.29 10.61
grade
Secondary beams (cu m) (kg)
(N/sq mm) (sq m) (£)
over columns 30 0.016 2.0 0.13 4.60
Columns 35 0.060 17.7 0.18 15.82 Slab 30 0.282 12.3 0.98 48.04
Shear walls 35 0.072 7.3 0.40 16.87 Columns 35 0.067 22.4 0.16 18.00
Total 78.19 Shear walls 35 0.068 7.5 0.46 17.95
Add 17.5 per cent for preliminaries and oncosts 13.68 Total 83.99
Total structure 91.87 Add 17.5 per cent for preliminaries and oncosts 14.70
Total structure 98.69
Table 6.1g Prestressed beam and RC slab Table 6.1 i Prestressed beam and RC slab
construction (quantities/cost per sq m of floor construction (quantities/cost per sq m of floor
area). area).
Element Concrete Concrete Steel Strands Formwork Cost Element Concrete Concrete Steel Strands Formwork Cost
grade grade
(Nlsq mm) (cu m) (kg) (kg) (sq m) (£) (Nlsq mm) (cu m) (kg) (kg) (sq m) (£)
Slab 3S 0.120 5.0 0.83 23.25 Slab 35 0.160 8.6 0.83 27.70
Main beams 35 0.016 5.4 0.7 0.11 7.78 Main beams 35 0.023 7.4 1.2 0.11 10.60
Secondary Secondary
beams 35 0.027 5.0 0.9 0.24 11.61 beams 35 0.040 8.1 1.7 0.24 16.26
Secondary Secondary
beams beams
over over
columns 35 0.012 1.8 0.3 0.10 4.54 columns 35 0.018 3.0 0.6 0.11 6.59
Columns 35 0.054 14.7 0.17 13.87 Columns 35 0.064 19.1 0.14 15.95
Shear walls 35 0.062 7.0 0.36 15.20 Shear walls 35 0.042 5.0 0.24 10.35
Table 6.1 h Prestressed beam and RC slab Table 6.1j Prestressed beam and RC slab
construction (quantities/cost per sq m of floor construction (quantities/cost per sq m of floor
area). area).
Element Concrete Concrete Steel Strands Formwork Cost Element Concrete Concrete Steel Strands Formwork Cost
grade grade
(Nlsq mm) (cu m) (kg) (kg) (sq m) (£) (Nlsq mm) (cu m) (kg) (kg) (sq m) (£)
Slab 35 0.150 7.6 0.84 26.69 Slab 35 0.130 6.8 0.79 24.19
Main beams 35 0.019 6.4 1.0 0.11 9.32 Main beams 35 0.025 8.4 1.3 0.1211.71
Secondary Secondary
beams 35 0.032 6.5 1.3 0.24 13.80 beams 35 0.064 6.3 1.0 0.37 20.71
Secondary Secondary
beams beams
over over
columns 35 0.014 2.4 0.5 0.11 5.75 columns 35 0.019 1.7 0.5 0.11 5.80
Columns 35 0.058 17.8 0.15 15.12 Columns 35 0.063 18.8 0.14 15.74
Shear walls 35 0.050 5.8 0.30 12.54 Shear walls 35 0.042 5.0 0.24 10.35
Total 83.22 Total 88.50
Add 17.5 per cent for preliminaries and oncosts 14.56 Add 17.5 per cent for preliminaries and oncosts 15.49
Total structure 97.78 Total structure 103.99
Applications 141
Table 6.2a Reinforced concrete flat slab Table 6.2b Reinforced concrete flat slab
construction (quantities/cost per sq m of floor construction (quantities/cost per sq m of floor
area). area).
SALIENT FEATURES SALIENT FEATURES
Grid size (m): 8.0 x 8.0 Grid location: Interior Grid size (m): 8.0 x 8.0 Grid location: Interior
Number of storeys: 30 Scheme: 2* Number of storeys: 30 Scheme: 4*
Element Concrete Concrete Steel Form work Cost Element Concrete Concrete Steel Formwork Cost
grade grade
(N/sq mm) (cu m) (kg) (sq m) (£)1 (N/sq mm) (cu m) (kg) (sq m) (£l
Slab 30 0.252 12.5 1.01 36.97 Slab 30 0.222 22.5 1.01 50.14
Columns 30 0.057 16.5 0.19 15.07 Columns 30 0.055 14.5 0.19 14.06
Shear walls 30 0.053 6.0 0.39 14.65 Shear walls 30 0.053 6.0 0.39 14.65
Total 66.69 Total 74.85
Add 17.5 per cent for preliminaries and oncosts 11.67 Add 17.5 per cent for preliminaries and oncosts 13.10
Total structure 78.36 Total structure 87.95
*1 indicates flat slab construction with column heads using high * 1 indicates flat slab construction with column heads using high
yield steel rei nforcement in slab. yield steel reinforcement in slab.
2 indicates flat slab construction without column heads using 2 indicates flat slab construction without column heads using
high yield steel reinforcement in slab. high yield steel reinforcement in slab.
3 indicates flat slab construction with column heads using mild 3 indicates flat slab construction with column heads using mild
steel reinforcement in slab. steel reinforcement in slab.
4 indicates flat slab construction without column heads using 4 indicates flat slab construction without column heads using
mild steel reinforcement in slab. mild steel reinforcement in slab.
(Refer to Figure 4.1.) (Refer to Figure 4.1.)
t Unit rates for constituents (1992): t Unit rates for constituents (1992):
Element Concrete Steel Form work Element Concrete Steel Formwork
(£/cu m) (£/kg) (£/sq m) (£/cu m) (£/kg) (£/sq m)
Slab 60.91 0.49 25.34 Slab 60.91 0.49 25.34
Columns 74.56 0.43 19.62 Columns 74.56 0.43 19.62
Shear walls 66.92 0.49 20.94 Shear walls 66.92 0.49 20.94
6.3 Approximate Structural Cost Estimation (i) Details of grid sizes, grid locations and their numbers
of an Overall Project Grid size Grid location No. of grids
12.7 x 12.0 Corner 4 x 25
Given the salient design features of a commercial 12.7 x 12.0 Exterior 8 x 25
bu i Idi ng project, the charts developed in Chapters 3 12.0 x 11.5 Exterior 6 x 25
to 5 can be used to compute the approximate struc- 12.0x11.5 Fi rst interior 8 x 25
tural cost for an overall project. It is pointed out 12.0x11.5 Interior 4 x 25
that interpolation between the quantities of constitu-
ents of different grid sizes can be made to obtain
(ii) Shear core areas 553.92 m 2/f1oor
constituent quantities for any other given size. This
Concrete grade of 35 N/sq mm to be
is illustrated in the next problem.
used in all components
Structural scheme with 2 secondary beams
6.3.1 Problem 3 - Total Structural Cost
at right angle to main beams is to be
used
Determine the total structural cost for a 25-storey
commercial building project (Figure 9.1) using pre-
stressed beams and an RC slab construction given (iii) Unit rates of different constituents: same as in
the following design features: Problem 1.
142 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings
Table 6.2c Reinforced concrete waffle slab Table 6.3 Prestressed beam and RC slab
construction (quantities/cost per sq m of floor construction (quantities/cost for the overall
area). structure).
The solution obtained using the appropriate charts * 1 indicates scheme A2. ** 1 indicates interior grid.
2 indicates scheme B2. 2 indicates first interior grid.
developed in Chapter 5 is shown in Table 6.3. 3 indicates scheme A3. 3 indicates exterior grid.
4 indicates scheme B3. 4 indicates corner grid.
(Refer to Figure 5.1.)
6.4 Checking of Estimates for Structural , Unit rates for constituents (1992):
error has been made either in giving the structural Reinforcement (t) 1431.7
details or in taking-off. In such cases there is defi- Prestressi ng Strands (t) 272.7
nitely a need to have another look at the details Formwork (sq m) 35100.0
suppl ied/take-off. Columns
A reasonable difference between the two estimates Concrete (cu m) 3708.7
discussed in the section can be taken to be about Rei nforcement (t) 1018.1
5-1 0 per cent. Formwork (sq m) 9165.8
Shear Walls
Concrete (cu m) 2138.0
6.5 Calculation of Quantity Index for Reiforcement (t) 236.4
Structural Works Formwork (sq m) 17422.5
Past historical information of constituent quantities The solution obtained using the appropriate charts
for structural works in completed projects is of is shown in Table 6.4.
immense value for computation of approximate cost
estimates for present/future projects. However, in-
variably there are always variations between the design
features of different projects. To adjust constituent Table 6.4 Quantity estimate for a proposed
quantities arising from these variations, a quanti:y building.
index for structural works can be a useful dc'vice.
Quantities per sq m of floor area are computed separately
The charts presented in this book (Chapters 3 to
using the charts/statistical relationships developed for
5) can be utilised in computing the constituent quan- prestressed beam and RC slab construction for 25 storeys
tities, for a desired set of design features, which in (completed building) and 30 storeys (proposed building) and
turn can be utilised for establishing the quantity index. the given grid sizes. Based on the relative quantity index for
The quantity index so established can in turn be util- structural components, the quantities of completed building
are modified as under:
ised in adjusting the quantities of the past projects
so as to arrive at the quantities for the new projects. Completed Quantity Proposed
This is illustrated in the solution of the following building index building
problem. Number of storeys 25 30
Grid size (m) 10.0 x 10.2 12.0 x 11.8
Floor arealfloor 3030 4248
6.5.1 Problem 4 - Quantity Estimates
(sq m)
6.6 Establishing Cost Index for variables is illustrated in the solutions of problems
Structural Works given in subsequent sections.
The utility of the overall building cost index is well 6.8.1 Problem 5 - Variation with Number of
established and it has further been recognised that Storeys and Structural Schemes
there is a need to determine these indices for differ-
ent types of construction based on the types of ma- Considering a grid size of 10m x 10m and the
terials used. Hence the RICS Building Cost Information following structural schemes/unit rates of constitu-
Service establishes indices for four different classes ents, generate cost per sq metre of floor area for an
of buildings, namely steel frame, concrete frame, brick interior grid in various storeys of construction rang-
and general building. Further, the use of such in- ing from 5 to 50.
dices is well recognised for bringing a tender figure
for a previous similar project up to current prices. Structural Schemes:
The cost index for structural works in a building Bl & B2 using RC beam and slab construc-
can be established using the quantities obtained from tion (Figure 3.1)
the charts, and the index so established can be used B2 using prestressed beam and RC slab
for estimating the cost of structural works in new construction (Figure 5.1)
buildings based on similar projects executed in the Flat slab and waffle slab constructions without
past. column heads
Table 6.6c Effect of number of storeys and t Unit rates for constituents (1992):
concrete grades on quantities of constituents/cost Storeys Concrete Steel Form work
for columns in RC beam and slab construction (£leu m) (£/kg) (£/sq m)
(quantities/cost per sq m of floor area). 1- 5 81.36 0.43 19.62
6-10 83.80 0.44 20.21
Structural scheme: 2* Grade of concrete: 40 11-15 86.24 0.46 20.80
16-20 88.68 0.47 21.39
Grid location: 1 **
21-25 91.12 0.48 21.97
26-30 93.56 0.50 22.56
Grid size Number of Concrete Steel Form work Cost t
31-35 96.00 0.51 23.15
Storeys (cu m) (kg) (sq m) (£)
36-40 98.44 0.52 23.74
41-45 100.89 0.53 24.32
8.5 x 8.5 5 0.0165 2.2 0.12 5.46
46-50 103.33 0.55 24.92
8.5 x 8.5 10 0.0215 3.3 0.13 6.91
8.5 x 8.5 15 0.0268 4.9 0.14 8.79
8.5 x 8.5 20 0.0325 7.0 0.16 11.27
8.5 x 8.5 25 0.0384 9.2 0.17 13.69
8.5 x 8.5 30 0.0447 11.5 0.18 16.44
8.5 x 8.5 35 0.0512 13.8 0.19 19.21
8.5 x 8.5 40 0.0579 16.2 0.21 22.45
8.5 x 8.5 45 0.0646 18.7 0.22 25.59
8.5 x 8.5 50 0.0711 21.5 0.23 29.26
Observations,
number of storeys, and is maximal at 8.2 kglsq m of
floor area for Scheme B 1 of the 10m x 10m grid
compared with 4.13 kglsq m of floor area for Scheme
Trends and A 1 of the 6 m x 6 m grid, five storeys being con-
sidered in both cases (Figure 3.15). The quantity of
Variations formwork is about 83 per cent of the floor area for
schemes involving two-way slabs as compared with
about 87.5 per cent for those with one-way slabs, with
the exception of the 10m x 10m grid, Scheme B2.
7.1.1.1 Slab
For a specific grid size and structural scheme, the quan- 7.1.1.3 Columns
tities of concrete per unit of floor area remain uniform The increase in the consumption of concrete per square
(Figure 3.13). The consumption of concrete, in an in- metre of floor area is about 300 per cent for 50 sto-
terior panel, is minimal for Scheme A 1 of the 6 m x 6 reys compared with 5 storeys of construction or, in
m grid, the increase in quantity above this for the other other words, about 33 per cent of 5-storey construc-
grids ranging between 20 and 75 per cent depending tion for each increase of 5 storeys. Similarly the in-
on the number of storeys of construction, grid size and crease in the consumption of reinforcement per square
structural scheme. The maximum consumption of con- metre of floor area is about 700 per cent for 50 sto-
crete is for Scheme B1 of the 10m x 10 m grid. reys compared with 5 storeys of construction, or about
148
Quantities/Cost - Observations, Trends and Variations 149
I
GRID 1m) SCHEME
10m grid, the least steel is con<;umed in Scheme INTERIOR GRID
0.43
82, being about 6.0 per cent less compared with
10 x 10 B1
Scheme Aland about 7.3 per cent less compared ..: 0.41
d
UJ 10 x 10 A1
a:
with Scheme 81 in a 50-storey construction. ..:
a: 0.39
The quantity of formwork is inversely related to 0
g ~v 10 x 10
8 x 8
B2
B1
u. 0.37
the grid size and on average, for any specific grid V 8 x 8 A1
~
u.
~ 0.33 hV 6x6 A1
~V ~ L
6 x 6 B1
5-storey construction (Figure 3.57). ~
£ 0.31
UJ
f-
0
y
~ )f'
7.1.1.4 Shear Walls
UJ
a: 0.29
A f'
u
The quantities of concrete, reinforcement and formwork
Z
0 ......-: ~ ~
;::::: ~
u 0.27
V)
0 54
An analysis of the total requirements of the con- E ~) 8x8 A1
/
stituents for the structure as a whole indicates that c:r
en
50
46
r ~ '/.
6x6 B1
on average the increase in consumption of concrete,
reinforcement and formwork per unit of floor area is
C,
::;. 42
V V/ /,:';/ 6x6 A1
14 ~V
7.1.2 Reinforced Concrete Flat Slab and
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Waffle Slab Systems NUMBER OF STOREYS
Observations on trends and variations of constituent Figure 7.2 Quantities of reinforcement in total
quantities are given component-wise as well as for structure for reinforced beam and slab
the total structure in the following sections. construction.
150 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings
0.53
GRID(m)
0.51
10 x 10 WCH*
7.1.2.1 Slabs 0.49 /
The consumption of concrete and reinforcement is .) V
0.47
dependent on the grid size, higher consumption be- /r' 8 x8 WCH
0.45
ing for the bigger grid sizes, while the trend for
formwork is reversed (Figures 4.3 to 4.12). I1i 0.43
/~ /
Relatively, the waffle slabs consume less reinforced
II:
~ 0.41
V /
concrete constituents as compared with flat slabs, the o
9 0.39
~/ / /
6x6 WCH
:::: 0.33 ./ /
E
::> 0.31
V /
7.1.2.2 Columns
In an interior grid location, using a flat slab, the
2
~ 0.29
,........ , /
/
consumption of constituents in columns is directly
LJ.J
a::
~ 0.27
r/
proportional to the number of storeys and the grid o
u 0.25
V
<"
size. Considering a grid size of 8 m x 8 m, with the 0.23
~
increase in the number of storeys from 5 to 50, the
0.21
increase is about 400 per cent in concrete, about
* Without column
750 per cent in reinforcement and about 115 per 0.19
head
cent in formwork. The corresponding values using 0.17
the waffle slabs are about 400 per cent in concrete, 0.15
about 720 per cent in reinforcement and about 110 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
per cent in formwork. NUMBER OF STOREYS
74
I
70 INTERIOR GRIDJ GRID(m)
66
<I: 10 x 10
LU
a: 62
<I:
a:
0
58 ~
/ 8x8
0 )
54
V [7
...J
u..
u..
50 6x6
0
E / ) /
e-
If)
46
42 J I~ ;V
en )V VV
I- =
z
38
34
V7 V
::E
LU
V 1/ /
30
. . .V l/ /
LU
U
a:
0 26
u..
Z
W 22 V
V
V /
. /V ./
a:
18
14
V 2.6
I<'
10
2.50
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
2.4 0 INTERIOR GRID
2.30
Figure 7.5 Quantities of reinforcement in total
structure for reinforced concrete flat 2.2 0
GRID 1m)
slab construction without column 2.1 0
heads. «
w
~ 2.00 6x6
a:
9o 1.90
V
u.
~ 1.80 /'
V .L.
SxS
E
1.70 /'"
V
V ./
10 x 10
V
C"
.!!!.
E
1.60
/
V
V
/ /
C"
.!! ,/' r"'"
~ /<
/ . /Y
1.5
,/"
~::!: 1.4
;..---
~ ~
a:
o
LL 1.3
o~
1.20
1.1 0
1.0
0.9
0
O.S 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.52
0.50 GRID(m)
0.48
10.4 x 10.4
<{
0.46
0.44
v
LJ.J
a::
<{
0.42
V 8x8
a::
0
0 0.40
V /
...J
u.. /
V /
0.38
0
u..
0.36
. . . .,v /
V
E
g 0.34 V /V /
6.4 x 6.4
0.32 k/ V V )V
E /
::J /V
2 0.30
LJ.J
0.28
../
t'
/
V
I-
LJ.J
a::
u 0.26 V
z
0
u 0.24
~
V
0.22
~'/
V
0.20 /
V
0.18
0.16
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
74
I I
70 INTERIOR GRID
Figure 7.7 Quantities of concrete in total GRID(m)
66
structure for reinforced concrete waffle <{
LJ.J
slab construction without column a:: 62
<{
heads. a:: 58 10 x 10
0
0
...J
u..
54 J 8x8
u.. 50 V--'-
/ V
0
E 46 6X6
0-
r/)
42 L L/
0;
:::0 38 J )1 /
I-
z 34
)'{ V~ '{
LJ.J
~
30
V V--l V
V V; V
LJ.J
U
a:: 26
0
u..
z 22 ./
t'" V; V
LJ.J
a::
18
~
,..,..,.
... 0 V
14
V
V
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
Table 7.8 Effect of number of storeys on Table 7.10 Effect of grid location on constituent
constituent quantities of total structure using quantities of total structure using reinforced
reinforced concrete waffle slab system. concrete waffle slab system.
Grid size (m)/ Constituent quantities/sq m of floor area No. of storeys/ Constituent quantities/sq m of floor area
No. of storeys Grid location Reinforcement Formwork
Concrete
Concrete Reinforcement Formwork (cu m) (kg) (sq m)
(cu m) (kg) (sq m)
Grid size (m) 6.4 x 6.4
6.4 x 6.4
5-storey 0.1875 13.1 1.33 5-storey
50-storey 0.3530 46.4 1.99 Interior 0.1875 13.1 1.33
Percentage change +88 +254 +50 Exterior 0.1928 13.7 1.38
8.0 x 8.0 Percentage change +3 +5 +4
5-storey 0.2550 15.1 1.28 Interior 0.1875 13.1 1.33
50-storey 0.4190 51.9 1.85 Corner 0.1985 13.9 1.40
Percentage change +64 +244 +45 Percentage change +4 +6 +5
10.4 x 10.4 50-storey
5-storey 0.3230 19.2 1.25
50-storey 0.4700 58.3 1.74 Interior 0.3530 46.4 1.99
Percentage change +46 +204 +39 Exterior 0.3550 46.8 2.07
Percentage change +1 +1 +4
Interior 0.3530 46.4 1.99
Corner 0.4065 47.2 2.13
Percentage change +15 +2 +7
Table 7.9 Effect of grid size on constituent Grid size (m) 10.4 x 10.4
quantities of total structure using reinforced 5-storey
concrete waffle slab system. Interior 0.3230 19.2 1.25
Exterior 0.3263 20.0 1.26
No. of storeys/ Constituent quantities/sq m of floor area Percentage change +1 +4 +1
Grid size (m)
Concrete Reinforcement Form work Interior 0.3230 19.2 1.25
(cu m) (kg) (sq m) Corner 0.3286 20.3 1.28
Percentage change +2 +6 +2
5-storey
50-storey
6.4 x 6.4 0.1875 13.1 1.33
10.4 x 10.4 0.3230 19.2 1.25 Interior 0.4700 57.3 1.74
Percentage change +72 +47 -6 Exterior 0.4740 58.4 1.80
Percentage change +1 +2 +4
50-storey
6.4 x 6.4 0.3530 46.4 1.99 Interior 0.4700 57.3 1.74
10.4 x 10.4 0.4700 58.3 1.74 Corner 0.4796 59.4 1.84
Percentage change +33 +26 -13 Percentage change +2 +4 +6
7.1.3 Prestressed Concrete Beam and Slab System between 14 to 52 per cent depending on the number
of storeys of construction, grid size and structural
Observations about trends and variations of constituent scheme. The maximum consumption of concrete is
quantities are now discussed component-wise. for Scheme B2 of the 14 m x 14 m grid.
The consumption of reinforcement is directly pro-
7.1.3.1 Slab portional to the size of the grid for a given scheme
As in the reinforced concrete beam and slab system and is maximal at 8.6 kg!sq m of floor area for Scheme
(Section 7.1.1.1), the quantities of concrete per unit B2 of the 14 m x 14 m grid compared with 4.8 kg!
of floor area remain uniform (Figure 5.2). The require- sq m of the floor area for Scheme A2 of the 10m x
ment of concrete, in an interior panel, is minimal 10m grid,S storeys being considered in both cases
for Scheme A2 of the 10m x 10m grid, the increase (Figure 5.3). The quantity of formwork is about 75
in quantity above this for the other grids ranging per cent for the floor area for schemes involving two-
156 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings
way slabs compared with about 84 per cent for those 7.1.3.4 Shear Walls
with one-way slabs, with the exception of the 14 m As before (Sections 7.1.1.4 and 7.1.2.3), the quan-
x 14 m grid, Schemes A3 and B3. tities of constituents in shear walls are inversely pro-
portional to the grid sizes, while these vary directly
7.1.3.2 Beams with increase in the number of storeys.
In a similar way to the reinforced concrete beam On average, the increase in the quantities of con-
and slab system (Section 7.1.1.2) there is a falling crete and reinforcement is about 570 and 1000 per
trend in the consumption of concrete from 5 to 50 cent for 50-storey construction compared with 5-storey
storeys of construction. This is due to the reduction construction. However, the increase in the quantity
in the length of beams needed to accommodate the of formwork is much less, namely about 140 per cent
increased sections of columns in taller buildings (Figure for the same increase in the number of storeys.
5.7). The decrease in quantity is however quite small.
The quantity of concrete is directly proportional 7.1.3.5 Total Structure
to the grid size. The increase in the quantity of con- The quantities of constituents of construction, in an
crete per square metre of floor area is about 20 per interior grid, for different number of storeys, grid sizes
cent for the 12 m x 12 m grid and about 46 per and structural schemes are shown in Figures 7.10 to
cent for the 14 m x 14 m grid compared with the 7.13 for concrete, reinforcement, prestressing strand
10m x 10m grid, considering similar structural and formwork respectively. It can be seen from these
schemes and the same number of storeys of con- figures that the consumption of concrete and rein-
struction. forcement is directly proportional to the grid size and
The trend for the variation in the quantity of rein- the number of storeys. However, the trend for
forcement is very similar to that discussed in Section formwork quantities is different, this being greater
7.1.1.2, para 2, for the reinforced concrete beam and for small-sized grids when considering similar struc-
slab system. tural schemes.
The quantity of prestressing strand is directly pro-
portional to the grid size and is relatively greater for
schemes involving secondary beams running in two 0.47
GRID (m) SCHEME
directions at right angles to each other (Figure 5.14).
0.45
The quantity of formwork is inversely proportional 14 X 14 A3
0.43
to the grid size and varies from about 0.47 to 0.72 V
square metre per square metre of floor area in 5-storey « 0.41 ./ 14 X 14 A2
'i /
i("" ...... 10 X 10 B2
7.1.3.3 Columns
E
...... ~ ~ ~ ./
~ ~ ~ y.:/
C" 0.31
en
In an interior grid, the increase in the consumption V
:::: 0.29
of concrete per square metre of floor area is about , / .,/'
~ ~ ~ ./ ~
~
E
0.27
....-V
300 per cent for 50 storeys compared with 5 storeys ~
82 5.5
78 I INTERIOR GRID 'PU 1484 N/sq mm
70 <
w
<
w 66 a: 4.5
a: 14x 14 A3 < GRID (m) SCHEME
< a:
62 ~ 0
a:
0 V) 14 x 14 B2 0
...J
u..
1/V)
0 58 14 x 14 A2 4.0
...J
u.. 12 x 12
'0 14x 14 A3
B2
54 E
--
u.. 14 x 14 B3 14x 14 B3
0
E 50
/ IL': I{t 12 x 12 A2
C"
OJ
3.5
t..- lot- - 1!!-001 ~--""' ~- ~- 14x 14 B2
/ V~~ 10 x 10 B2 C, 14x 14 A2
v..ra<I L ~
C"
~
OJ 46 10 x 10 A2 c
C, 42 / z
< 3.0
~
I- 38 V ~ ~ ./ ~ a:
l-
12 x 12 B2
~ ~ tp V': ~
I/)
zw (!J
34
z 2.5
V ~~ ~ ~ ~
~ iii
w 12x 12 A2
u
a: 30 ~ ~
I/)
w
a: 10 x 10 A2
0
u..
z 26 ~ ~ /~ V' l-
I/)
w 2.0
~~ V
w a:
a.. 10 x 10 B2
a: 22
18 ~V 1.5
IIINTERIOR GRID
14
10 1.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS NUMBER OF STOREYS
Figure 7.11 Quantities of reinforcement in total Figure 7.12 Quantities of prestressi ng strands in
structure for prestressed concrete total structure for prestressed concrete
beam and RC slab construction. beam and slab construction.
The effects of number of storeys, grid sizes, grid 7.2 Cost of Structures
locations and structural schemes on constituent quan-
tities for the total structure using prestressed con- The cost of any structure has always been conten-
crete beams and reinforced concrete slab system are tious and thus debatable since, firstly, at any time
shown in Tables 7.11 to 7.14 respectively. there are always a number of rates prevailing for the
The effect of number of storeys on constituent quan- same item of work and, secondly, there are always
tities, for Scheme 82, indicates that the percentage fluctuations in rates with time. So far as the first dif-
increase in the quantity of concrete for different grid ficulty is concerned, to arrive at the cost of any struc-
sizes varies from 37 to 58 per cent when the number ture one can price the relevant quantities with
of storeys is varied from 5 to 50, the higher figure appropriate rates taken from the prevailing Standard
being for the smallest grid (Table 7.11). Similarly, Schedule of Rates; while for the latter problem there
the values vary from 96 to 136 per cent for rein- is no solution except to revise the cost from time to
forcement while the corresponding values for formwork time depending on the need. Keeping the above in
are 11 to 23 per cent. mind, the cost of different structural systems using
The effect of grid size on constituent quantities in- different schemes, grid sizes and number of storeys
dicates that, considering a similar number of storeys, were computed for typical interior grids using the
the range of variation in the quantities of concrete is relevant charts and applying the appropriate rates given
+ 16 to +34 per cent when the grid size is changed in the Architect's and Builders' Price Book, edited
from 10 m x 10 m to 14 m x 14 m (Table 7.12). by Davis, Langdon and Everest (Spon, London, 1992
The corresponding values are +29 to +56 per cent edition). Further, an allowance of 17.5 per cent was
for reinforcement and -2 to -11 per cent for formwork. added for preliminaries and oncosts. The result are
158 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings
2.30
Table 7.12 Effect of grid size on constituent
quantities of total structure using prestressed beams
INTERIOR GRID
and reinforced concrete slab system.
2.20
GRID (m) SCHEME
No. of storeys/ Constituent quantities/sq m of floor area
Grid size (m) Formwork
Concrete Reinforcement Strands
2.10 10 x 10 A2
(cu m) (kg) (kg) (sq m)
14 x 14 A3
«
UJ
2.00
~ V 7~ Scheme B2
~
~ V V
12 x 12 A2 5-storey
a:
o
o
(""" ~ /' V"'" 10 x 10 lOx 10 0.2057 19.8 1.9 1.56
ii 1.90
......- ~ ~ ./
82
14 x 14 0.2752 30.8 3.5 1.53
u..
/' ~ ,/' ::::.- 14 x 14 A2
~
o Percentage change +34 +56 +84 -2
E
g 1.80 / ~r ~
12 x 12 82
50-storey
~....
t/
...... 14 x 14 83
~ ,........, V ~
E
g ~ .....-'l ~ ~/, ~
~
14 x 14 82
lOx 10
14 x 14
0.3255
0.3762
46.8
60.5
1.9
3.5
1.92
1.70
;;; 1.70 ...... v . . y. v~ Percentage change +16 +29 +84 -11
W; 0~ ~ ~ ~V
a:
~ t,. .....
~ 1.60
V ~ i-"""
~~
ou..
1.50
Table 7.13 Effect of grid location on constituent
quantities of total structure usi ng prestressed
concrete beams and rei nforced concrete slab
1.40 system.
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS No. of storeys/ Constituent quantities/sq m of floor area
Grid location
Concrete Reinforcement Strands Formwork
(cu m) (kg) (kg) (sq m)
Figure 7.13 Quantities of formwork in total
structure for prestressed concrete Grid size (m) 10 x 10
beam and RC slab construction. Scheme B2
5-storey
Table 7.11 Effect of number of storeys on Interior 0.2057 19.8 1.9 1.56
constituent quantities of total structure using Exterior 0.2182 26.6 2.3 1.71
Percentage change +6 +34 +21 +10
prestressed beams and reinforced concrete slab
system. Interior 0.2057 19.0 1.9 1.56
Corner 0.2276 27.8 2.6 1.68
Grid size (m) / Constituent quantities/sq m of floor area Percentage change +11 +40 +37 +8
No. of storeys
Concrete Reinforcement Strands Formwork 50-storey
(cu m) (kg) (kg) (sq m)
Interior 0.3255 46.8 1.9 1.92
Scheme B2 Exterior 0.3325 53.4 2.3 2.07
Percentage change +3 +14 +21 +8
lOx 10
Interior 0.3255 46.8 1.9 1.92
5-storey 0.2057 19.8 1.9 1.56 Corner 0.3383 54.3 2.6 2.06
50-storey 0.3255 46.8 1.9 1.92 Percentage change +16
+4 +28 +7
Percentage change +58 +136 +23
Grid size (m) 14 x 14
12 x 12
Scheme B2
5-storey 0.2431 26.7 2.7 1.56
5-storey
50-storey 0.3515 54.7 2.7 1.82
Percentage change +45 +105 +17 Interior 0.2752 30.8 3.5 1.53
Exterior 0.2912 36.6 4.4 1.67
14 x 14
Percentage change +6 +23 +22 +9
5-storey 0.2752 30.8 3.5 1.53
Interior 0.2752 30.8 3.5 1.53
50-storey 0.3762 60.5 3.5 1.70
Corner 0.2937 38.0 5.1 1.63
Percentage change +37 +96 + 11
Percentage change +7 +23 +45 +7
Quantities/Cost - Observations, Trends and Variations 159
115
Scheme A2 0.3 100 26.2 3.5 1.70 Al
110 10 x 10
Scheme B3 0.2670 26.1 3.8 1.63 10 x 10 Bl
Percentage change -14 +9 -4 105
) 10 x 10 B2
Al
8x8
~~
8x8 Bl
50-storey 100 6x6 Al
,
~ ")
<I:
w 6x6 Bl
Scheme A2 0.4 125 56.4 3.5 1.87 a:
<I: 95
Scheme A3 0.4355 63.9 3.9 2.07
~ ~.i'
a:
a
Percentage change +3 +13 +11 + 11 a..... 90
~~
u..
Scheme A2 0.4 125 56.4 3.5 1.87 u..
a 85
Scheme B2
Percentage change
0.3762
-9
60.5
+7
3.5 1.70
-9 ~
E
c- 80 ~~ ~
Scheme A2 0.4 125 56.4 3.5 1.87
!:!
>- 75 ~~~
Scheme B3 0.3665 55.0 3.8 1.79 '"ua 70 ~~ ~~
Percentage change -13 -2 +9 -4
65 ~ ~
~A ~
60 ~ ~
V
shown in Figures 7.14 to 7.17 for different structural 55 ~
systems. 50
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
7.2.1 Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab NUMBER OF STOREYS
System
Figure 7.14 Cost/sq m of floor area for different
The cost/square metre of floor area for various grids grids and schemes using reinforced
and structural schemes using the reinforced concrete concrete beam and slab construction.
160 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings
120
H INTERIOR GRID
/
./
I--- t--
110
10 x 10 WCH' 115 V 1. xU A2
lOS 8x8 WCH V V
::I lij 110 ./ 14 x14 B2
a: 100 8x8 WCH
V V
~
12 x12 A2
~ VL
«
---
14.14 B3
/'
a:
g ...0:
« 105 10.10 A2
.........
!IS
J VI
« 100 V ./ ~ V 12 x12 B2
/v V
0: 10.10 B2
90
A/'.V ~~ /
0
0 0 95
E i
85 ...0 V V ~ ~ ;' l/
I!e! ~ 1/ 90
Ii;
90 E ~ v, ~ V
:::::- jt"',-
~ /
<T
85
~
-- .--,. ::....- ./V V
0 75
u
70
V/ /
"WCH Without column he.d I-
II>
0
80
"..
u
./11'/ !.I'
--
75
85
V V V
80 / 70
55
V V 65
,/ 80
50 ./
55
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
NUMBER OF STOREYS
130
7.2.1.2 Effect of Grid Size on Cost of Total
125
Structure
Considering any specific structural scheme and number
I
120 GRID em) SCHEME
INTERIOR GRID
115
10.4 x 10.4 WCH' of storeys, the cost of the total structure is propor-
110 L 8.0 x 8.0 WCH
tional to the grid size (Figure 7.14). The effect of
/; 6.4 x 8.4 WCH
grid size on the cost of the total structure using dif-
...0:
« 105
-
I-
90
V / '/
II>
0
u 7.2.1.3 Effect of Grid Location on Cost of Total
75
70
V / / "WCH Without column held Structure
The effect of grid location on the cost of the total
85 V / structure for different grid sizes and number of storeys
80
V
V is shown in Table 7.17 for a specific structural scheme.
55 The increase in total cost ranges between 3 and 7
50
per cent, the higher value being for a corner grid
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 and the lower for an exterior grid.
NUMBER OF STOREYS
Table 7.15 Effect of number of storeys on cost of Table 7.17 Effect of grid location on cost of total
total structure using reinforced concrete beam and structure using reinforced concrete beam and slab
slab system and different structural schemes. system.
Grid size(m)/ Number of Cost (£)/sq m Grid size/ Grid Cost (£)/sq m
structural scheme storeys of floor area No. of storeys location of floor area
Table 7.18 Effect of structural scheme on cost of Table 7.20 Effect of number of storeys on cost of
total structure using reinforced concrete beam and total structure using reinforced concrete waffle slab
slab system. system.
Grid size/ Structural Cost (£)/sq m Grid size (m) No. of storeys Cost (£)/sq m
No. of storeys scheme of floor area of floor area
8 x 8 5 57.69
50 103.75 7.2.2.2 Effect of Grid Size on Cost of Total
Percentage increase +80 Structure
10 x 10 5 62.50 The effect of grid size on the cost of the total struc-
50 105.84 ture using flat slab construction is shown in Figure
Percentage increase +69 7.15 and that for waffle slab construction in Figure
7.16. The cost of the total structure is directly pro-
portional to the grid size, for a specific number of
In each case, a structural scheme without column storeys. The increase in cost from the 6 m x 6 m
heads has been considered. grid to the 10m x 10m grid is about 5 to 25 per
cent using the flat slab system, the lower value be-
7.2.2.1 Effect of Number of Storeys on Cost of ing for the highest storeys of construction (Table 7.21)
Total Structure while the corresponding range using the waffle slab
The cost of the total structure varies with the number system is 7 to 19 per cent (Table 7.22).
of storeys for any specific grid size (Figures 7.15 and
7.16). The percentage increase in cost from 5 to 50 7.2.2.3 Effect of Grid Location on Cost of Total
storeys varies from 69 to 101 for the flat slab system Structure
(Table 7.19) and from 62 to 80 for the waffle slab The cost of the total structure varies with the loca-
system (Table 7.20). The higher values in each range tion of the grid, a" other parameters being the same.
are for the smallest grid size. The cost of an exterior grid is always more than the
Quantities/Cost - Observations, Trends and Variations 163
Table 7.22 Effect of grid size on cost of total Table 7.24 Effect of grid location on cost of total
structure using reinforced concrete waffle slab structure using reinforced concrete waffle slab
system. system.
No. of storeys Grid size (m) Cost (£)/sq m No. of storeys Grid location Cost (£)/sq m
of floor area of floor area
Table 7.25 Effect of number of storeys on cost of Table 7.27 Effect of grid location on cost of total
total structure using prestressed beams and structure using prestressed concrete beams and
reinforced concrete slab system. reinforced concrete slab system.
Grid size (m) No. of storeys Cost (£)/sq m No. of storeys Grid location Cost (£)/sq m
of floor area of floor area
Table 7.26 Effect of grid size on cost of total Grid size (m) 14 x 14
structure Llsing prestressed beams and reinforced Scheme 82
5-storey Interior 88.53
concrete slab system.
Exterior 99.01
No. of storeys Grid size (m) Cost (£)/sq m Percentage increase +12
of floor area Interior 88.53
Scheme 82 Corner 103.69
5-storey 10 x 10 69.79 Percentage increase +17
14 x 14 88.53 50-storey Interior 110.50
Percentage increase +27 Exterior 117.50
50-storey 10 x 10 98.90 Percentage increase +6
14 x 14 110.50
Interior 110.50
Percentage increase +12 Corner 122.30
Percentage increase +11
of storey changes from 5 to 50, the higher value of 7.2.3.3 Effect of Grid Location on Cost of Total
the increase being for the lowest grid size considered, Structure
namely 10m x 10m and vice versa. As in other structural systems (Sections 7.2.1.3 and
7.2.2.3), the cost of the total structure is minimal for
interior grid locations as compared with exterior and
7.2.3.2 Effect of Grid Size on Cost of Total corner grids. Considering different grid sizes and
Sructure number of storeys, the range of increase is between
The cost of the total structure increases with increase 6 and 17 per cent (Table 7.27).
in grid size, other factors being the same (Table 7.26).
The range of increase is between 12 and 27 per cent 7.2.3.4 Effect of Structural Scheme on Cost of
when the grid size changes from 10m x 10m to 14 Total Structure
m x 14 m, the lower value of increase being for 50- Considering a grid size of 14 m x 14 m and different
storey construction and vice versa. structural schemes, the variation in cost of the total
structure is of the order of -3 to + 19 per cent (Table
7.28), the most economical being Scheme B3.
Quantities/Cost - Observations, Trends and Variations 165
and Slab System The charts developed for the reinforced concrete
beam and slab system (Chapter 3) and the statistical
relationships subsequently established for them form
the basis for developing a computer model for com-
puting quantities and cost of any model element. This
chapter describes the model elements and considers
the design variables; flowcharts for the computer model
are developed; and an illustration is provided for usage,
An interactive cost model for the reinforced con- together with some of the sample results for differ-
crete beam and slab system was developed using ent model elements.
the results of 80 charts presented in Chapter 3.
Based on the charts developed, 390 statistical re-
lationships were established subsequently. The model 8.2 Model Elements and Design Variables
elements for which quantities and cost can be
computed by this program are solid slab, beams, The elements in this model are solid slab, beams,
columns, shear walls and total structure. The vari- columns, shear walls and total structure. Total
ous design variables for each of these model ele- structures, although not being an element of the struc-
ments have been enumerated; the flowcharts tural system, have been considered as an element of
developed to write the computer program are pre- the computer model. This was considered necessary
sented; an illustration for using the interactive com- since in practice quantities and cost are required for
puter program is given and some of the sample this, in addition to other model elements. The model
results for different model elements are shown. is capable of computing quantities and cost for each
Overall, the model developed runs to 54 normal of these elements with different sets of values for
computer printout pages and uses 10 subroutines various design variables. The design variables con-
for different model elements. sidered for different model elements are discussed
in the subsequent sections.
The availability of cheap computer power in recent The effects of the following design variables are
years has made it possible to save costly professional covered under this model element:
hours which hitherto were wasted in working out
similar details/information for any new project that • Grid size
was taken up. Efforts have therefore been made in • Structural scheme
the last few years to develop computer-based cost • Grid location
models in almost every field where repetitive use of • Number of storeys
such models can be made (Section 1.1). • Grade of concrete.
Two types of computer models, namely interac-
tive and non-interactive, can be developed for re- In order to obtain quantities and cost for any speci-
petitive use, depending upon whether or not the users fic value of a design variable, the values of other
are familiar with the computer language which has variables having an influence are to be supplied as
been used in writing the program. In developing the an input. This is made clear in section 8.4. For each
models for the construction industry it is considered of the above design variables, the model is capable
preferable to write interactive types of programs since of printing an appropriate table of quantities and costs
all users who are expected to make use of them may with essential explanatory notes for clarity.
166
Computer-Based Cost Model for Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 167
Beams have been classified as main beams, second- The design variables considered for this model ele-
ary beams and secondary beams over columns (Chap- ment are:
ter 3, Figure 3.1). In each category of these beams,
the design variables considered are: • Grid size
• Structural scheme
• Grid size • Grid location
• Structural scheme • Number of storeys
• Number of storeys • Grade of concrete
• Grid location • Number of continuous spans
• Size of beam • Lateral loading.
• Number of continuous spans
This model element is capable of computing the cost!
In the case of main beams, an additional design square metre of floor area as well as the total cost
variable considered is 'lateral loading', since main of a project, given its design features such as gross
beams are parts of the lateral load resisting frames, floor area, shear wall area, grid size(s), structural
and two values of lateral loads have been considered scheme, number of storeys, number of continuous
in the analysis and design of structural frames (Chapter spans, concrete grade and grid locations. The com-
3, Section 3.2). putation of quantities/cost is bu i It up element-wise
based on the model elements already discussed (Sec-
8.2.3 Columns tions 8.2.1, 8.2.2, 8.2.3 and 8.2.4).
YES
PLEASE INDICATE THE ELEMENT ON THE
QUANTITIES OF WHICH THE EFFECT OF DIFFERENT
PARAMETERS IS DESIRED:
1) SOLID SLAB
2) BEAMS
YES
3) COLUMNS
4) SHEAR WALLS
5) TOTAL STRUCTURE
Using the keyboard, the user is required to enter any Figure 8.1 Skeleton flowchart for the computer
digit from 1 to 5 depending upon the requirement. model - reinforced concrete beam and
The user enters 1 for the problem defined. slab construction.
Computer-Based Cost Model for Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 169
START
L =1 L = 2
L= 3 L= 4
26 27
53 54
STOP
Figure 8.2 Skeleton flowchart indicating model elements of reinforced concrete beam
and slab construction.
CONSIUt:R LOC - 1,
CALL SUBROUTINE
SLAB AND COMPUTE
CONSTITUENT
QUANTITIES
GLOC _ 4 GLOC _ 3
GLOC s 2
CONSIDER LOC - 2,
CALL SUBROUTINE
SLAB AND COMPUTE
QUANTITIES
APPROPRIATELY
YES
YES
Figure 8.4 Flowchart for the model element - total structure (cost/sq m of floor area).
172 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings
SECONDARY BEAMS AT RIGHT ANGLES TO ONE The user needs to enter 6 since there are 3 grid sizes
ANOTHER SUPPORTED ON MAIN BEAMS and 2 structural schemes for each of the given grid
2) SCHEME B1: MAIN BEAMS IN ONE DIRECTION sizes, and the value of each of the other parameters
SUPPORTED ON COLUMNS AND SECONDARY is not more than 1.
BEAMSINTHEOTHERDIRECTIONATA SPACING
EQUAL TO HALF THE GRID SIZE
3) SCHEME B2: MAIN BEAMS IN ONE DIRECTION
8.4.4 Fourth Display and Input - Combinations
SUPPORTED ON COLUMNS AND SECONDARY
BEAMS IN THE OTHER DIRECTION AT A SPACING
EQUAL TO ONE-THIRD THE GRID SIZE
PLEASE INPUT THE VALUES OF 6 COMBINATIONS?
(APPLICABLE ONLY TO 10M x 10M GRID)
LOCATION OF GRID: YOU HAVE 4 CHOICES FOR
GRID LOCATIONS The user inputs the following sets of values:
References
Enter 2.
1. Singh, S. Cost model for reinforced concrete beam
8.4.8 Seventh Display and Input - Other and slab structures. Journal of the Construction
Elements Division (ASCE). Accepted for publication, 1993.
2. Singh, S. Cost estimation of prestressed concrete
beam and reinforced concrete slab construction.
DO YOU WISH TO CONTINUE WITH SOME OTHER Construction Management and Economics, Vol. 9,
ELEMENT OF THIS MODEL 1991, pp. 205-215.
1) YES 3. Singh, S. Computer based cost model for reinforced
2) NO concrete flat slab and waffle slab systems. Inter-
YOUR CHOICE IS (lOR 2)? national Journal of Project Management. Accepted
for publication, 1993.
Comparison of
nents are provided which do not form part of the
structural frame. Therefore it was decided to bear in
Results
mind the following points in selecting the projects
and also in collecting the relevant information for
comparison:
--
----- --------- ----
Theoretically, a true comparison should always be ~ ~ ....
, --, .... .:.!.i
made on the same basis. For example, if only equal ~- ~-
,l
I I
174
Case Studies for Comparison of Results 175
1 .
~ 7.40
4.40
,
L
I
8.70 L
1
11.50 .
10.20 L
1
~
" ""
~I
..
o
I-- - - -t-----.l...--..--- - - -- .,;
w
~
a::
~
W
W a::
Ul c( o
r------ ...":
-F.
..
.
N
a:i ------f--- --- ---- -- __
,..;
1.5
.
.:;: f------ r-------- -----
,..;
.
,..;
lil
a:i ----- ~ ----1---------
Figure 9.2 Centre line typical floor plan of All dimenlione in metre.
project B.
shear wall area, grid size range, podium and tower Figure 9.3 Centre line typical floor plan of
block details, continuity and structural system adopted, project C.
are listed in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1 Salient features of projects.
9.4 Theoretical Results Project Number Podium Tower Floor Shear Continuity' Structural
title of block block area core system!
storeys (sq m) (sq m) Scheme
Using the appropriate charts and multiplying factors,
if required (Chapters 3 to 5), and based on the de- A 11 11 23487 3901 4 Prestressed
beam and
sign parameters for an individual project, quantities slab, B2
for different structural elements were computed and B 20 4 20 27634 3874 3 RC beam
the results are shown in Tables 9.2 to 9.4 for projects and slab,
B1
1 to 3 respectively under the column 'Theoretical'. C 8 8 4755 571 2-3 RC beam
In computing the quantities for projects with podium and slab,
and tower blocks, computations are made separately. B1
Table 9.2 Comparison of actual and theoretical Table 9.4 Comparison of actual and theoretical
quantities of constituents in different components. quantities of constituents in different components.
Project title: A. Project title: C.
Component! Quantities Percentage Component! Quantities Percentage
Constituents difference Constituents Actual Theoretical difference
Actual Theoretical
Slab
Slab Concrete (cu m) 636.20 605.90 + 4.8
Concrete (cu m) 3252.93 3048.00 + 6.3 Rei nforcement (t) 31.11 28.26 + 9.2
Reinforcement (t) 170.72 153.89 + 9.9 Formwork (sq m) 4411.72 4162.00 + 5.7
Formwork (sq m) 21032.36 19497.00 + 7.3
Beams
Beams Concrete (cu m) 187.13 171.60 + 8.3
Concrete (cu m) 1602.39 1441.60 +10.0 Rei nforcement (t) 51.12 46.86 + 8.3
Reinforcement (t) 440.45 396.85 + 9.9 Formwork (sq m) 1982.30 1844.00 + 7.0
Strands (t) 51.89 46.97 + 9.5
Columns
Formwork (sq m) 12187.56 11176.00 + 8.3
Concrete (cu m) 114.88 103.60 + 9.8
Columns Reinforcement (t) 17.56 15.85 + 9.7
Concrete (cu m) 570.65 514.10 + 9.9 Formwork (sq m) 846.93 763.00 + 9.9
Reinforcement (t) 102.51 92.07 +10.2
Shear walls
Formwork (sq m) 2817.65 2535.00 +10.0
Concrete (cu m) 97.44 89.50 + 8.2
Shear walls Reinforcement (t) 8.82 8.15 + 7.6
Concrete (cu m) 620.91 558.20 +10.1 Formwork (sq m) 1369.76 1223.00 +10.7
Rei nforcement (t) 49.90 44.73 + 10.4
Formwork (sq m) 7953.33 7120.00 +10.5
9.6 Comparison of Results
Cost Estimation 5 6 x 6 Al
(cu m)
0.18
(kg)
14.4
(sq m)
1.68
Bl 0.17 16.4 1.59
8 x 8 Al 0.22 18.8 1.68
Bl 0.22 20.6 1.57
10xl0Al 0.25 23.1 1.64
Bl 0.26 25.8 1.52
B2 0.23 24.1 1.66
10 6 x 6 Al 0.18 15.6 1.74
Bl 0.18 17.7 1.65
8 x 8 Al 0.22 19.7 1.73
10.1 Quantities of Constituents in Overall Bl 0.23 23.0 1.62
Structures 10xlOAl 0.26 24.6 1.68
Bl 0.27 28.1 1.56
B2 0.23 25.9 1.70
Experience has shown that the relative variation in
15 6 x 6 Al 0.20 17.9 1.81
the unit rates of constituents of construction with
Bl 0.19 20.2 1.71
change in time is never uniform. Because of this, a 8 x 8 Al 0.23 21.8 1.78
structural system or scheme which is economical at Bl 0.24 26.1 1.67
any given time may not always remain so. For accu- 10xl0Al 0.27 26.8 1.73
racy, it is therefore essential to consider the prevail- Bl 0.28 31.3 1.61
ing unit rates of constituents for cost estimation. With B2 0.24 28.6 1.75
177
178 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings
181
182 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings
C.I. Conference on Our World in Concrete and materials - flat and waffle slab structures. Proceed-
Structures, 1977. ings of 6th Conference on Our World in Concrete
Murthy, CK. A Comparison of Structural Systems For and Structures. Singapore, 1981, pp. 1-19.
Floors in Buildings. Department of Building Sci- Singh, S. and Murthy, CK. Economics of structural
ence, University of Singapore, 1981. floor systems. Proceedings of Seminar on Structural
Murthy, CK. and Tharmaratnam, K. How high can Systems for High-rise Buildings, Applied Research
we build framed structures without premium for Corporation, Singapore, 19 August, 1983.
wind loads? Proceedings of International Confer- Singh, S. and Murthy, CK. Economic evaluation of
ence on Tall Buildings, Singapore, 22-26 October structural systems in high rise commercial build-
1984, pp. 477-483. ings. Proceedings of 10th ClB Congress on Advanc-
Newton, S. ACE: Analysis of Construction Economics. ing Building Technology, Washington DC,1986.
Internal Report, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Singh, S. and Sofat, G.C Manpower and materials
April 1982. requirements for framed structures. Indian Concrete
Ramaswamy, G.S. Modern Prestressed Concrete Oe- Journal, Vol. 15, No.3, 1973, pp 16-25.
sign. Pitman, 1981. Steyert, R.D. The Economics of High Rise Apartment
Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (The Fed- Buildings of Alternate Design Construction. American
eration of Malaya and Singapore Branch). Standard Society of Civil Engineers, Construction Research
Method of Measurement of Building Works, 1975. Council, 1972.
Seeley, I.H. Building Economics: Appraisal and Control Tregenza, P. Association between building height and
of Building Oesign Cost and Efficiency. Macmillan cost. Architect's journal, November 1982, pp. 1031-
Press, London, 3rd edn, 1983. 1032.
Singh, S. Manpower and materials requirements in Trimble, E.G. and jupp, B.C Regression analysis as
buildings. Journal of the Institution of Surveyors an aid to estimating and controlling the building
(India), Vol. X, No.1, 1969, pp 20-28. client costs. Unpublished paper, 1973.
Singh, S. and Murthy, C.K. Charts for quantities of Wilderness Cost of Building Study Group. An Inves-
materials in reinforced concrete structures for build- tigation into Building Cost Relationships. Royal In-
ings. Proceedings of Our World in Concrete and stitution of Chartered Surveyors, London, 1964.
Structures, Singapore, 1980, pp. F1/01-19. Wood, A.S. Models for estimating the cost of piped
Singh, S. and Murthy, CK. Cost estimation of rein- heating systems in buildings, MSc thesis, Lough-
forced concrete framed structures for high rise resi- borough University of Technology, UK, 1976.
dential buildings. Proceedings of the Eighth ClB Working Commission W-55. Proceedings of the Third
Triennial Congress, Oslo, june 1980, pp. 755-761. International Symposium on Building Economics,
Singh, S. and Murthy, CK. Charts for quantities of Ottawa (Canada), 1984.
configuration 9, 16 RC beam and slab system 148
Index design 9
economics 4, 137
RC flat slab system 149
RC waffle slab system 149
economist 166 Construction 2, 148, 149, 156,
educational 177 166, 177
frames 12, 14 beam and slab 2, 137
industrial 177 flat slab 2,63, 137, 138, 151,
office 5 161
residential 8 prestressed beam 2, 109, 137,
si ngle-storey 8 155
steel-framed 8 slab 2
unsymmetrical 12 slip form 15
Building economics studies 144-5 waffle slab 2, 63, 137, 138,
grades of concrete 1, 5, 11, 41, 151,161
Accuracy 2, 4 63, 65, 80, 109, 128, 145, Continuity 2,11,57,134
Aesthetics 2, 15 166,167,169 Core 8, 14
Aim 1 variation in grid size 145 area 55
American 13 variation with number of Cost 1,6,8, 137, 141, 148, 157,
Analysis 8, 12-14, 63 storeys 144-5 159, 162, 166, 168, 177
elastic 12 variation with schemes 144 additional data 177
of frames 11, 63, 109 analysis 4, 6, 8
Applications 137-46 Case studies 174-6 beam and slab system 159
budgeting of materials 144 basis of comparison 174 control 1
checking of estimates for collection of information 175 estimates 1,6,137,141,177
structural works 142 comparison of results 176 flat slab system 161
comparative cost observations 176 foundation 3
esti mation 137 sal ient features of projects 1 74 historical 1
cost index 144 theoretical results 175 index 1, 5, 6
overall project 141 Ceiling 11,63,109 information 6
quantity index 143 Charts 1, 3, 8, 9, 11, 55, 60, 63, modell, 4, 166
Approach 1 134,135,137,138,141,148, optimum 2
Architect 166 157,166,174,175 planning 1
Architectural Checking of estimates 142 preliminary 177
design 137 Choice of methods 2 prestressed system 163
features 176 Coefficients 14, 15 relative economics 165
work 1, 6 Column 2, 12, 16, 57, 60, 64, structural 1, 4, 5, 6
106,110,128,148,151,156, total structural 141
Background 166,167,174 variation 1, 2, 8
Bay sizes 8 corner 41, 80, 128 waffle slab system 161
Beam 2, 16, 22, 57, 60, 63, 148, exterior 41, 65, 80, 128 Countries, developing 1, 5, 175
156,166,167,174 grid size 11,14,63, 109
depth 15 interior 41, 60, 65, 80, 128 Deflection 13, 15, 110
main 12,15,22,110,167,172 sections 15, 41 Design 1, 2, 8
prestressed 110, 113, 137 spacing 8 architectural 2
secondary 12, 15, 22, 110, Comparison of results 174, 176 economics 4
113, 156, 167, 172 Completed projects 1 forces 15, 22
secondary over columns 12, Components 2 parameters 1,9,106,109,137,
22,113,167 Computer 169,174,175,177
section 15, 22, 55 database 9 stage 1, 5
size 167 programs 11,14,15,64,110 variables 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 166
width 15 Computer-based cost model Design of members 14, 63, 64,
Bending moment 12, 109 166-73 110
coefficient 12, 110 illustrative usage 167-73 beams 15,110
Bibliography 181 RC beam and slab 166-73 columns 15, 64, 110
Bills of quantities 1 74 Concrete 1,4,5,11,14,16,19, flat slab 64
Bond 15 22,41,55,63,64,110,113, shear walls 15, 65, 110
British 128,149,151,155-7,168, solid slab 15, 110
code 11 176 waffle slab 64
standard 14-16, 19 grade 1,5,11,41,63,65,80, Developing countries 1, 5, 175
Building 1, 3, 5, 6, 11, 12, 14, 109,128,166,167,169
22, 57, 156 Constituents 5, 9, 11, 148, 149, Economics 164
commercial 1, 3, 5, 11, 19, 155,177 Effect 1 77-9
109,137,141,174 overall structure 177 design variables 137
completed 8 prestressed concrete 155 increased wind load 179
183
184 Index