Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol.

11, 360-373, December 2013 / Copyright © 2013 Japan Concrete Institute 360

Scientific paper

Enhanced Shrinkage Model Based on Early Age Hydration and Moisture

Status in Pore Structure
Yao Luan1 and Tetsuya Ishida2

Received 4 December 2012, accepted 2 December 2013 doi:10.3151/jact.11.360

Abstract
In this research, an existing multi-scale model for shrinkage behavior is enhanced to improve its applicability and preci-
sion. The enhancement work focuses on the initial autogenous shrinkage and intrinsic driving forces of the shrinkage at
the microscale. The existing model underestimates the rapid development of the autogenous shrinkage of cement with a
low water/cement (w/c) ratio. Hence, combined with self-desiccation, the autogenous shrinkage at an early age is first
discussed. As an approximation, a portion of the autogenous shrinkage at an early age is quantitatively calculated using
the chemical volume change and distance between cement particles, and that portion is added to compensate for the
underestimation in the existing model. Furthermore, in the existing model, capillary tension is assumed to be the princi-
pal driving force in all of the pores with various sizes, which would cause an overestimation of the long-term shrinkage
in the analysis. Therefore in the enhanced model, the driving forces are discussed and modified. The capillary tension is
assumed to only be active in relatively coarse pores, whereas the disjoining pressure dominates in fine pores on the
nanoscale. These two driving forces are quantified by the water status in the pores using the proposed formulas. With
the above enhancements, the autogenous and drying shrinkage behaviors with various w/c ratios and relative humidity
can be simulated reasonably.

1. Introduction In order to explain the microscale aspects of the dry-

Drying shrinkage, which has been studied for a long
time, occurs when concrete is exposed to a low relative
humidity (RH). Moreover, concrete with a low wa-
ter/cement (w/c) ratio is now being widely used. Al-
though a low w/c results in high strength and low per-
meability, it has been found that autogenous shrinkage
becomes non-negligible (Tazawa and Miyazawa 1994,
1995). Tensile stress would be induced by shrinkage,
which would cause cracking and undermine the long-
term performance of structures. To evaluate and predict
the influence of shrinkage, empirical formulas have
been suggested in previous studies (Sakata and Ayano
1989; JSCE 2007; CEB 1993; Bazant and Baweja 1995).
From another standpoint, shrinkage behavior is associ-
ated with microscale thermodynamic properties such as
the hydration, pore-structure formation, and water status
in micropores. These properties vary according to the
raw materials, mix proportion, age, and ambient condi-
tions. Without substantially grasping their relationship,
it is difficult to provide an appropriate evaluation of the
shrinkage under arbitrary conditions. Therefore, it is
important to establish a model that couples the shrink-
age behavior and microscale properties.
1 et al. 2004; Maekawa et al. 2009) was developed in the
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, Saitama University,
Saitama, Japan.
E-mail: luanyao@mail.saitama-u.ac.jp
2
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, the
University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.
ing shrinkage principle, theories concerning the water
status in micropores have been proposed, such as those
involving the capillary tension caused by the water me-
niscus (Powers 1968; Bazant and Raftshol 1982;
Mindess et al. 2003; Shimomura and Maekawa 1997),
the disjoining pressure caused by water films in narrow
pores (Powers 1968; Ferraris and Wittmann 1987;
Beltzung and Wittmann 2005; Maruyama 2010), the
surface energy change caused by water desorption
(Powers 1968; Feldman 1969; Wittmann 1968), and so
on. Because the micropores in a cement matrix vary
widely in size, the water status values are quite different,
and such theories are usually combined to explain the
shrinkage under various RHs. For instance, capillary
tension is considered to act at comparably high RHs,
whereas the disjoining pressure or surface energy
change dominates at lower RHs. The mechanisms of
autogenous shrinkage are regarded as similar to that for
drying shrinkage (Kovler and Zhutovsky 2006; Lura et
al. 2003; Hua 1995), with the difference that the water
is consumed by self-desiccation rather than loss to the
environment. The relationship between chemical
shrinkage and autogenous shrinkage has also been in-
vestigated and discussed (Tazawa et al. 1995;Holt 2005).
With respect to the simulation of the shrinkage behav-
iors of concrete, a multi-scale constitutive model (Zhu
Concrete Laboratory of the University of Tokyo based
on the thermodynamics. In this model, the hydration
process, pore-structure formation, moisture equilibrium
and transport are simultaneously coupled to attain the
water status in the micropores. Accordingly, the driving
Y. Luan and T. Ishida / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 11, 360-373, 2013
forces of the shrinkage are quantified and applied to the
cement matrix. In addition, a two-phase stiffness model
is established to describe the deformation response. As
long as the mix proportion, specimen dimensions, and
ambient conditions are input, the multi-scale constitu-
tive model is theoretically capable of simulating auto-
genous or drying shrinkage simply by altering the
boundary condition to a sealed or exposed condition.
This methodology has been proven to be effective, and
the shrinkage trends can be approximately traced. None-
theless, for practical application, an improvement in the
precision is requisite, especially for low w/c concrete.
Therefore, in this study, the authors conduct a further
investigation of shrinkage on the basis of microscale
phenomena. Accordingly, the model is refined and im-
proved. Before that, the existing model is briefly intro-
duced in Section 2.
2. Scheme of multi-scale constitutive
model
2.1 Water equilibrium and transport in micro-
pores
The bases of the model are the pore structure and inter-
nal water status, which are simulated by a computa-
tional system called DuCOM (Durability COncrete
Model) (Maekawa et al. 2003, 2009). In this system, the
hydration reaction, pore-structure formation, and mois-
ture equilibrium and transport in a cement matrix are
coupled and simulated comprehensively. Figure 1
shows the scheme of the pore-structure model. The mi-
cropore information essentially consists of two parts:
the porosity and pore size distribution. The micropores
in the model are categorized into three types according
to the size and formation mode: capillary pores, gel
pores, and interlayer pores. During the hydration, gel
grains are generated inside and outside the cement parti-
cles. The gel grains precipitating outside fill in large
voids, while the remaining voids are categorized as cap-
illary pores. An individual gel grain is considered to
contain much smaller voids, called gel pores. Moreover,
gel grains consist of numerous layers, with extremely
tiny spaces between these layers, called interlayer pores
(the size is assumed to be 0.28 nm), each of which is
accessible only by a single water molecule. The poros-
Fig.1 Pore-structure model in DuCOM.
361
ities are calculated according to the hydration degree,
chemically bound water, intrinsic porosity of the gel
grains, and surface area. The size distributions of the
capillary and gel pores are described by a Raleigh-Ritz
distribution function.
The water retaining capacity of the pore structure at a
given RH is calculated by considering the thermody-
namic equilibrium of the liquid and vapor. First, as a
result of the surface tension, a capillary meniscus is
formed and a pressure difference is generated across the
vapor-liquid interface. Assuming the micropores are
cylinder-shaped, the pressure difference Pl (Pa) is de-
scribed as
2γ
Pl = (1)
rc
where γ is the surface tension of water (N/m) and rc is
the pore radius (m) where the interface is present. In
addition, the pressure difference can also be written as
the Kelvin equation
ρRT pvap
Pl = ln * (2)
M p
where ρ is the density of liquid water (kg/m3), R is the
gas constant (J/mol・K), T is the absolute temperature
(K), M is the molecular mass of the water (kg/mol), pvap
is the actual vapor pressure, and p* is the saturated va-
por pressure (Pa). The ratio p*/pvap is the relative hu-
midity with the mark h. Combining Eq. 1 and Eq. 2, the
relationship between h and rc is obtained as
2γM 1
ln h = − ⋅ (3)
RTρ rc
It is assumed that pores smaller than rc are totally
filled by water. Pores larger than rc are partially filled
because of the ink-bottle effect. Moreover, physically
adsorbed water exists in the pores that are not filled by
condensed water. According to the modified BET ab-
sorption theory by Hillerborg (1985), the thickness of
adsorbed layer, ta, is calculated by the equation
0.525 × 10−8 h
ta = (4)
(1 − h / hm )(1 − h / hm + 15h)
where hm is the relative humidity at which the pore is
fully saturated. hm can be obtained based on Eq. 3 using
the equation
⎛ −γ M ⎞
hm = exp ⎜ ⎟ (5)
⎝ ρ RTr1 ⎠
where r1 = rc – ta is the residual value of the radius rc
minus the thickness of the adsorbed water layer. By
combining this with the pore size distribution, the satu-
ration of the gel or capillary pores S can be calculated
using the three portions of water as follows (Fig. 2)
Y. Luan and T. Ishida / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 11, 360-373, 2013 362

ta
r1 r Pore size distribution pressure acts. φcp is the capillary porosity and φgl is the
dV/dlog(r)
dv/d lnr gel porosity. Scp and Sgl are their saturations. Thus, β
Vapor equals the average saturation.
Trapped condensed water
(ink-bottle water) Adsorbed
Liquid
As drying continues and the internal RH falls to a low
water
water level, not only the condensed water but also the ad-
rc sorbed water starts to evaporate. According to statistical
thermodynamics, when the internal RH is lower than
rc : Liquid-vapor interface pore radius
Scrc : Saturation of pores smaller than rc SSrcc Sink, Sads 30%, the adsorbed water layer is only several molecules
S
Sads : Saturation due to adsorbed water thick or even vanishes (Brunauer et al. 1969; Wittmann
Sink : Saturation due to ink-bottle water 0 rc Pore radius
1973). The interaction between the solid molecules of
Drying process: Srcc +Sads+Sink
Scp, gl =S the gel grains, i.e., the Van der Waals force, becomes
non-negligible and the surface energy increases. Ac-
Fig.2 Moisture state in pore structure during drying proc- cordingly, the distance between the gel grains decreases
ess. and shrinkage occurs. The driving force from the sur-
face energy changes is expressed as stress σsd, and cal-
rc rmax culated as follows:
S = Sc + Sink + Sads = ∫ dV + ∫ f r dV + Sads (6)
rmin rc
σ sd = S sd ⋅ γ gl (8)
where Sc is the saturation fraction of the pores smaller
than rc. Sink is the saturation fraction of the ink-bottle where γgl is the surface tension of the gel grains, which
water in pores larger than rc. Sads is the saturation frac- is assumed to be 350 mN/m, according to Hori (1962).
tion of the adsorbed water. rmin and rmax are the mini- Ssd is the distribution density function (1/m). Ssd is re-
mum and maximum radii. fr is a coefficient reflecting lated to the total surface area of the gel pores and the
the ink-bottle effect. thermodynamic status of the absorbed water. It is quan-
The moisture transport in micropores involves water tified using the equation
and vapor movement. The flux potential is dominated Ssd = f (h) S pore (9)
by gradients of water pressure and temperature, and the
water conductivity is quantified based on the pore struc- where Spore is the specific surface area of the gel pores
ture and saturation. The details are omitted here. (1/m). h is the internal RH, and f(h) is the thermody-
namic function of the absorbed layer. Without the ad-
2.2 Driving forces of shrinkage in cement ma- sorbed water, the surface energy reaches its maximum
trix value, and f(h) is equal to 1.0. When the absorbed water
In the model, shrinkage is assumed to be caused by cap- is saturated, f(h) is assumed to be 0.0. Essentially, the
illary tension and surface energy change (Zhu et al. thermodynamic status falls between these two cases.
2004) (Fig. 3). The capillary tension is related to the Referring to the BET theory, f(h) is quantified using the
condensed water, whereas the surface energy change is equation
induced by the desorption of the absorbed water. As
indicated by Eq. 2, the formation of a meniscus causes a Vm − V1 1 − h / hm
negative pressure in the liquid water (the vapor pressure f ( h) = = (10)
Vm 1 − h / hm + 15h
is quite small and set to zero), which is the derivation of
the capillary tension. Therefore, the driving force from where V1 is the water volume of the first adsorbed layer
capillary tension, if written as the stress σsc, is given by nearest to the gel pore surface and Vm is the water vol-
ume when the first adsorbed layer is fully occupied by
φcp ⋅ Scp + φgl ⋅ S gl
σ sc = β ⋅ Pl = ⋅ Pl (7) water molecules.
φcp + φgl
2.3 Time-dependent deformation response un-
where β denotes the effective field in which the negative der shrinkage stress
When the stress obtained by Eq. 7 and Eq. 8 is applied
Condensed water Absorbed water
to a cement matrix, the strain deformation can be calcu-
lated using a time-dependent response law (Zhu et al.
Mechanism of capillary tension Mechanism of surface energy 2004; Asamoto et al. 2006, 2008). Concrete is idealized
Water
Atmospheric pressure
molecular Desorption as a two-phase composite, which consists of a cement
Surface
tension
of water
matrix and aggregate (sand and gravel). The aggregate
Gel
Pore
grains is assumed to be rigid and to exhibit an elastic deforma-
Negative
Negative
pressure pressure
Negative
pressure
tion with a linear law. The shrinkage caused by aggre-
Gel surface energy: low high gates is also taken into account (Asamoto et al. 2008). A
Negative pressure caused Distance between gels: long short
by liquid capillary tension Increases of gel surface energy
cement matrix is assumed to be an assembly of fictitious
clusters, referring to the solidification theory by Bazant
Fig.3 Scheme of driving forces in existing model.
Y. Luan and T. Ishida / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 11, 360-373, 2013
and Prasannan (1989). As the hydration proceeds, the
amount of clusters increases. The load capacity of a
cement matrix is the summation of the capacities of all
of the clusters. An individual cluster exhibits a time-
dependent deformation relevant to the history. This
time-dependent deformation consists of elastic, viscoe-
lastic, viscoplastic, and plastic components, which are
simulated based on the water status in the simulated
capillary, gel, and interlayer pores. The details are omit-
ted here. Herein, it needs to be emphasized that the re-
sponse law can treat creep as well as shrinkage defor-
mation, because the load applied to the clusters can be
external or shrinkage stress. Attempts to modify the
response law will influence both the shrinkage and the
creep deformation. The creep behavior has been verified
in previous studies, and reasonable results have been
obtained. Therefore, this study essentially focuses on the
driving forces of shrinkage (see Section 2.2). The re-
sponse law is not considered at all.
3. Discussion and modification of existing
model
3.1 Simulation of autogenous shrinkage using
existing model
As introduced, the pore structure and internal water
status are quantified at the microscale level, and the
driving forces of shrinkage are explicitly derived from
the pore pressure difference, saturation degrees, and
water volume of the absorbed layer, for any self-
desiccation or ambient exchange. This implies that
given the initial material and ambient temperature, by
setting the moisture exchange condition as isolation or
exposed, it is possible to freely simulate autogenous or
drying shrinkage. In previous studies, this methodology
has proved to be effective, and the shrinkage trends
have been roughly verified. Here, the authors focus on
the precision. First, an analysis of autogenous shrinkage
with a low w/c is conducted and compared with a test
from Tazawa and Miyazawa (1997) (Fig. 4). The
shrinkage value before the initial setting is deduced, as
was done in this test. An obvious difference can be ob-
served. In the test, the shrinkage increased rapidly in the
1200
Autogenous shrinkage (micro)
Analysis Test
1000
23% 23% W/C ratio
800 30% 30%
600
400
200
Tazawa and Miyazawa 1997
0 scribed quantitatively by means of the shrinkage stress
0 20 40 60 80 100
Age (days)  
Fig.4 Analysis of autogenous shrinkage with existing
model.
363
initial days, after which the slopes tended to be gentle.
Conversely, the analysis shows a continuous increase
for a long period. Therefore, a great underestimation
occurs at the early age. For low w/c concrete, extensive
previous studies (Yang et al. 1998; Miyazawa et al.
1999; Nawa and Horita 2004; Jiang et al. 2005) found
the distinct feature that the autogenous shrinkage devel-
ops rapidly and drastically at an early age. As for the
analysis, the water consumption and internal RH decline
produced by the self-desiccation are both automatically
calculated by the coupled hydration and pore-structure
formation models. Then, the shrinkage stress is calcu-
lated using the water status, after which the shrinkage
strain is obtained. For low w/c concrete, this calculated
self-desiccation is a gradual process rather than a drastic
development. This is the reason that the shrinkage in the
analysis increases gradually. In the existing model, fac-
tors relevant to self-desiccation, such as the hydration
degree, porosity, and internal RH, have been extensively
investigated and verified (Maekawa et al. 2003, 2009;
Ishida et al. 2007; Nakarai et al. 2007). Therefore, the
overall self-desiccation process in the simulation could
be regarded as reasonable, and it is infeasible and ineffi-
cient to tackle it. The drastic increase in shrinkage is
often encountered in reality, and so it is necessary to
clarify the reason for it on the basis of the current self-
desiccation simulation and driving forces, and provide
an appropriate modification.
3.2 Portion of autogenous shrinkage quantified
by chemical shrinkage
According to the JCI Autogenous Shrinkage Committee
(Tazawa, 1996), chemical shrinkage is defined as the
absolute volume change in hydrates from unhydrated
cement and water. In contrast, autogenous shrinkage is
defined as the macro-dimension or volume changes.
When concrete is fluid, the chemical shrinkage can be
completely converted to a macro-volume change. After
the skeleton is completely formed, the matrix becomes
rigid and the macro-volume change can be resisted.
Therefore, nearly all of the chemical shrinkage is con-
verted into internal pores. Actually, just after the initial
setting, a significant portion of the chemical shrinkage
is converted to a macro-volume change. This conversion
is a result of the combination of the self-desiccation and
uncompleted skeleton. A meniscus is formed by self-
desiccation in the forming skeleton, and the driving
force of capillary tension is generated. Furthermore, just
after the initial setting, the cement matrix is in the proc-
ess of transforming from a liquid to a solid. Thus, the
skeleton is far from completion. It could not resist even
a small driving force, and a relatively large deformation
occurs, resulting in the observed drastic shrinkage in-
crease. Theoretically, this drastic increase could be de-
and constitutive law at an early stage. However, in the
analysis, although the self-desiccation and shrinkage
stress can be simulated, it is very difficult to precisely
Y. Luan and T. Ishida / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 11, 360-373, 2013 364

(a) High w/c ratio (b) Low w/c ratio

Initial dispersion During hydration Initial dispersion During hydration

Cement particles tend to move

Due to large distance, cement towards each other due to small
particles hydrate independently distance, so large macro volume
with small macro volume change change occurs

water cement hydrates Pore void

Fig.5 Influence of hydration and chemical shrinkage on macro-volume change as result of distance between cement par-
ticles.

quantify the stiffness of concrete just after the initial 0.05

setting, because the pore structure is still unstable and W/C = 20%
the cement paste is soft. On the other hand, chemical 0.04
shrinkage is easier to measure and calculate. Hence, a
possible approach is to evaluate a portion of the autoge- 0.03
Influential function

nous shrinkage at an early stage using chemical shrink-
age. This portion of the autogenous shrinkage can be
applied as the initial strain to compensate for the under-
estimated portion in the existing model. In this study,
the authors adopt this approach as an approximation.
Hence, the authors evaluate the underestimated por-
tion in Fig. 4 by means of chemical shrinkage. This por-
tion from chemical shrinkage depends on the w/c, be-
cause lower w/c concrete usually exhibits a higher auto-
genous shrinkage. The authors attempt to explain the
influence of the w/c based on a hypothesis at the micro-
scale (Fig. 5). At the beginning, the cement particles are
dispersed in water, and the average distance depends on
the w/c. After the initial setting, a portion of the chemi-
cal shrinkage induces micropores, while the residual
amount causes autogenous shrinkage. For a high w/c,
the average distance between the cement particles is
relatively large. Thus, the particles hydrate independ-
ently. For a low w/c, the distance decreases and some
particles even contact each other. With the existence of
self-desiccation, they may tend to move toward each
other more significantly by means of the connection or
accumulation of local deformations, resulting in a sig-
nificant macro-volume change.
Thus, the portion of autogenous shrinkage εch quanti-
fied by chemical shrinkage can be described by the
equation
ε ch = vch ⋅ f (δ m )
where νch is the chemical shrinkage. δm is the maximum
thickness of the precipitation layer outside a single ce-
ment particle (m), which is calculated using a stereo-
logical model (Maekawa et al. 2009). 2δm has the physi-
cal meaning of the average distance between cement
particles. f(δm) is the influence function. Following the
W/C = 30%
0.02
W/C = 50%
0.01
Blain value = 3100 cm2/g
0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Average distance of cement particles 2⋅ δ m (μm) 
Fig.6 Relationship between average distance 2δm and
influential function f(δm).
JCI Committee’s definition, νch is calculated using the
volume change from liquid water to chemically bound
water in the equation
vch = Wch /(1/ ρl − 1/ ρ ch ) (12)
where Wch is the weight of the chemically bound water
in a unit volume of concrete (kg/m3). ρl and ρch are the
densities of the liquid water and chemically bound water
(kg/m3), respectively. The value of ρch is assumed to be
1.25 × 103 kg/m3. f(δm) is given by the empirical equa-
tion
f (δ m ) = 0.045 ⋅ exp(− a ⋅ δ m b ) (13)
where a and b are constants with values of 1.2 × 10-4
and 6.0, respectively. For a normal w/c, f(δm) is ex-
tremely small (Fig. 6). As the w/c falls into a low range,
(11) the particle distance 2δm decreases greatly. Thus, f(δm)
increases, and the contribution of chemical shrinkage
becomes non-negligible. In the extreme case where δm is
zero, f(δm) reaches a maximum. Although it does not
occur in reality, the physical meaning is that 4.5% of the
chemical shrinkage is converted to autogenous shrink-
age.
With this portion of autogenous shrinkage added as
Y. Luan and T. Ishida / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 11, 360-373, 2013 365

an initial strain to the existing model, the analysis in Fig.
4 is carried out again (Fig. 7). As anticipated, the
shrinkage strains increase rapidly and agree with the test
results until 20 days. However, another feature in the
test is that the shrinkage strains after the initial days
tend to be gentle or even stagnate. In contrast, the analy-
sis strains continue to increase, with large slopes, over-
estimating the long-term values. The low w/c matrix has
a relatively large Young’s modulus and high deforma-
tion resistance, which may be one reason for the stagna-
tion of shrinkage in the test. Moreover, from the view-
point of porosity, for a low w/c, most of the capillary
pores are filled in reality. It is rational to consider that in
reality, the water in the capillary pores is inadequate to
provide sufficient driving forces after this. However, the
analysis implies that the driving force increases con-
tinuously. Thus, some discrepancy still seems to exist.
cases of low w/c. In general, the driving forces in the
existing model need to be specifically discussed.
3.4 Discussion of mechanisms concerning driv-
ing forces
According to Eq. 7, the driving force from capillary
tension is computed by multiplying the negative pres-
sure by the effective factor β. The negative pressure
dominates the water movement and is solved using the
governing equation of moisture transport. Past verifica-
tions (Maekawa et al. 2003, 2009; Ishida et al. 2007)
have already proven that the negative pressure is reli-
able. Therefore, the discussion focuses on β, which is
the average saturation of the capillary and gel pores. In
other words, the water in both the simulated gel and the
capillary pores is assumed to contribute to the capillary
tension. However, the capillary pores are usually on the

3.3 Simulation of shrinkage under drying condi-

tions with existing model 1200 Analysis Test
The results in Fig. 7 reveal that the long-term autoge- Autogenous shrinkage (micro) 23% 23% W/C ratio
1000 30% 30%
nous shrinkage is overestimated. In this section, the
shrinkage under drying conditions is simulated for ex- 800
tensive investigation. The test conducted by Kiyohara et
600
al. (2002) is used as a comparison. It followed JIS A-
1129 (Method of Test for Length Change of Mortar and 400
Concrete). The mix proportions are shown in Table 1.
200
Prism specimens of 10 × 10 × 40 cm were prepared, and
sealed-curing at 20 ± 0.5°C was applied for 7 days. Sub- 0
sequently, they were exposed to RH 60% and measured 0 20 40 60 80 100
using contact gauges. In the analysis, the same mix pro- Age (days)
 
portion, specimen size, and ambient conditions are pro- Fig.7 Analysis with contribution of chemical shrinkage
vided. The meshing is shown in Fig. 8. added.
Fig. 9 shows the comparison. In the test, the shrink-
age strain tended to be smaller for a lower w/c case. Drying
surface
This trend is supported by test results obtained by other L
researchers (Hansen 1987; Neubauer et al. 1997; Maru- Z
yama et al. 2010; Yurtdas et al. 2006; Garci Juenger and
Jennings 2002). It can be partially attributed to a higher H Drying
Young’s modulus. In the analysis, no clear relationship surface

with w/c is found, and for a low w/c case, the shrinkage X Y
is greatly overestimated as well. Combined with Fig. 7, W Drying
surface
it is suspected that a common point exists for the auto- FEM mesh   
genous and drying shrinkages with low w/c ratios. Al- Fig.8 FEM mesh for analysis under drying condition.
though it declines as a result of self-desiccation, RH still
lies in a relatively high-level field, whereas during the 1200
above drying, the internal RH is higher than 60% before
Shrinkage strain (micro)

the equilibrium. A natural guess is that the driving force 900

may be overestimated in the mid-high RH field for
600
Table 1 Mix proportion of concrete with various w/c ratios Kiyohara et al. 2002
W/C ratio
(Kiyohara et al. 2002). 300
25% 35% 55% 65% Analysis
W/C Water Cement Gravel Sand Air 25% 35% 55% 65% Test
(%) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (%) 0
25 170 680 950 536 5.2 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
35 170 486 1011 635 3.8 Drying Time (days)  
55 170 309 969 820 4.6 Fig.9 Analysis of shrinkage behavior under drying condi-
65 170 262 936 890 5.7 tion with existing model.
Y. Luan and T. Ishida / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 11, 360-373, 2013
micro scale, while the gel pores are much finer, and a
large portion lies in the nanometer range. It is probable
that such a large difference in pore size may induce sig-
nificant property variation in the internal water. Thus,
the capillary tension may only be the principal driving
force in a portion of the pores. On the other hand, as
mentioned in Sections 3.2 and 3.3, the driving force
may be overestimated for a low w/c. In these cases, rare
capillary pores remain, and the primary portion consists
of gel pores. Therefore, a natural inference is that the
capillary tension may be inappropriate as the driving
force in gel pores at the nanometer scale. In addition,
while β is expressed by the average saturation, strictly
speaking, the absolute water volume seems to be a more
appropriate index. With the same negative pressure and
saturation, it can be inferred that a matrix containing
more water may exhibit larger shrinkage, because the
acting field of water increases.
Based on the above discussion, the driving force is re-
established. Most of the capillary pores are at the micro
scale in reality. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that
capillary tension is active. Conversely, for gel pores at
the nanometer scale, capillary tension may not be the
dominant mechanism. One proof is that in fine pores,
physically absorbed water occupies a larger portion.
Thus, there is a decline in the capillary tension, which is
related to the decreased portion of condensed water
(Hansen 1987; Garci Juenger and Jennings 2002; Bentur
et al. 1979). Beltzung and Wittmann (2005) pointed out
that in nanometer pores, the capillary tension is much
smaller than the value calculated by the Kelvin equation.
Additionally, in fine pores, the water flow may no
longer be continuous. Water is confined by the nano-
space and becomes a set with only tens of molecules
(Bruni et al. 1998; Farrer and Fourkas 2003). Thus, wa-
ter movement may be discrete and closer to particles. In
short, it is more reasonable to treat the driving force in
nanopores separately.
Disjoining pressure dominates
in Group S
Repulsive force Ft caused by
disjoining pressure
Skeleton Force F0
• Group S are saturated
• Equilibrium state
F0
Ft
Ft
F0
• Group S starts to lose water
• F0 > Ft Driving force occurs
Fig.10 Scheme of driving forces in pores with different sizes.
366
The authors assume that disjoining pressure is appro-
priate as the driving force in nanoscale pores. This the-
ory was originally proposed by Derjaguin (1940; 1974)
and defined as the action of the liquid absorbed in a
surface toward the surface. When it is applied to a ce-
ment matrix, the disjoining pressure is assumed to be
generated by the water in the narrow spaces, and acts as
the repulsive force toward gel particles (Powers 1968;
Bazant and Wittmann 1982). When the internal RH de-
creases, the water starts to evaporate, and some disjoin-
ing pressure disappears. Accordingly, the repulsive force
decreases. Thus, the distance between gel particles de-
creases and shrinkage occurs. For nanopores, because of
the tiny size and tremendous surface area, the disjoining
pressure can be thought of as the dominant mechanism.
Furthermore, the surface energy change in the exist-
ing model and its difference from the disjoining pres-
sure need to be clarified. The two theories both describe
the mechanism in nanopores. The surface energy change
is non-negligible only when the adsorbed water layer is
extremely thin or completely desorbed. Instead, the dis-
joining pressure is present as long as the water (con-
densed and absorbed) exists. From the viewpoint of RH,
the surface energy change is active at a very low RH,
whereas the disjoining pressure can dominate in a wider
field. When the water is completely removed, the driv-
ing force from the disjoining pressure reaches the
maximum. In some sense, it can be regarded as being
equivalent to the surface energy change at complete
desorption. In the enhanced model in this study, the dis-
joining pressure is adopted to replace the surface energy
change, as well as the capillary tension in nanopores.
3.5 Simulation of driving forces by capillary
tension and disjoining pressure
The newly proposed scheme in the simulated pore-
structure is shown in Fig. 10. First, the radius rc intro-
duced in Eq. 3 is used to distinguish the water distribu-
Moisture state in pore-structure
dV/dlog(r)
dV/dlnr high RH, rc>rbr
Water in Group L
Capillary tension
dominates
rbr rc Pore radius log(r)
dV/dlog(r)
dV/dlnr Low RH, rc<rbr
Water in Group L
Capillary tension
dominates
rc rbr Pore radius log(r)
Y. Luan and T. Ishida / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 11, 360-373, 2013 367

tion at the unsaturated state. According to Fig. 2, in the
simulated pore structure, pores smaller than rc are to-
tally saturated, whereas larger pores are partially filled
by the ink-bottle and physically absorbed water. In order
to separate the action fields, a so-called border radius rbr
is suggested. In pores larger than rbr (abbreviated as
Group L), the capillary tension dominates. As to pores
smaller than rbr (abbreviated as Group S), the disjoining
pressure dominates. Because rbr should be on the nano-
meter scale, it is assumed to be 10 nm. At a high RH, rc
is larger than rbr, and thus, Group S is totally saturated.
The repulsive force from the disjoining pressure sus-
tains the equilibrium with the skeleton force. Therefore,
the driving force only occurs in Group L by the capillary
tension. As RH decreases, the vapor-liquid interface
degrades toward nanopores, and rc becomes smaller
than rbr. Group S starts to lose water, and a portion of
the disjoining pressure disappears. Hence, the repulsive
force in Group S decreases and cannot sustain the bal-
ance with the skeleton force. As a result, the driving
force in Group S is activated.
Hence, the shrinkage stresses are re-quantified. The
driving force in Group L is given by
σ sc = A ⋅ VL ⋅ Pl = A ⋅ (Vcp _ L + Vgl _ L ) ⋅ Pl
where VL is the water volume in Group L in the cement
matrix (m3/m3). Vcp_L and Vgl_L are the water volumes in
capillary and gel pores larger than rbr (m3/m3). Therefore,
Vcp_L and Vgl_L are subsets of VL and are illustrated in Fig.
11. A is an influential constant equal to 8.0.
For Group S, the driving force is derived from the
skeleton force and repulsive force caused by the disjoin-
ing pressure. This is written as follows
Δ F = F0 − Ft
where F0 is the skeleton force, which equals the repul-
sive force when Group S is saturated. Ft is the repulsive
where K is the intrinsic magnitude of the disjoining
pressure and only depends on the material of the solid
surfaces and the liquid inside (Pa). λ is the decay length
(nm). k is the distance between the surfaces (nm). Ma-
ruyama (2010) derived a K value of 4500 MPa for the
cement matrix from a statistical thickness disjoining
model.
Based on Eq. 16, if the pores are assumed to be cyl-
inder-shaped, the disjoining pressure in an individual
pore depends only on the radius. The total repulsive
force should be a complex of the disjoining pressures in
all of the pores. Thus, integration should be performed.
The pore size distribution, surface area, and water con-
tent are necessary, and they can be simulated as intro-
duced in Section 2.1.
First, when Group S is saturated, the repulsive force
maintains the equilibrium with the skeleton force.
Therefore, the repulsive force equals F0 in Eq. 15, and is
quantified as
rbr
∫ Π(2r )dχ
rmin
F0 = φS ⋅ (17)
χ0
(14)
where φS is the volume fraction of Group S, as illus-
trated in Fig. 11. χ0 is the total surface area of Group S.
Following Eq. 16, П(2r) is the disjoining pressure in
pores with an arbitrary radius r. dχ denotes the infini-
tesimal increment in the pore surface area for radius r.
Hence, in Eq. 17, the integral value from rmin to rbr is the
resultant force of the disjoining pressure when Group S
is saturated. With the normalization by the surface area,
the repulsive force F0 is calculated and equals the skele-
ton force.
(15) Next, the repulsive force at the unsaturated state is
expressed by the equation
rbr
rbr

force caused by the disjoining pressure. ∫ Π ( 2 r )d χ w ∫ Π(2r )dχ

rmin
w

According to Derjaguin and Churaev (1986), the dis- Ft = φS ⋅

rmin Ft = φS ⋅ (18)
joining pressure between two parallel surfaces drasti- χ0 χ0
cally decreases as the internal distance increases, and
can be empirically described by the following equation where, in contrast with dχ, dχw denotes an infinitesimal
increment in the water-filled pore surface area for radius
Π(h) = K exp(−k / λ) (16) r. The parameters K and λ in Eq. 16 are necessary to
determine П(2r). K is assumed to be 3000 MPa, and λ is

Gel pore distribution dV/dlog(r)

(dV/dlnr) Capillary pore distribution dV/dlog(r)
(dV/dlnr) Total pore distribution (dV/dlnr)
dV/dlog(r)
0.08 0.08 0.08
Gel porosity Capillary φS φL
0.06 φgl 0.06 porosity φcp 0.06
VL=Vgl_L+Vcp_L
0.04 0.04 0.04

Vgl_L Vcp_L 0.02 rbr

0.02 0.02

0.00 0.00 0.00

-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5
Log(r[m]) Log(r[m]) Log(r[m])
Fig.11 Water distribution in Group L and Group S.
Y. Luan and T. Ishida / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 11, 360-373, 2013 368

10 nm. These values are different from Maruyama’s agreement with the test results for various w/c values.
data, because the approaches and thermodynamic vari- The phenomenon that the shrinkage becomes smaller
ables are not completely the same. for a lower w/c is grasped. This improvement was
For an unsaturated state, the internal water in Group S caused by the separation of the driving forces. For an
consists of two portions. All of the pores smaller than rc RH higher than 60%, the effect of the disjoining pres-
are water-filled, whereas larger ones are partially filled sure is not significant. Thus, the capillary tension domi-
by ink-bottle water. Therefore, using the coefficient fr in nates, which decreases as the w/c decreases.
Eq. 6, Eq. 18 can be expressed as Finally, for a normal w/c (50%), the results of analy-
ses using the existing and enhanced models are com-
rc rbr
pared. The test was carried out by Kanda et al. (2008)
∫ Π(2r )dχ + ∫
rmin rc
f r ⋅ Π(2r )dχ
and also followed JIS A-1129. The shrinkage was meas-
Ft = φS ⋅ (19) ured by the comparator and laser methods simultane-
χ0 ously, and identical results were obtained. As shown in
Fig. 15, the analysis with the existing model underesti-
By combining Eq. 15, Eq. 17, and Eq. 19, the driving
mates the value within tens of days, even though the
force can finally be written in relation to the stress σsd as
follows:
60

Driving forces of shrinkage (MPa)

σ sd = F0 − Ft 25% 55% Total force
rbr rc rbr 50 25% 55% Capillary tension
∫ Π(2r )dχ ∫ Π(2r )dχ + ∫ f r
⋅ Π(2r )dχ
40 25% 55% Disjoining pressure
= φS ⋅
rmin
− φS ⋅
rmin rc
(20) W/C ratio
χ0 χ0 30
rbr rbr

∫ Π(r )dχ − ∫ f r
⋅ Π(r )dχ 20
rc rc
= φS ⋅ 10
χ0
0
By combining this with the capillary tension in Eq. 14, 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.3 0.4 0.5
the total driving force σs is obtained as Relative humidity  
Fig.12 Driving forces of shrinkage under various RHs.
σ s = σ sc + σ sd (21)
1200
The relationships between the driving forces and the
Autogenous shrinkage (micro)

Analysis Test
internal RH are shown in Fig. 12. The total forces in- 1000
23% 23% W/C ratio
crease as RH decreases. The capillary tension already 800 30% 30%
dominates at an RH field higher than 80%. Conversely,
the disjoining pressure is activated at around RH 80%, 600
and contributes principally at mid-low RH values. For a 400
low w/c, the capillary tension tends to decline. Thus, the
total driving force decreases. 200

0
4. Simulation of shrinkage behaviors using 0 20 40 60 80 100
enhanced model Age (days)  
Fig.13 Analysis of autogenous shrinkage with enhanced
4.1 Verification of autogenous and drying model.
shrinkages
With the above enhanced model, the autogenous shrink- 1200
age in Fig. 7 is calculated again, and is shown in Fig. 13.
Shrinkage strain (micro)

After the initial days, the analysis results gradually in- 900
crease, which agrees better with the test results. In this
case, the simulated capillary pores are abundantly filled. 600
Thus, the water in Group L is insufficient to produce
adequate capillary tension. On the other hand, the inter- W/C ratio
300
nal RH remains in the high field, and Group S is almost 25% 35% 55% 65% Analysis
saturated. Therefore, the disjoining pressure is not active. 25% 35% 55% 65% Test
In the enhanced model, these factors are effectively 0
taken into account. 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
The shrinkages in Fig. 9 are also re-calculated and Drying Time (days)  
shown in Fig. 14. Clearly, the results are in better Fig.14 Analysis of shrinkage behavior under drying con-
dition with enhanced model.
Y. Luan and T. Ishida / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 11, 360-373, 2013 369

800 as matured. Then, they were exposed to various RHs in

Drying shrinkage strain (micro)

Kanda et al 2008
600
400
200
0
0 40
Drying Time (days)
Fig.15 Comparison of drying shrinkage precision be-
tween existing model and enhanced model.
final value is satisfactory. In contrast, the analysis with
the enhanced model is consistent with the test for the
whole process.
4.2 Shrinkage behaviors of cement matrix un-
der various RH values
The above verifications of drying shrinkages were con-
ducted at the standard RH of 60% from JIS A-1129.
Here, a wider RH range is investigated. The test results
from Maruyama (2010) are used for the verification.
Cement paste specimens with w/c values of 55% and
40% were cast. These were 3 × 13 × 300 mm in size to
alleviate RH gradients along the depth. The specimens
were water-cured for 91 days, and can thus be regarded
the range of 95% to 20%. The water loss and length
change were measured simultaneously until the equilib-
rium state. In addition, some specimens were dried at
105°C, and the remaining weight was defined as the dry
mass. For the shrinkage, the length before drying was
by the enhanced model
by the existing model
set as the original length. Exactly the same conditions
test by comparator were utilized in the analyses.
test by laser The water contents and shrinkages at the equilibrium
states are shown in Fig. 16. For the water contents in
80 120 160 200 Fig. 16(a), although a slight deviation occurs for a w/c
  of 55% with an RH of 80%, in general, they are well
simulated. The shrinkages with the existing and en-
hanced models are shown in Figs. 16(b) and (c), respec-
tively. The results of another analysis with a w/c of 25%
are plotted to make it easier to comprehend. With the
existing model, almost the same results are obtained
regardless of the w/c. In contrast, with the enhanced
model, the difference in relation to w/c can be repro-
duced, which is consistent with the test results. The
comparison of the driving forces in Fig. 17 reveals the
reason for the improvement. In the existing model, the
total driving force increases as w/c decreases. This is
because all of the simulated gel and capillary pores are
assumed to contribute to the capillary tension, and the
driving force is evaluated using pore pressure and their
average saturation. For a low w/c, the total simulated
porosity decreases greatly as a result of filling the capil-
lary pores, while variation rarely occurs in the fine pores

0.30 0.000
Water content (g/g-dry mass)

Uniaxial volume strain (m/m)

40% Maruyama 2010

0.25 55% Analysis
W/C -0.002
0.20 ratio 40%
Test
0.15 55% -0.004 25%
40% Analysis
0.10
-0.006 W/C ratio 55%
0.05 40% Test
Maruyama 2010
55%
0.00 -0.008
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Relative humidity   Relative humidity  
(a) Water content (b) Drying shrinkage with existing model
0.000
Uniaxial volume strain (m/m)

-0.002

25%
-0.004
40% Analysis
W/C ratio 55%
-0.006
40%
Test
55%
-0.008
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Relative humidity  
(c) Drying shrinkage with enhanced model
Fig.16 Analysis of water content and drying shrinkage in equilibrium state under various RHs.
Y. Luan and T. Ishida / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 11, 360-373, 2013 370

100

Driving forces of shrinkage (MPa)

25% 40% 55% Total force 100
Driving forces of shrinkage (MPa)

25% 40% 55% Capillary tension

W/C ratio
80 25% 40% 55% Surface energy 80
W/C ratio 25% 40% 55% Total force
25% 40% 55% Capillary tension
60 60 25% 40% 55% Disjoining pressure

40 40

20 20

0 0
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.3 0.4
Relative humidity   Relative humidity  
(a) Driving forces with existing model (b) Driving forces with enhanced model
Fig.17 Driving force of shrinkage under various RHs.

Table 2 Young’s modulus at age of 91 days calculated by 0.10

dV/dlog(r)
Total pore distribution (dV/dlnr)
55%
analysis.
0.08 W/C ratio 40%
W/C (%) 55 40 25
25%
Young’s modulus (GPa) 14.3 21.9 25.8
0.06

(Fig. 18). As a result, with the same RH and rc, it shows 0.04
a higher saturation but lower water contents. Following
Eq. 7, a higher driving force is obtained. The Young’s 0.02
moduli at 91 days in the analysis are shown in Table 2.
The increase in the driving force is neutralized by the 0.00
higher modulus. Thus, similar shrinkages are obtained, -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4
as shown in Fig. 16(b). With the enhanced model shown Log(r[m])  
in Fig. 16(c), the discrepancy is effectively amended. Fig.18 Pore distribution at age of 91 days.
On the whole, it can be concluded that the shrinkage
0.000
behaviors can be appropriately simulated using the en-
Uniaxial volume strain (m/m)

hanced model. A little further discussion considers a w/c

of 55% and RH below 40%, as shown in Fig. 16(c), -0.002
where a slight overestimation is still observed. The rea- Test
son is not clearly understood, but it may be related to -0.004 2nm
the microcracks in the drying surface. Even if the 5nm
specimens are very thin, at a low RH, microcracks may 10nm
-0.006
not be completely avoidable in the test (Bazant and 20nm
Raftshol 1982; Hwang and Young 1984). Yet, micro- 100nm
cracks are not considered in the analysis. The internal -0.008
restraint may be released along the microcracks, which 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
would cause the shrinkage to partially recover. In the Relative humidity
future, the influence of such microcracks on the shrink- Fig.19 Sensitivity analysis of border radius rbr to drying
age needs to be studied further. shrinkage behavior under various RHs.

4.3 Sensitivity analysis with border radius rbr

The border radius rbr separates the action fields of the However, according to Eq. 16, the disjoining pressure
driving forces in the enhanced model. Its value is 10 nm. decreases exponentially as the pore radius increases.
To examine the rationality of this value, a sensitivity Thus, these additional pores larger than 10 nm contrib-
analysis is carried out. The case with a w/c of 40% ute little to the disjoining pressure, while the capillary
shown in Fig. 16 is chosen, and the results are shown in tension is greatly alleviated. In particular, when rbr is as
Fig. 19. rbr is alternated in the range of 2~100 nm. For large as 100 nm, most of the capillary pores are attrib-
values smaller than 10 nm, the shrinkages are overesti- uted to Group S, and the disjoining pressure is the only
mated. On these occasions, more pores are attributed to dominant mechanism. Consequently, in an RH field
Group L. Thus, the water content contribution to the higher than 80%, shrinkage seldom occurs, which is far
capillary tension becomes higher. In contrast, if an rbr from reality. Clearly, 10 nm is a rational value to use to
larger than 10 nm is adopted, the water volume in Group separate the capillary tension and disjoining pressure
L decreases, whereas the portions in Group S increase. from the viewpoints of both quantitation and physical
meaning.
Y. Luan and T. Ishida / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 11, 360-373, 2013
5. Conclusion
In this study, the authors carried out the necessary en-
hancement of an existing multi-scale model to improve
its validity and precision for shrinkage behavior. In the
existing model, the water status in micropores during
the self-desiccation and drying processes was simulated
at the microscale, and the driving forces of the shrink-
age were quantified. By combining with a time-
dependent response law, the autogenous and drying
shrinkages were uniformly simulated. Although the ex-
isting model has been proven to be effective in past
verifications, discrepancies from test results still exist. A
distinct discrepancy is that the drastic increase in auto-
genous shrinkage at a very early age in reality is largely
underestimated, while the increasing trend at a later age
is overestimated. In addition, the drying shrinkage at a
low w/c ratio is not well simulated either. Therefore, in
this paper, the underestimation of the autogenous
shrinkage at an early age was first discussed. The reason
was that during the early self-desiccation, the large de-
formation cannot be effectively simulated because the
skeleton of the cement paste is not completely formed.
Hence, an approximate model was proposed to quantify
the autogenous shrinkage at an early age based on its
relationship with chemical shrinkage. This portion of
autogenous shrinkage was added to compensate for the
underestimation in the existing model. As a result, the
autogenous shrinkage at an early age was properly
simulated. Furthermore, to counter the overestimation of
the autogenous shrinkage at a later age and the discrep-
ancy for drying shrinkage, the driving forces were dis-
cussed and improved. In the existing model, the water in
all of the pores is assumed to contribute to the capillary
tension. However, because the water property greatly
depends on the pore size, the authors considered the
dominant driving force in nanometer-scale pores to be
caused by the disjoining pressure rather than the capil-
lary tension. That driving force is only active at low RH
values, and does not contribute significantly to the auto-
genous or drying shrinkage at relatively high RH values.
According to the above assumption, the driving forces
of the shrinkage caused by the capillary tension and
disjoining pressures were separated and quantified in
the enhanced model. A border radius was proposed to
separate the microscale and nanoscale pores. The capil-
lary tension is only active in the microscale pores,
whereas the disjoining pressure dominates in nanoscale
pores. The overall simulation is effectively improved by
using the enhanced model. Verification using test data
with various w/c and drying conditions showed that the
shrinkage behaviors of a cement matrix and concrete
can be properly simulated.
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