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Physics Gce o Level Syllabus 2010 2
Physics Gce o Level Syllabus 2010 2
Step 2: Draw a diagonal across the parallelogram, connecting the point between Step 1: Draw the scaled lines of forces, with each starting points MUST start from
the force 6.0N and 4.0N. This is the resultant force, FR (the upward the END point of EACH previous line of force. Then draw the resultant
force pulling kite up and also the direction of the force) force from the VERY START of the force (from barge) to the VERY END
of the force. Determine the magnitude and direction (from horizontal to
net force), which in this case is 1o but we round it off as right. The
direction MUST follow the direction of the GREATEST FORCE.
*NOT TO SCALE. THE SCALE IS FOR YOUR REFERENCE ONLY. WHEN
YOU DRAW, USE REAL SCALE!*
Step 3: Measure the length of the diagonal. Then with your measurement,
compare with the scale. This is the magnitude of the resultant force.
Then to find the direction, draw a horizontal line, parallel to the ground,
and measure with a protractor between horizontal to net force.
Scale = 1cm:1N 1.3 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
Length
Metre Rule
Metre rule is used to measure length of 0 – 1m with 0.1cm precision
Vernier Calipers
Vernier calipers used to measure small length of 0 – 15cm with 0.01cm precision
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The main scale is up to 0.1 cm precision. It’s in cm. The vernier scale is up to 0.01 Micrometer Screw Gauge
cm precision. It’s in cm too. Add the reading of vernier scale with main scale. Micrometer gauge used to measure small length of 0-2.5cm with 0.01mm precision
To read a vernier calliper: (e.g. for wire diameter, paper thickness, etc that is very fine)
STEP 1: Look where the zero mark of the vernier scale coincide with the main
scale. This is your centimeter length on the main scale, correct to 0.1cm.
In this case, it’s 3.1 cm.
STEP 2: Look where the marking on vernier scale coincide with the marking on the
main scale. This is your centimetre length too, but correct to 0.01 cm. In
this case, the 4th marking on vernier scale coincides with the marking on The main scale on the sleeve is up to 0.1 mm precision. It’s in mm. The circular
the main scale. Hence, the reading of vernier scale is 0.04 cm. scale on thimble is up to 0.01 mm precision. It’s in mm too. Add both readings to
get the length in mm.
To read a micrometer gauge:
STEP 1: After placing the object between anvil and spindle, look where the mark of
STEP 3: Add the reading from vernier scale with the reading on the main scale. the main scale coincide with the circular scale. This is your millimeter
READING = (3.1 + 0.04) cm length on the main scale, correct to 0.1mm. In this case, it’s 4.5 mm.
= 3.14 cm
STEP 3: Add both readings. This is length of the object in mm, correct to 0.01mm
READING = (4.5 + 0.12) mm
=4.62 mm
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Time
Time is measured in seconds. A motion which is repeated is oscillation (e.g. a
pendulum from rest swings to displaced position then back to its rest position is
one oscillation). The time in which one oscillation occur is period.
Watch
Watches are used to measure long time intervals (e.g. every 1 minute for 10
minutes). Usually, we use minutes.
END OF CHAPTER 1
Stopwatch
Stopwatches are used to measure short term intervals. Digital stopwatches has
0.01 s precision while analogue stopwatches has 0.1 s precision. The reaction time
affects the reading of the stopwatch, that is the time when you press the start and
stop button of the stopwatch, might be late for a few hundredths of a second.
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Solving a Speed-Time Graph (v) The total distance travelled by the car from t = 0s up to t = 35s.
The graph represents the motion of a car along a straight road. Determine: d = 192m + (5.5 x 28) m + ( x (28+12) x 7.5) m + ( x (28+12) x 6) m + 28 m
= 192m + 154m + 150m + 120m + 28m
= 644m
CHAPTER 3: DYNAMICS
(i) The deceleration of the car when it enters the town. CHAPTER 4: MASS, WEIGHT AND DENSITY
The deceleration of a speed-time graph = gradient CHAPTER 5: TURNING EFFECTS OF FORCES
a = CHAPTER 6: DEFORMATION
CHAPTER 7: PRESSURE
=
a = – 3.47 m s-2
deceleration = 3.47 m s-2
(ii) The acceleration of the car as it exits the town.
a=
=
a = 4.33 m s-2
(iii) The time taken for the car being inside the town with a constant speed.
t = (28 – 12) s
= 16 s
(iv) The distance between the entrance and exit of the town.
Distance = area under the graph
d = 16 s x 12 m s-1
= 192 m
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8.4 POWER
The Energy We Use Everyday
Power is rate of doing work
Renewable Energy is energy resource that can be replaced
Non-renewable Energy is energy resource that cannot be replaced P=
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Water Waves
The Ripple Tank
Longitudinal Waves
Waves which travel in parallel direction to the direction of the vibrations
High Frequencied Wave Low Frequencied Wave
FREQUENCY (f) is number of crests/troughs that pass a point per second. Unit: Hz
PERIOD (T) is the time taken to generate one complete wave (or wavelength)
Formula: T =
SPEED (v) is the distance moved by a wave in one second
Formula: v = or v = f
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END OF CHAPTER 12
Ambulance is written backwards so that drivers can see by rear-view mirror
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Ray Diagrams and Mirror Light waves from air into glass block slows down. Glass is optically denser than
To draw an object reflected to the mirror to be seen to the eye: air as it slows down the speed of light
When light travels from a lighter medium to a denser medium, refracted ray bends
towards the normal.
When light travels from a denser medium to a lighter medium, refracted ray bends
away from the normal.
When light travels enters another medium of different densitiy at perpendicular
from the normal, there is no ray deviation (no refraction).
PRACTICAL ACTIVITY: Investigating refraction of light into glass block
STEP 1
Draw a line from Object (O) to Mirror (M) then continue from Mirror (M) to Image (I).
Make sure the lines are perpendicular to M and OM = MI.
STEP 2
Draw lines from the image to the eye to represent reflected rays. Behind the mirrror Place glass block on paper and draw the outline of it. Shine a ray source from an
should be in dotted lines while when reaching out the mirror use solid lines. angle, then draw points on the incident ray and emergent ray. Connect the points
STEP 3 on incident ray, and then connect another points on emergent ray. At point of
Draw lines from the object connecting to reflected rays in front of the mirror incidence and point of emergence, draw perpendicular line to the glass block
outline to represent the normal line. Inside the outline join the point of incidence
Using Reflection and point of emergence with a straight line, and then measure the angle of
Periscope incidence, refraction and emergence.
Two plane mirrors are placed at 45o to stem of periscope
Laws of Refraction
Incident rays from object enter the periscope
1. Incident ray, refracted ray and normal at point of incidence lie on the same plane.
The ray strikes the first mirror and the image is laterally
inverted. The inverted ray strikes the second mirror 2. For the two media, ratio is constant, where i is angle of incidence while r is
which re-inverts the ray to normal and reach the eye angle of refraction (Snell’s Law) Constant ratio is known as refractive index (n),
where the formula is n = . The greater n, the more refraction towards normal
Mirror in Meter Example:
A mirror is placed directly under the pointer so that the eye will look at the correct A ray of light travels from a liquid of refractive index 1.33, into the air. The angle of
position disregarding parallax error incidence is 30o. State the degree of the angle of refraction.
Note: since ray travels in same manner when shone from air, the formula is n =
13.2 REFRACTION OF LIGHT
The bending of light when it passes from one medium to another – refraction
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anl = (a = air, l = liquid; means equation when light ray is FROM air TO liquid)
1.33 =
o
sin r = 1.33 x sin 30
= 0.665
r = 41.7o
Refractive Index and Speed of Light
refractive index (n) = (a) Light ray enters the block at normal (angle of incidence = 0), there’s no deviation
Example:
(b) Angle of incidence increases, hence angle of refraction increases too
Light ray in the air when enters diamond of refractive index 2.42 retards from its
8 -1
original speed 3.0 x 10 m s . State the speed of light in diamond.
(c) Refracted ray now passes exactly along air-glass boundary – the angle of
n=
incidence is the critical angle
2.42 =
(d) Angle of incidence > critical angle – ray doesn’t leave glass; reflected internally
v=
= 1.24 x 108 m s-1 Critical Angle and Refractive Index
From above: Higher medium optical density slower light speed From the formula of refractive index, to find critical angle:
n= (refer example law of refraction)
Floating Brick?
The brick appears floating as light from the brick is =
refracted at water-air boundary and bent away =
from normal. Our eye receives light in a straight
sin critical =
line, therefore we see the brick higher than the
actual point. The formula for refractive index of Example: Find the critical angle for a glass block of refractive index 1.50
this phenomenon is n = sin critical =
critical = sin-1 ( )
o
= 48.7
Applications of Total Internal Reflection
Total Internal Reflection Diagram 13.1
Criterias for occurance of total internal reflection:
Light travels from an optically denser medium to optically less dense medium
Angle of incidence is greater than critical angle (angle of incidence in denser
medium when the angle of refraction in the other medium = 90o)
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Concave mirror in light guide reflects light from lamp to condenser lenses so that
there’s no converging of light, where it directs light through reticle(slide) and
converge to the projection lens.
Projection mirror is moved forth and back to produce sharp, real, magnified
image on screen. As the image is going to be inverted when it passes the
projection lens, the film is set upside down and the image is projected upright.
Magnifying Glass
Characteristics:
Transfer energy from one place to another
It produces virtual, magnified, upright image. Transverse waves
The image appears larger and more distant. Can travel through vacuum
The image cannot be formed on a screen. Travel at the speed of light
They have wave properties, i.e. refraction, reflection
Have the equation v = f
The electric and magnetic fields are
END OF CHAPTER 13
perpendicular to each other and to
the direction of travel of wave
Radio Waves
Produced by oscillating electric currents in transmitter and received by another
aerial antenna at the other end
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Infra-red Radiation LASER- Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation, used for:
Waves beyond red end of spectrum, possessed by all objects Weld and cut hard materials
The hotter the object, the wavelength gets shorter, red visible spectrum is seen Spot-weld detached retina
Cooler object, the wavelength is longer, ordinary eye cannot detect infra-red Seal blood vessels
Measuring a piece of road over large distances
They are used in: Sending digital signals by short laser light pulses through optical fibres.
Infra-red camera
Hot parts of objects emit more infra-red radiation of shorter wavelength Ultra-Violet Radiation
affecting the camera film more. Therefore temperature difference can be Waves beyond violet end of visible spectrum; main source: sunlight. Used for:
detected by difference in brightness. Applications in:
check healthy crop-sick ones emit different infra-red radiation to healthy ones Stimulation of vitamin D production in body for healthy bones
checking missile installation-missile plants changes surface temperature Excess may cause skin cancer and retinal damage
Ozone absorbs substanial amount of UV rays to prevent excess UV
Thermogram
Infra-red radiation emitted by the body is detected as hot spots by thermogram Sunbed
Malignant growth, i.e. cancer, arthritis – higher temperature, more radiation UV rays carry sunlight energy which carries extra rise for suntans
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X-Rays
Short electromagnetic waves produced when high energy electrons lose energy
after striking metal target. Uses are:
Diagnostic tool in medicine and dentistry – to show structure of bones & teeth
Examine hidden flaws and cracks of metal parts during welding END OF CHAPTER 14
DISADVANTAGE OF X-RAYS:
High penetrating power could destroy living tissuesand organisms
Gamma Rays
Very short electromagnetic waves emitted by radioactive nuclei/during nuclear
reactions. Uses are:
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CHAPTER 15: SOUND Speed of sound differs in gases, liquids and solids – they have different inter-
15.1 SOUND WAVES atomic forces strength and atom arrangement.
Sound is energy propagated in longitudinal wave such that the particles of medium, Speed travels fastest in denser media. So, sound travels best in solids.
i.e. air, vibrate forth and back in a direction parallel to the direction of wave.
It is produced by vibration of objects Audible Frequencies
Range for human ears: 20 Hz – 20 kHz
Propagation (Way A Wave Travel) of Sound Range sensitivity lowers as human grows older
Sond waves are produced when vibrating object alternately pushes and pulls the
air adjacent to it, causing rapid small changes in air pressure. Sounds over the hearing limit – ultrasound
Sounds below hearing limit – infrasound
Dog has higher audible frequency and can hear ultrasonic whistles
Bats (10kHz – 120kHz) locate obstacles and prey in the dark by producing
sound waves which echoes on any obstacles which is then heard by bats
(b) When prongs move outwards, layers of air are pushed close together so that a Example:
compression of air particles is formed. The disturbance is passed from particle Two observers are at A and B 1000m apart. A steady wind blows from B to A.
to particle, causing compression move outwards. When a pistol is fired from A, observer at B recorded the interval between the time
(c) When prongs move inwards, layers of air are pulled apart causing he saw the flash and the time he heard the sound as 2.34 s. When it’s fired at B,
decompression of air particles called rarefaction. the time interval was 2.11 s. Calculate the speed of sound in air and the speed of
wind BA.
Compression – high pressure region in air caused by disturbance of air particles Sound speed = v, Wind speed = vw
close together. On sinusodial wave is the crest. v - vw = sound speed subtracted to wind as wind reduces the sound speed
Decompression – low pressure region in air caused by layers of air pulled apart. = 427.3504 m s-1............................................................(1)
On sinusodial wave is the trough. v + vw = sound speed added to wind as wind increases the sound speed
= 473.9336 m s-1.............................................................(2)
Transmission of Sound Through a Medium
(1) + (2) 2v = 901 m s-1
Sound must travel in a meduim as there should be a material to be compressed or
stretched. So, sound cannot travel in vacuum V = 451 m s-1 sound speed
(2) – (1) 2vw = 46.5832
The bell is rung in vacuum. Will you hear it? vw = 23.2916 m s-1 wind speed
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- First, both objects neutral (number of positive and negative charges are same).
- When polythene rod is rubbed with wool, electron is transferred from wool to
polythene rod, due to movement of electrons with the help of friction. (a) Negatively-charged rod brought near Q; repelling electrons to the other side of
- Electrons that were originally part of wool are separated from their atoms and Q, leaving positive charges attracted to the rod at the end of Q nearer to the rod.
deposited onto polythene. (b) By earthing by touching Q, electrons are further repelled to the Earth.
- Wool, in return, lost the same number of electrons, therefore negatively charged. (c) Hand is removed in presence of rod P to keep the charges.
- Atom loses electrons – positive ion; atom receives electron – negative ion (d) P is removed after hand is taken away, leaving the conductor positively charged.
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- As fuel is transferred to aircraft with hose, it rubs against hose and acquire lots of
negative charges. The hose transfers electrons to the petrol and hence acquire LASER PRINTER
positive charges. When these two charged objects are in contact, the opposite
charges may recombine and produce sparks which easily ignites the petrol.
- Charges are discharged by earthing with a thin copper wire which carry electrons
from ground to neutralise the charges on the hose before charges are built up
and cause sparks.
PANTS ON FIRE Is the same process as photocopier but step 2 is different. After that all the same.
- Synthetic fibres in clothing are insulators which are easily charged by rubbing. In - In step 2, command is sent from computer to printer to shine laser beam onto
case of dry air blowing, these fancy distro may catch fire. rotating drum to “draw” exact patterns from document as electrical charges.
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR
- Selenium drum is positively charged by rotating it near highly charged metal wire
- Strong light is reflected off the page and projected onto drum.
White parts of the paper reflect intense light on drum. Since selenium becomes
electric conductor when receive light, the part receiving light conducts
electricity and become discharged.
Other coloured parts of paper receive no light and since selenium becomes
insulator when it’s in darkness, the positive charges remain in position. The Aim: To clean smoke out from chimney by collecting ash and dust in precipitator.
position of these charges creates the same pattern as the original document. - When smoke particles move past negatively-charged grid, they become
- Negatively-charged toner is sprayed onto the drum and gets attracted to the negatively charged and get attracted to the positively charged plates. As a result,
positive charge pattern. This creates the image of the original. only waste gases are out of chimney. This method efficiently collect 99% smoke.
- The toner which has been patterned is transferred onto paper as drum rotates. Note: Only smoke are collected but harmful gases are still free.
- Heat is applied to paper to melt toner so that it is fixed onto the paper surface. END OF CHAPTER 16
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CURRENT AND ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (E.M.F.) SI Unit for potential difference = joule per coulomb (J C-1) (or) Volt (V)
Arrangement of Cells
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17.3 RESISTANCE
Resistance (R) – the ratio of potential difference (V) across a component to the
current (I) flowing across it.
R=
SI Unit for resistance = ohm ()
CHAPTER REVIEW
1. A filament bulb, F1, has a resistance of 1 . It’s was connected solely across a
circuit with a 3.0V d.c. supply.
(a) (i) Briefly explain the meaning of “...has a resistance of 1 ”.
(ii) State the potential difference across the filament bulb. Explain your
answer.
(iii)Hence, calculate the current flowing past the bulb.
(b) Another filament bulb, F2, was placed in a circuit, but now parallel across F 1.
Explain, if any, the differences in
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Permanent magnets are magnets that retain their magnetism for a long time
Temporary magnets are magnets that lose their magnetism easily
2. When a bar magnet comes to a rest, one end of the magnet will face North,
called North-seeking pole/North Pole, while the other end faces South, called
South-seeking pole/South Pole.
Induced Magnetism arrangement of tiny magnets. To prevent this we use two soft-iron keepers placed
across a pair of magnets.
DEMAGNETISATION
In an unmagnetised steel bar, the arrangement of tiny magnets points at random
1. Heating
direction causing the polar effect by the tiny magnets cancel each other out.
Heat a magnet until red hot and lay it east-west. Heating increases vibrations
The more tiny magnets aligned in the same direction, the stronger the magnet is.
of atoms of magnet causing the tiny magnets to lose their alignment. Hence
Also, if we put magnets side by side, the magnets weaken faster because the free
magnetisation is lost.
repelling poles near the ends of the magnet repel each other, hence distrupting
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2. Hammering In (b) and (d), when two magnets of equal strength are placed with same poles
Hammer magnet & lay east-west direction. It destroys tiny magnets alignment facing each other, magnetic field effects are cancelled out, forming a point where
3. A.C. method there are no magnetic effect on X, called the neutral point. Compass placed here
Place the magnet in solenoid with low voltage a.c. supply. Slowly remove the points in uncertain direction.
magnet from the solenoid in east-west direction while current still flows.
Place magnet on a paper so that N-pole directs to North and S-pole directs to 19.4 TEMPORARY AND PERMANENT MAGNETS
South. Place a small plotting compass at A near the pole of magnet. Mark the ends Magnetic Properties of Iron and Steel
of the compass needles with dots 1 and 2. Compass is then moved to B with one
end of compass needle, in diagram is South end, exactly on dot 2. Dot 3 is marked
on the other end of compass needle. Repeat the steps until the compass reaches
the other pole of the magnet. Join the dots formed to obtain magnetic field lines
and the direction is from N to S pole.
Laws of magnetic field
1. Magnetic field lines should NEVER cross each other
2. Outside magnet, magnetic field lines start from N-pole to S-pole. Inside magnet,
magnetic field lines continues from S-pole to N-pole, forming continuous loops. A steel bar and iron bar of same dimensions are placed to be magnetised by bar
3. The lines which are closer to each other represent stronger magnetic field. magnet on top of them by induction. Iron bar attracts more iron filings than steel bar,
Straight parallel lines of force represent uniform magnetic field. indicating it’s magnetised easily and stronger than steel bar. However, when bar
Magnetic field patterns magnet is removed, iron filings from the iron bar all fall off, but only some iron
When two magnets are brought close to each other, the field produced is the result filings from the steel bar fall. This proves iron loses magnetism more easily
of combined effects of the magnets. Magnetic materials which are harder to magnetise but retains its magnetism longer
In (a) and (c), when two magnets of equal strength are placed with opposite poles are hard magnetic materials.
facing each other, magnetic field becomes stronger. Magnetic materials which are easier to magnetise but loses its magnetism easily
are soft magnetic materials.
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For creation of force by current source, we use Fleming’s Left Hand Rule.
2. Galvanometer For creation of current source by force, we use Fleming’s Right Hand Rule.
Coil suspended in magnetic field of permanent magnet in galvanometer will be Current flowing out of page is denoted byʘ but into page is by .
moved due to deflection created by turning effect produced in coil when current For determining the magnetic field across a solenoid, we use Right Hand Grip Rule.
flows into and out of the coil.
20.1 MAGNETIC FIELD BY CURRENT
When a compass is placed under current-carrying wire, it deflects and when placed
above the wire, it also deflects, but to opposite direction. This shows magnetic field
is produced.
Magnetic Field Due to Long Straight Wire
By placing a wire vertically through a horizontal card and place iron filings around it,
we know the pattern of magnetic field around a straight wire. The iron filings are
3. Magnetic door catch closer to each other when placed nearer to wire, showing stronger magnetic field. It
Magnetic strips fitted to doors of refrigerators keeps the doors closed by is thus known that when we increase the current, more magnetic field lines are
attraction. formed, creating stronger field. To find out the direction of magnetic field, we use
plotting compass placed along line of magnetic field. Diagrams below illustrate this.
4. Also used in: D.C. motors, loudspeakers, resetting metal index in Six’s
thermometer, removal of small metal objects from eyes, memory chips
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We can also deduce the direction of magnetic field by using the right-hand grip rule. It consists of 2 circuits – one consisting of electromagnet to switch on another
It is known that when the current is reversed (e.g. from into page to out of page), circuit. When first circuit is closed, current flowing through solenoid magnetises
the direction of magnetic field is also reversed. the iron core which then attracts the soft-iron armatur. The upper part of armature
swings up and touches the contact hence closing the second circuit. The second
Magnetic Field of a Flat Coil circuit may need large current to operate, hence an electromagnetic relay can
Magnetic field due to current by flat coil is stronger inside coil than outside because activate the second circuit by just using a small current for the first circuit.
field from each wire side are concentrated in a small area. They’re also straight and
perpendicular to plane of coil. 2. Reed Switch
A reed switch is a pair of soft iron strips, known as reeds, housed inside glass
tube, containing inert gas (to prevent oxidation of the reeds), with a gap between
reeds. When magnetic field from bar magnet/electromagnet is brought near, say
the glass is wound, reeds become temporarily magnetised and attract each other,
Right Hand Grip Rule closing contacts and allows current flowing in circuit connected to the reed switch
Use your right hand fingers to curl around the wire
and your thumb pointing towards the direction of 3. Electric Bell
current. The direction of the curled fingers is the When switch’s on, circuit’s closed & current
direction of magnetic field. flows through electromagnetic coil. Soft iron
cores are magnetised & armature is attracted
to the cores so that the hammer strikes the
bell. As soon as the armature moves towards
Magnetic Field of a Solenoid the core, the circuit breaks and hence the
The magnetic field lines resembles that of a bar magnet. Inside the solenoid, it armature returns to original position as cores
resembles field lines in flat coil. It even has poles. To determine the polarity, look at lose their magnetism. The return of armature
one end of solenoid and if current is flowing in anti-clockwise direction, it’s N-pole. closes the circuit and therefore current flows
If current is flowing in clockwise direction, it’s the S-pole. Repeat the experiment for again and repeats process. The bell continues
the other end of the solenoid. Otherwise, use right-hand grip rule in FIGURE 19.5. to ring as long as switch is kept on.
It is known that if we reverse the current, the polarity will also be reversed.
4. Circuit Breaker
Applications of Electromagnets Circuit breakers are used to cut circuit when current exceeds specified value.
1. Magnetic Relay When usual current’s flowing, strength of electromagnet is insufficient to separate
contacts. When current’s too high, strong magnetic force pulls contacts & breaks
circuit. Spring keeps contact while fault’s repaired. Contacts stay apart unless
contacts are pushed back by pressing reset button.
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Magnetic field will combine when the direction of the magnetic field is the same to
produce stronger field. Contrawise, they repel to produce weaker field. Magnetic
field created by wire has one side which coincide with the direction of the magnetic
field. This side attracts the magnetic field to take this path, producing stronger
magnetic field. Otherwise, the sides which don’t coincide has weaker magnetic field.
Force is exerted on the conductor from the region where field is now stronger to the
5. Audio/Video Tapes region where field is now weaker to balance the unequal fields.
The tapes are coated with magnetic material. Sound/pictures are represented as
varying currents. The currents causes electromagnet at the head of the tape to Force Between Two Parallel Current-Carrying Conductor
magnetise tape according to the picture or sound. Just remember:
Like current directions attract.
Force on Current-Carrying Conductor in Magnetic Field Unlike current directions repel.
The direction of force on conductor can be determined using Fleming’s Left Hand ...and also apply the theory on force on current-carrying conductor in magnetic field.
Rule. Look at the diagram below. Thumb shows direction of force, first finger shows
direction of magnetic field and second finger shows direction of current. Position
the first finger to direction of magnetic field and your second finger to direction of
current flow. The thumb will show you where the force directs the conductor.
An explanation
A current-carrying conductor produces a circular magnetic field. Between two
magnets there is a magnetic field produced from North to South pole. When the
current-carrying conductor (e.g. wire carrying current) is brought between the 20.2 MAGNETIC FLUX OF D.C. CIRCUITS
magnetic field of the 2 magnets, the magnetic fields created will combine to form a Turning effect on Current-Carrying Coil
stronger magnetic field.
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We have learnt force between two parallel current-carrying conductor is due to When circuit is closed, conventional current flows from positive terminal of battery
attraction/repulsion between magnetic fields created by both wires. towards X through P, then through coil and back to battery through Y and Q. To
determine the direction of turn of d.c. motors, we use FLEMING’S LEFT HAND
Now, that there’s a magnet by the side of these two current-carrying conductor, RULE on EACH SIDE OF THE COIL, then UPWARD-SIDE OF COIL TURNS
flowing in opposite direction and affiliated by coil, what would happen? TOWARDS DOWNWARD-SIDE OF COIL.
Look at Figure 20.12. In (a), two parallel current-carrying coil placed between a
horseshoe magnet create circular magnetic field for each side. Applying Force on For example, in the diagram, upward force is experienced on right side of coil while
Current-Carrying Conductor in Magnetic Field, the side of each fields coinciding left side of coil experiences downward force. The coil hence turns anticlockwise
with magnetic field of horseshoe magnet will merge and create an equal but until it reach vertical position, where at this point current is cut because split-ring is
opposite force on each side of the coil, which is called catapult field. The not in contact with carbon brush. However, the momentum of the coil continues the
combination of these forces will rotate the coil. rotation until the split-rings is, again, in contact with carbon brush.
D.C. Motors Note that half-ring Y is now in contact with P while X is now in contact with Q, The
process is then repeated. Note also that the current in coil reverses each time coil
passes vertical position, i.e. the right side of coil flows towards the battery at first,
but now it’s on the left side and current now flows away from the battery.
3. Inserting soft iron core within coil to concentrate magnetic line of force.
This will create a radial field which keeps the pair of forces acting on coil constant
and increases magnetic field strength hence increasing turning effect in coil,
D.C. motors works only with direct current. It consists of a coil of wire, which spins
on an axle, placed between two N-pole and S-pole of a permanent magnet, and
connected to a split-ring commutator, which, each half of the ring rubs against
carbon brush as the coil turns to allow flow of current.
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(a) Draw the truth table for a NAND gate. [2] CHAPTER 23 – ATOMIC PHYSICS
(b) The LED now lights up. State the inputs A and B of the gate and explain 23.1 Radioactivity
why the LED lights up. [2] Radiation has an ability to ionize gases.
(c) Metal conductor X is slowly heated to a very high temperature. At a Radioactive substances emit 3 kinds of radiation:
certain temperature, the LED is switches off. Explain why this happens[2] (a) Alpha(α) –rays
[Physics GCE O Level Oct/Nov 09] (b) Beta(β) –rays
(c) Gamma(γ) –rays
Detection of Radioactivity
1. Gold-leaf electroscope
As a radium source is brought near cap of negatively-charged electroscope,
radiation emitted by radium source ionizes air molecules above cap. As cap is
negatively-charged, negative ions are repelled while positive ions are attracted
to cap. These ions neutralize negative charges on the cap and the gold leaf thus
collapses.
The table shows how the tracks tell what kind of radiation was introduced.
Radiation Tracks made Characteristics
To show that radioactive emission occurs randomly over space - Find torn parts in moving components of machinery by applying radioactive
Position a few GM tubes, all equidistant from a radioactive source. The count rates isotope on surfaces of moving parts to find out how much of the radioisotope is
on each GM tube will not be the same. rubbed off.
To show that radioactive emission occurs randomly over time - Find leaks in underground pipes as leaks emit an unusually high count rate on
Place a GM tube near a radioactive source with long half like and determine the GM detector at area of leak.
disintegration over a minute, which will tell us count rate. Repeat experiment a few
times and since radioactive has long half life, the count rate should be same but the - Find how well plants absorb phosphate by radioactive phosphorus-32.
readings show slight fluctuation.
2. Penetrating radiation
Half-Life - Gamma rays can photograph deep inside engine to check any faults.
Half-life is the time taken for half of the unstable nuclei to decay.
Let‟s compare ten million radioactive sodium nuclei with half-life of 15 hours with - Gamma rays can be used to check constant thickness of rolled metal sheets.
ten million radioactive radium nuclei with half-life 1600 years. It will take 15 hours The rays is radiated from a source at one side of the moving sheets and on the
for 5 million sodium nuclei to decay but 1600 years for radium nuclei to decay other side, there‟s a ratemeter to find out count rate which depends on amount
(half the amount) of radiation passing through steel plates. When plates are thick, low count rate
The table shows sample count rate of a radioactive substance. Half-life is 7.5 hours. and vice versa. The count rate is constant when the steel plates have equal
Count rate/min 5000 2500 1250 625 312.5 thickness.
Time/h 0 7.5 15 22.5 30
- High penetrating power of gamma rays is used to kill bacteria in frozen or pre-
packaged foods to sterilize food and prevent food poisoning.
3. Power sources
- Uranium-235 is used as fuel in nuclear power stations (Refer chapter 24)
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- Some fire alarms emit α-particles to keep air around them slightly ionized so The Precautions
that any changes in level of ionization caused by smoke can be detected and the To prevent overexposure/accidents, the following measures must be taken:
alarms go off. (i) Workers working with γ-rays must wear film badges or pocket dosimeters to
keep track of accumulated dose of radiation they are exposed at a time.
4. Medical uses (ii) Always keep radioactive sources in lead-lined boxes kept in storage rooms
Gammatron decays radioactive cobalt-60 to emit β-particles and γ-rays. When built with lead bricks of 1m thick labeled with “Radioactive Material” as
properly shielded, γ-rays can be brought to bear on deep cancerous growths in a radioactive radiation do not penetrate thick lead.
cancer patient and the radiation kills the cells of tumor.
(iii) Radiation symbol must be displayed whenever radioactive radiation
5. Archaeological dating experiment is conducted.
Radioactive carbon-14 isotope is present in air. When animals breathe in these,
they become slightly radioactive. When they die, the carbon inside them will start (iv) Persons doing experiments should use special protective coating such as lead-
to decay. The half-life of carbon-14 is almost 5500 years, so the age of dead lined suits and lead-lined gloves, holding the radioactive source with tweezers.
animals can be found by comparing activity of carbon-14 in dead animals with a At the end of the experiment, the contaminated clothing MUST be changed.
living one. The activity of the carbon in living animals is constant as it‟s
continuously replenished while the carbon in dead animals is not replenished. (v) Food and drinks are prohibited when radioactivity experiment is made as
radioactive dust contaminating food may be taken into the body.
The hazards EXERCISE
1. Overexposure Below is half-life curve for mercury. The count rate is given in percentage.
- Radioactive radiation overexposure result in radiation burns, lead to sores &
blisters for long time. Sometimes, this cause radiation sickness leading to death.
- Radioactive radiation can lead delayed conditions, e.g. eye cataracts/leukemia
may appear many years later.
2. Genetic mutations
- The ionizing radiation cause genes to be destroyed or mutated leading to
offspring with physiological and other abnormalities.
3. Radioactive leakage
- Accidents which may cause leakage of radioactive materials into the air can
pose health problems to people, livestock and plants.
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Explanation
A small number of α-particles (positively-charged) are deflected as they are
repelled by strong repulsive force of positively-charged nucleus when they pass
through the atoms too close to the nuclei. Since most part of atoms is empty spaces,
most of the particles can pass through undeviated.
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24.2 The Structure of an Atom Nuclide notation is a symbolic way to represent unique features of a particular
Atomic Model atomic nucleus in the form .
An atom contains: Isotopes
- Nucleus, consisting of protons (positively-charged) and neutrons (no charge). Isotopes are atoms with same proton number but different nucleon number.
- Electrons (negatively-charged), surrounding the nucleus E.g. Hydrogen isotopes are: ; Uranium are .
Protons are responsible for the nucleus to be positively-charged. It exists, with the
same number of electrons, in the nucleus.
Isotopes have same chemical properties as they have same number of electrons
which are the particles involved in chemical reactions.
1. α-decay Radioisotope
In α-decay, the parent nuclide has atomic number Z decreased by 2 and Artificial radioactive isotope can be made by bombarding lighter molecules with
nucleon number Y decreased by 4 to form daughter nuclide . protons, neutrons or α-particles. An example is nuclear power plants.
In general, the equation is:
+ + energy END OF PURE PHYSICS SYLLABUS
Parent nuclide Daughter nuclide + Helium (α-particles) + energy
Example:
+ + energy
Radium parent nuclide Radon daughter nuclide + α-particles + energy
2. β-decay
In β-decay, the parent nuclide has atomic number Z increased by 1 and
nucleon number Y unchanged to form daughter nuclide .
In general, the equation is:
+ + energy
Parent nuclide Daughter nuclide + Electron (β-particles) + energy
Example:
+ + energy
Sodium parent nuclide Magnesium daughter nuclide + β-particles + energy
3. γ-decay
A parent nuclide is in excited state (having more amount of energy than it
usually has) and will emit γ-rays due to its spare energy released and its daughter
nuclide isotope unchanged.
In general, the equation is:
( )* + γ-rays
Excited parent nuclide Daughter nuclide + Gamma rays