ecoconcrete

The contribution of cement and concrete to

a more sustainable built environment
 About this publication
This publication is aimed at all who are interested in the ways in which cement and concrete
can contribute to a more sustainable built environment. The contents will be of interest to
architects, designers, contractors, engineers and clients as well as others involved with the
design, construction or operation of buildings, structures and infrastructure.

Most readers will know that concrete is a popular and robust building material. Fewer will
appreciate that it is also a key material of choice for eco-designers. This publication will show
you how concrete can help achieve environmental sustainability.

This publication was commissioned by the Reinforced Concrete Council, which was set up to promote better knowledge
and understanding of reinforced concrete design and building technology. The Council’s members are ASW, the major
supplier of reinforcing steel in the UK, and the British Cement Association (BCA), representing the major manufacturers
of Portland cement in the UK.

Reinforced Concrete Council

Century House, Telford Avenue, Crowthorne, Berkshire RG45 6YS
Tel: (01344) 725733 Fax: (01344) 761214 Email: rcc@bca.org.uk Web: www.rcc-info.org.uk

Front cover photograph: Canon Headquarters, Epsom, Surrey, courtesy of The Concrete Society.

Acknowledgements
This publication was produced by Dr Jacqueline Glass with extensive support from colleagues at the Reinforced Concrete
Council. The kind assistance of the British Cement Association, The Concrete Society, British Precast Concrete Federation,
the Ready-mixed Concrete Bureau and CONSTRUCT is noted. Particular appreciation goes to Gillian Bond of Words
& Pages, and thanks to all others who made contributions towards the content of ecoconcrete during its production.

97.381 Published by the British Cement Association on behalf of

First published in 2001 the industry sponsors of the Reinforced Concrete Council.
ISBN 0 7210 1577 8
Price group DE British Cement Association
Century House, Telford Avenue,
© British Cement Association 2001 Crowthorne, Berkshire RG45 6YS
Tel: (01344) 762676
Fax: (01344) 761214
Web: www.bca.org.uk

All advice or information from the British Cement Association and/or Reinforced Concrete Council is intended for those who will evaluate the significance
and limitations of its contents and take responsibility for its use and application. No liability (including that for negligence) for any loss resulting from
such advice or information is accepted by BCA or RCC. Readers should note that all BCA publications are subject to revision from time to time and should
therefore ensure that they are in possession of the latest version.
 ecoconcrete
Contents
ecoconcrete
The contribution of cement and concrete
to a more sustainable built environment

Contents
Concrete, the environment
and sustainability 2

Concrete in buildings
and structures 4

Concrete in the
built environment 8

Sustainable design and

construction with concrete 12

The materials that make concrete 16

Overview:
A positive contribution 20

Relevant websites 21

1
Concrete, the environment and
Concrete in perspective
Concrete is a versatile material that is vital to our
society. It is used almost everywhere – from bridges,
roads and railways to homes, schools and hospitals.
Concrete accounts for almost 10% of all new
construction activity in the UK. The global market for
cement and concrete is huge. Cement consumption
is 1.5 billion tonnes per annum.

Construction (including the manufacture and supply

of building materials and associated services) accounts
for some 8% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and
provides employment for around 1.5 million people,
forming an important economic sector. But construction
activities can also have an impact on the environment:
each year in the UK six tonnes of building materials
are used per person.

In the UK every year: Market Place Theatre and Arts Centre, Armagh, Northern Ireland
■ About 250 kg of cementitious material, 2 tonnes
of concrete and 15 kg of reinforcement are used
per person.
■ The total demand for all cementitious materials
stands at over 15 million tonnes, 85% of which is
for Portland cement (an important ingredient
of concrete).
■ 120 million tonnes of concrete are used, half of
which includes reinforcing steel. All UK-produced
reinforcing steel is made from recycled scrap
steel [1, 2].

Caring for our environment

Global warming, ozone depletion and acid rain are just
Quiet concrete road surface on the A50, Derbyshire
some of the atmospheric effects caused by emissions
to air. Since 1800, overall global temperature has
risen by about 0.5˚C, which has been related directly
to increases in atmospheric gases. If this trend were Concrete is a key construction material - contributing
to continue unchecked there could be undesirable to our society and its economic and social activities.
consequences for the world’s ecosystems, such as
climate change and a rise in mean sea level.

At the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 and at the follow-up

conference in Kyoto the world’s governments agreed
targets for reducing carbon dioxide emissions. For
the UK, this target is a 12% reduction in emissions
(compared with 1990 levels) by 2012.

About 50% of the UK’s emissions of carbon dioxide

is related to the occupancy of existing buildings
(only a small proportion of this amount is related
to the construction of new buildings).

Of all buildings, the housing sector has the greatest

overall impact, at 27% of the UK total.
Second Severn Crossing, Bristol
2

sustainability
European Institute of Health and Medical Sciences,
University of Surrey
Designing with concrete is an essential tool in the drive
to achieve a more sustainable built environment.
Bermondsey Underground Station, London
Canon Headquarters, Surrey
ecoconcrete
About 90% of the environmental impact from
buildings is from heating, cooling and lighting, and
only about 10% is from the ‘embodied energy’ used
to produce the fabric of the building itself (taken over
a 60 year life-cycle).
By adopting an environmentally responsible attitude
towards the specification, design and construction
of our building, infrastructure and civil engineering
projects, we can choose materials for all the right
reasons – and our choice can have beneficial effects
all the way through the life-cycle of a building
or structure.
To achieve such environmental benefits, designers,
clients and building users have a major part to play,
at least equal to that of materials suppliers and
constructors. Responsible design and use of buildings
can help achieve environmental targets for both
energy use and atmospheric emissions.
Thinking about a more
sustainable future
In this publication, we use the word ‘sustainability’.
This is defined as the need to ‘ensure that development
meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs’ [3]. This means we should aim to achieve a
balance between environmental protection, social
progress and economic growth, while working in
harmony with Earth’s ecosystems. Sustainable
development means:
■ Reduction of emissions
■ More efficient use of resources
■ Better re-use of waste
■ Increased consideration for people’s
health and safety
The UK government strategy for sustainable
construction focuses on these issues and more [4].
References
[1] Construction Markets (2000). The market for cementitious
products and steel reinforcement. (Unpublished) Report for
the British Cement Association.
[2] Concrete Industry Alliance (2000). Environmental report for the UK
concrete industry 1994-1998. CIA, Crowthorne, Berkshire. 13 pp.
[3] Brundtland Report of the World Commission on Environment &
Development, Our Common Future, 1987.
[4] Department of the Environment Transport and the Regions (2000).
Building a better quality of life – a strategy for more sustainable
construction. DETR, London. 31 pp.
3
Concrete in buildings and struc
In the UK, the occupancy of existing buildings and
the construction of new ones account for about
50% of all energy used and carbon dioxide emitted.
Assessment techniques such as BREEAM (the Building
Research Establishment Environmental Assessment
Method) and airtightness testing are becoming
common ways of checking a building’s environmental
credentials. Sustainability performance indicators are
being developed for buildings. These include indicators
for embodied energy, in-use energy and waste.
Buildings will have to perform better to satisfy
the targets associated with these indicators.

Concrete is already playing a key role in a new

generation of energy-efficient buildings in Germany, River Dee Estuary Bridge

Switzerland and Austria. These can run on less than

half the energy required to operate even the most With responsible design, construction and maintenance,
energy-efficient buildings to date in the UK. concrete structures will last for generations.

Concrete is a genuinely environmentally friendly

material for buildings, infrastructure and civil
engineering projects – it has qualities that make it
the eco-designer’s material of choice, such as excellent
sound and fire protection and high thermal mass.

Further benefits such as low embodied energy and

potential for re-use and recycling are discussed in
‘Sustainable design and construction with concrete’,
page 12.

Long-lasting structural efficiency

Eco-designers believe the way to sustainable building
lies in long-life, adaptable, low-energy design. The
earth’s resources are best conserved if the service
life of a building is prolonged, so the durability
and longevity of concrete make it an ideal choice. Offices, 10 Crown Place, London

Anticipating and designing out maintenance and

repair, and designing in flexibility for change of use
can also extend service life. Concrete construction
offers designers a better long-term way of achieving
these design aims.

Specialist techniques such as pre-stressing are

becoming more common; these make it possible to
use less material and to create longer spans – these
lead to enhanced flexibility of buildings in use.

Research into the durability and environmental

aspects of concrete columns shows there are
often initial cost, life-cycle cost, and environmental
advantages to be gained from using high-strength
concrete. This can produce slender structures,
making savings in materials due to their thinner
sections, reduced volume and reduced cover
to reinforcement.
Precast concrete façade, 10 Crown Place, London
4
 ecoconcrete
tures
Safe quiet buildings with concrete
Concrete has excellent fire resistance properties:
it is non-combustible and has a very slow rate of
heat transfer (which keeps the reinforcement below
a critical temperature). This is why the vast majority
of concrete structures can normally be repaired readily,
even after a severe fire. Concrete will not release any
harmful emissions in even the hottest fire, unlike
some materials. So concrete buildings provide a
safe and reliable means of protecting human life
from the danger of fires.

Concrete is also effective at protecting against noise –

a 200 mm solid concrete or cavity wall can have a sound
reduction value of around 50 dB, and is easily designed
to meet the requirements of homes and businesses.
With pressure on development land leading to more
compact cities and denser development, concrete is an
ideal material to reduce ‘noise pollution’. Concrete walls
and floors are particularly good at:
Lloyd’s Register of Shipping, London ■ Resisting airborne sounds like traffic noise
■ Reducing vibration from plant and equipment
■ Insulating against conversation and music

The addition of a resilient layer will also control

impact sound. In addition, a degree of sound
absorption can be achieved by the use of lightweight
aggregates (used in cavity walls) and cavity resonators
(e.g. hollow blocks with slots or holes in the face).

Healthier indoor air quality

Duxford American Air Museum, Cambridgeshire
Concrete is tough and inert.
It is non-toxic and non-allergenic in use.
Sustainability is more than just energy efficiency.
We must also provide healthy buildings in which
people can live and work safely. More than 60% of
new house-buyers want a healthy, ‘green’, energy-
efficient house. In contrast to some other common
building materials, concrete is inert – it does not
give off harmful chemicals when in place.

Concrete requires no toxic protective treatment to

prevent it from deterioration (such as the volatile
organic compound (VOC) based preservatives
used on timber) and thus does not contribute to
symptoms of ‘sick building syndrome’ (SBS) – which
cost UK businesses around £600 million every year
in lost productivity.

Research confirms that concrete is the best of all

materials to improve indoor air quality and, combined
with natural ventilation, the symptoms of SBS (eye,
nose and throat irritation, headaches and lethargy)
may be alleviated [1].
Inside the precast concrete Icon house, Germany
5
Concrete in buildings and struc
The hidden genius – thermal mass
The thermal capacity of concrete (sometimes called
thermal mass or fabric energy storage) enables it to
absorb, store and later radiate heat [2]. In all buildings,
heat is generated by people, computers, equipment,
lighting and solar gain. Thus modern buildings have
a tendency to overheat throughout the year. Exposed
concrete absorbs this heat, so daytime temperatures
are reduced by 3˚ to 4˚C, and the peaks in temperature
are delayed by up to six hours.

The exposed undersides (soffits) of floor slabs can be

coffered or troughed to provide the largest possible ‘heat
exchange’ area. This ‘passive’ system provides an effective
cooling capacity of up to 25W/m2 of floor area, which is
Passive fabric energy storage, Canon Headquarters, Surrey
more than adequate for the average commercial building,
and much more than that provided by typical lightweight
construction. There is no additional cost associated with
using exposed concrete, and typical slabs of about 200 to
300 mm thick will produce real benefits. Besides aesthetic
appeal, any extra mass provides free ‘heatwave insurance’!

For higher cooling requirements, e.g. for a theatre,

lecture hall or hospital, an ‘active’ concrete system
can be used. This involves ducting air through a
concrete slab, thereby providing extra cooling due
to the additional surface area. Using an ‘active’ system
provides about 40W/m2 of cooling capacity. Compared
with air conditioning, active systems offer up to:
■ 50% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions
■ 20% reduction in initial building costs

Alternatively, water can be used in an ‘active’ concrete

system as an effective cooling (or heating) medium.
Canon Headquarters, Surrey
Embedded pipes in floor slabs can achieve a cooling
capacity of 64W/m2.
The ‘thermal flywheel’ properties of concrete buildings can help
There are many further benefits to be gained by using to stabilise temperature, keeping people cool and comfortable.
the fabric energy storage properties of concrete:
■ The saving in overall building height offered by
eliminating suspended ceiling systems can give a Note later peak for
5% to 7% saving on construction costs. inside temperature
30
■ Employers are also starting to see the Note consistently
productivity benefits of an attractive and lower inside
Temperature ˚C

temperature
healthy indoor environment. 25

■ Natural light and good air quality can improve

productivity by 6% to 16%. 20

■ Light-coloured concrete soffits can reflect daylight

far into the interior, thus preventing eyestrain. 15
This also reduces the need for artificial lighting
Outside temperature
and makes them particularly useful for galleries 10 Inside temperature
and exhibition centres.
■ Even an older concrete building can be made to 1 2 3 4
use its thermal mass by exposing the soffits and Time (days)
removing any suspended ceilings [3]. Typical temperature profile for a building with passive fabric
energy storage (during summer)
6
 ecoconcrete
tures
Creating comfort:
the need for insulation
Keeping our buildings comfortable usually means
providing an insulating layer in the walls, roof and
floors – in some countries like Sweden up to 235 mm
of insulation is considered good practice! Concrete,
in the form of aerated, lightweight blocks or in
combination with a variety of insulation methods,
is easily able to fulfil or surpass current and likely
future trends in UK Building Regulations. Lightweight
aggregate or ‘aircrete’ blocks and panels give this
type of concrete an insulation value at least three
View of the precast concrete Icon house, Germany times better than normal-weight concrete.

Concrete masonry has a long history of satisfying

housing needs and is easily designed to meet, and
surpass, both social expectations and appropriate
Building Regulations. Furthermore it offers added
value through other benefits such as fire protection,
sound resistance, and potential for re-use.

Concrete is used extensively in conventional

construction methods, but there are also other options
such as insulating concrete forms (ICF), which remain
permanently in place and offer even better results.

Build tight, ventilate right

Even small gaps between materials or elements can
cause a significant amount of the total heat loss in a
Concrete masonry homes, Sussex
building. Junctions between different materials are
vulnerable, but the worst cases of low ‘airtightness’
are often seen in lightweight frame houses and other
Energy wasted through significant air losses
buildings, which are leaky unless designed and built
can be prevented - concrete is easily ‘sealable’.
with great care [4, 5]. With concrete it is easy to
achieve airtightness. Several types of concrete homes
have airtightness rates better than the demanding
Swedish design benchmark of 2.88 m3/m2hr @ 50 Pa.
In comparison, typical rates for timber and steel
buildings vary from 10 to 30 m3/m2hr @ 50 Pa. Soon,
all buildings will be designed, built and tested for
satisfactory airtightness.

References
[1] Environmental Council of Concrete Organisations (1999)
What’s your IAQ I.Q.?, ECCO, Skokie, Illinois, USA. 4 pp.
[2] Glass, J. (2000) Opportunities for fabric energy storage
in concrete. Concrete, March, pp. 52-56.
[3] Gold, C.A. & Martin, A.J. (1999). Refurbishment of concrete
buildings. BSRIA Guidance Note GN9/99. BSRIA, Bracknell,
Berkshire. 18 pp.
[4] Bordass, B. (2000). Envelope airtightness. Architects Journal,
April 13, pp. 48-51.
[5] Blyth. A. (2000). Building an airtight case. Architects Journal,
April 20, pp. 38-39.
Completed home using insulating concrete forms ready for a brick finish
7
Concrete in the built environm
The world’s population is predicted to reach 10 billion
by 2050, and at that time 70% of us will be living
in urban areas; twice as many compared with today.
We have an opportunity now to pave the way for
these more sustainable urban areas.

Concrete is at the heart of many high profile projects

focusing on sustainability.

■ Nightingale Estate, Hackney, London: tunnel-form

concrete has been specified for its thermal mass
and sound insulation qualities. This regeneration
project features 230 new tunnel-formed concrete
houses and flats. The technique allows simple
direct finishes to internal surfaces and avoids
future refurbishment costs. Computer generated image of the BedZed sustainable
housing and business development, Surrey
■ Hockerton, Nottingham: this row of semi-
underground houses consumes 75% less energy
than conventional homes. Concrete walls and
roofs 300 mm to 450 mm thick store heat so
temperatures remain stable.

■ BedZed, Beddington, Surrey: an award-winning

development of 100 homes and 20 small businesses
– a ‘Zero Energy Development’. Each building has
a south-facing conservatory, allowing heat to be
stored in the concrete-intensive structure. It should
use 90% less energy than standard housing.
In winning a national UK award for sustainable
construction, the mixed-use scheme has clearly
demonstrated concrete’s potential.

Cool concrete: Tunnel-form concrete construction

urban heat island mitigation

The term ‘heat island’ describes the way the physical Concrete can help
environment of towns and cities acts as a heat store. prevent urban areas overheating.
Buildings, roads, pavements and other areas of hard
landscaping are all responsible for this. Dark coloured,
conductive materials accelerate absorption of the sun’s
heat: areas of asphalt can be twice as hot as vegetation
(typically 71˚C compared with 36˚C). The worst affected
cities are highly populated, with few landscaped areas
such as Los Angeles.

However, there is growing concern that even the UK

is set to suffer – some areas of London are up to 7˚C
hotter than surrounding suburbs and countryside [1].
Pale grey or white concrete is one of the most effective
materials as it has a useful reflectivity (albedo) value [2],
which prevents it overheating.

Cross-section of a typical urban heat island

8

ent
Quiet concrete road surface on the A50, Derbyshire
Concrete can help prevent accidents and
reduce energy use and air pollution from heavy traffic.
Extruded concrete safety barrier
Concrete’s combination of mass and stiffness provides impact
resistance, which is vital for safe and people-friendly infrastructure.
Imprinted concrete track bed for the Sheffield ‘Super Tram’
ecoconcrete
Making roads into quieter,
healthier places
A continuously reinforced concrete road has excellent
durability, stability and rigidity. In England, concrete,
combined with a thin asphalt topping is now the
preferred form of construction to provide long-term
structural resilience for heavily trafficked roads. Using
concrete provides structural integrity and prevents
heavy traffic making deep ruts in the road surface thus
delaying the need for disruptive maintenance works.
Higher traffic loads and social expectations mean that
roads are subject to increasing concern over noise
levels. Technical developments in concrete mix design
and paving techniques mean that roads do not have
to be a nuisance in terms of noise and air pollution.
For urban areas in particular, a surface treatment
developed for concrete blocks acts as a catalyst,
removing nitrous oxide from vehicle exhaust fumes.
In Japan this concrete paving is already in effective
use – it will soon be tested in Central London.
Studies of ‘rolling resistance’ in Canada and the UK
have shown heavy truck traffic on concrete roads to
be 5% – 11% more fuel-efficient than on asphalt
surfaces [3, 4]. Tests on both level and inclined roads
recorded significantly better fuel consumption on
concrete surfaces.
Using concrete is safer at night because it reflects light
better than dark surfaces. This helps prevent accidents,
and requires 45% less illumination, thus saving electricity.
In addition, concrete safety barriers are used between
carriageways to avoid cross-over accidents between lanes.
The slip-formed barriers absorb impact loads from vehicles
and prevent them crossing over the central reservation.
Easily maintained infrastructure
The Japanese bullet train ‘Shinkansen’ runs on low
maintenance, low vibration and low noise concrete
track beds. Proven over 25 years in Japan, and making
significant inroads in mainland Europe and elsewhere,
slab-track solutions offer the best engineering and
whole-life cost solution for high-speed railways. In
Germany, over 6,000 km of slip-formed track are
planned, while in the Netherlands, a new embedded rail
concrete slab-track will provide a high-speed link from
Amsterdam to the Belgian border. Using concrete in this
way avoids extracting virgin ballast for new tracks.
Concrete is used frequently for integrated transport
systems. It can be formed without joints as a wearing
surface for cycle lanes, guided bus lanes and light rail
tracks, as can be seen in major cities throughout the
UK, such as Sheffield.
9
Concrete in the built environm
Durable and re-useable urban surfaces
Precast concrete block pavers have been an attractive
feature of towns and cities for many years. They are
colourful, durable, and can easily be re-laid and/or
re-used, which makes them an environmentally sound
option for paved urban areas. Permeable paving
blocks can also collect surface water and guide it
into ‘greywater’ holding tanks as part of sustainable
urban drainage systems.

In France, a special type of concrete surface

(béton désactivé) is used in heritage areas, where
it is important to match the existing buildings and
construction materials. This exposed aggregate House with basement

surface uses local materials in the concrete mix to

complement the surroundings without increasing Concrete is durable, does not rot
consumption of valuable natural stone. It has also and requires minimal maintenance.
been used in several UK towns and cities.

Going underground
In the UK, more than half of all available building
land has already been developed. Utilising the space
beneath our towns and cities can free up urban space.
Placing roads below ground level relieves cities from
the stranglehold of cars. The structure for these
underground areas can be provided by concrete.

Excavation of basements can provide dwellings with

greater overall space and improved adaptability over
the life of a building – without using more land.
Concrete also contributes towards temperature
stability, so energy consumption is less than in
equivalent rooms above ground.

On a larger scale, the Channel Tunnel and the London

Jubilee Line extension are particularly successful
applications for concrete, but more importantly these new
key rail links encourage greater use of public transport.

Safe storage and distribution of water Canary Wharf Underground Station, London
Concrete is a safe and inert material for storing
and transporting water. It does not contribute any
environmentally threatening chemicals to water: this
is put to the test in the London ring main, which is
twice as long as the Channel Tunnel and carries half
the water supply for one of the world’s major cities.
Concrete is proven to be the material of choice for
this function, employing just one third of the
embodied energy of a similar ductile iron pipe [5].

Concrete is used in flood protection, erosion control

and water dispersion. Solid reinforced concrete can
be used in retaining walls and breakwaters. Permeable
concrete paving allows infiltration of rainwater into
the soil to help reduce run-off in urban areas.
Flood relief tunnel, Ipswich
10

ent
Wave power generation in Islay, Scotland
Wind turbine in Gloucestershire
University of East London, Docklands campus –
made possible by ground treatment with cement.
ecoconcrete
Clean, renewable power generation
Already used regularly in conventional forms of
electricity generation, concrete is also employed in
harnessing clean, renewable energy sources such as
wind, wave and tidal energy. There are more than
ten wind farms in existence in the UK and more are
planned offshore. Reinforced concrete is an ideal
choice for the turbine foundations as it is able to
resist loads exerted in any direction.
The world’s first commercial wave power generator is
a massive concrete structure on Islay, off the coast of
Scotland. By allowing waves to enter the generator
and drive the huge turbine within, ‘Limpet’ supplies
500 kW of electricity, which is enough to power the
400 homes on the island.
Ground treatment using cement
Growing pressure on land resources means it is
increasingly necessary to re-use land of poor quality.
The manufacturing processes of the 19th and 20th
centuries have left the UK with a legacy of 300,000
hectares of contaminated land. Cement’s ability to
transform the soil into a material with high strength,
low permeability and resistance to most chemicals
makes it an ideal material for treating contamination,
without the need to remove material from site.
In addition, the engineering performance of
weak ground can be improved by adding cement.
This provides a structurally sound layer and the
savings in materials and transport can lead to
sizeable cost reductions. At the newly constructed
Docklands campus of the University of East London,
ground treatment with cement created car parking,
roads and paved areas. This avoided 2,500 lorry loads
of contaminated soil being removed, dumped
and replaced.
References
[1] Palmer, J., Littlefair, P., Watkins, R., & Kolokotroni, M. (2000).
Urban heat islands. Building Services Journal. May, pp.55-56.
[2] Glass, J. (1998) Keeping the lid on urban overheating,
Concrete Quarterly, Winter, pp.2-3.
[3] National Research Council of Canada (2000). Effect of pavement
surface type on fuel consumption. Controlled technical report.
Centre for Surface Transportation Technology, NRCC, Canada.
[4] Phillips, S., Ainge, M., & Gillan, K. (2001). Initial report on A50 fuel
consumption study. Unpublished report for the Highways Agency.
Transport Research Laboratory, Crowthorne, Berkshire.
[5] Concrete Pipe Association (1999). Comprehensive guide to
precast concrete drainage systems. CPA, Leicester.
11
Sustainable design and constru
Sustainability impacts in perspective
To achieve buildings and infrastructure that are more
sustainable, we need to reduce overall impacts and
have goals of minimum waste and minimum emissions.

Environmental impacts can be considered according

to their relative contribution to detrimental effects
such as global warming, ozone depletion and resource
depletion. These are, in order of increasing magnitude:
1. Initial construction impacts
2. Refurbishment impacts
3. In-use impacts: energy use and maintenance
4. Urban development and infrastructure
5. Society: people and their activities
Armada Dial, Plymouth, by concrete sculptor Carole Vincent
(especially car travel)

Although building materials and construction

techniques do make an impact, it is important to put
this into context. The impacts from buildings are mainly CONSTRUCTION
from their use, i.e. heating, cooling and lighting; only
about 10% of in-use impacts are from the energy REFURBISHMENT
notionally embodied within building materials.

It is important that designers address these issues,

IN-USE
keeping in perspective the order of magnitude of
impacts. There will often be valuable trade-offs
between embodied energy and operational energy.
DEVELOPMENT

Achieving sustainable
design with concrete
SOCIETY
Sources of sustainability impacts in perspective
The remarkable thing about concrete is its versatility.
This ability to suit virtually any application is important
when designers are starting out on an environmentally
friendly building design. Designing with energy Concrete is a versatile material, with many useful properties
efficiency in mind can reduce in-use energy costs by up that can contribute to sustainable design and construction.
to 75% (£6 - £9/m2/pa). In addition, construction waste
can be ‘designed out’ before work starts on site.

Concrete buildings are designed to give the required

service life, but rapid socio-economic change can
mean that a structure may become redundant long
before it has reached the end of its design life.
To prevent premature redundancy in a building,
eco-designers should choose a location, built form,
and orientation that has low environmental impact
and is adaptable [1].

In addition to reducing operational energy by utilising

thermal mass, concrete structures can be designed
to facilitate future re-use, maximise column-free
spaces and optimise the use of natural lighting and
natural ventilation.
Redevelopment of Paddington Station, London
12

ction with concrete
Low maintenance concrete finish
Reinforced concrete structures generally fare better
in terms of embodied energy than those built of steel
Full size structural testing: European Concrete
Building Project, Cardington
J.C. Decaux UK Headquarters, Brentford, Middlesex
ecoconcrete
Concrete is a low energy material
Embodied energy is a useful ‘eco-scorecard’ for
comparing energy used in producing building
materials and components. It includes extraction,
manufacture, transport, building, maintenance and
re-use. Embodied energy is expressed as energy per
unit mass (GJ/tonne), or energy per unit floor area
for a completed building (GJ/m2).
Embodied energy is separate from operational (in-use)
energy, which can account for almost all of the energy
used in a building. To put this into context, for a four
to six storey building over 60 years, total operational
energy is about 70 GJ/m2, whereas embodied energy
in the structure is only about 3 GJ/m2. On a purely mass
basis, structural steel is about 30 times more energy
intensive than reinforced concrete, but this comparison
is less appropriate when comparing structural elements.
Nevertheless, for a range of typical structures,
reinforced concrete construction gives a better than
average performance at 1.5 to 2.5 GJ/m2, with structural
steel alternatives ranging from 2.6 to 2.9 GJ/m2.
Embodied energy values typically take into account
the energy and impacts associated with transportation.
Concrete produced in the UK does not rely on any
imported materials or products, whereas other
structural materials such as steel and timber are often
imported across great distances via various modes of
transport from Europe, North America and Canada.
Production of building materials may also be compared
with regard to their contribution to carbon dioxide
emissions. This is expressed in kg of carbon dioxide
produced per tonne of material and is useful because
it can be compared with other activities such as traffic
emissions and operational energy. On a purely mass
basis, the carbon dioxide produced per tonne of
structural steel is about 10 times greater than
that for reinforced concrete.
Success at all life stages
Life-cycle analysis is one method of assessing
the environmental impacts of a building over its
projected lifetime, and includes raw materials,
material production, design, component production,
construction, use, demolition, recycling and re-use.
There is a need for accurate data on the life-cycle
of cement and concrete products. A number of
projects are underway in the UK, Europe and USA
to gather data on reductions in energy used in their
manufacture, use of recycling and a selection of
other relevant environmental indicators [2, 3, 4].
13
Sustainable design and constru
Considerate construction
Concrete construction is carried out via one of the
following methods:
■ In-situ construction: all activities take place on
site – this method accounts for 75% of concrete
in buildings.
■ Precast construction: components are cast
off site in a factory and then brought to site –
this accounts for over 20% of concrete in buildings.
■ Hybrid construction: this is used occasionally –
it is a combination of both in-situ elements and
precast components.
Preparing to deliver ready-mixed concrete
Whichever route is taken, the message is clear –
there are environmental benefits to be gained from
responsible design that makes the best use of concrete.

In the UK, most construction sites are within a few

miles of a ready-mixed concrete plant. Plants receive
orders for bulk deliveries and respond quickly and
flexibly to customers’ requests, supplying 25 million m3
every year. The ready-mixed concrete is delivered to
site without the need for packaging or pallets, and
is poured, skipped or pumped into formwork. Of the
1300 plants in the UK, most have ‘total recovery
systems’ to treat and recover the water, cement,
sand and stone remaining in mixer-trucks.

Precast concrete factories produce whole components

ready for use on site, such as columns, beams, flooring
and cladding panels. Production in the factory means
Precast concrete: hollowcore flooring
that process water can be recovered, moulds can be
re-used and waste is easily segregated for recycling [5].
When precast units arrive on the construction site,
they are ready for use and can be installed rapidly,
producing little or no dust, noise and waste.
Packaging can usually be recycled after use.

Other ways in which concrete construction techniques

can be environmentally considerate are:
■ Self-compacting concrete (SCC): this requires
no vibration for compaction and so reduces noise
on site. It also increases construction efficiency
and minimises labour.
■ Formwork: this can be designed to maximise re-use
and minimise waste.
■ Safer chemicals: these include biodegradable,
vegetable oil-based release agents.
■ Admixtures: for example, many admixtures used
in the UK to improve performance are derived from
natural products such as lignin, a by-product of the
paper industry.

Placing concrete in a hybrid structure

14

ction with concrete
Computer generated image of the Princess Margaret Hospital, Swindon
Unwanted reinforcing steel scrap can be
recovered and used to produce new reinforcement.
Boots Headquarters, Nottingham - before and....
....after refurbishment
ecoconcrete
Moving towards ‘zero waste’
Construction is one of the biggest generators of
waste. At least 70 million tonnes a year comes from
construction and demolition materials – this is about
18% of the UK’s total. In addition to unwanted
materials, waste can also include emissions from
vehicles, noise and release of contaminants to
atmosphere, ground and water. Constructors are
encouraged to use ISO 14001: 1996, Environmental
Management Systems and to investigate all possible
avenues to reduce current levels of wastage.
An example of a building that is well on the way
to 'zero waste' is the relocated Princess Margaret
Hospital, in Swindon. It incorporates a high thermal
mass concrete frame and concrete cladding. The
construction project also used cement-based
remediation to treat the contaminated brownfield site.
The building will consume 30% less energy in use
and generate 50% less waste than the construction
of a typical hospital.
Concrete can be part of a virtuous cycle, provided
life-cycle impacts are considered from day one of the
design stage. When a building, or part of a building,
reaches the end of its functional life, the most effective
solution is to refurbish. Failing that, value should be
recovered through recycling or re-use of components,
and only if there is no other alternative should
disposal be considered [6]. The good news is that,
with concrete, there is no need for disposal – almost
everything can be recovered, including reinforcement,
which can be returned to the scrap metal resource
from which it was made.
References
[1] Institution of Structural Engineers (1999). Building for a
sustainable future: construction without depletion. ISE, London.
96 pp.
[2] Concrete Industry Alliance (2000). Environmental report for the UK
concrete industry 1994 – 1998. CIA, Crowthorne, Berkshire. 13 pp.
[3] Intron (2000). Concrete’s life-cycle to a green and sustainable
future. Intron Newsletter, June, Sittard, Netherlands.
[4] Nisbet, M., Van Geem, M., Gajda, J. & Marceau, M. (2000).
Environmental life-cycle inventory of Portland cement concrete.
Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Illinois, USA. 57 pp.
[5] Glass, J. & Tydeman, A. (2000). Sustainable construction with
precast concrete. Faculty of Building Journal, June, pp. 21-22.
[6] Kendrick, C., Martin, A., & Booth, W. (1998). Refurbishment of
air-conditioned buildings for natural ventilation. BSRIA Technical
Note TN 8/98, BSRIA, Bracknell, Berkshire. 76 pp.
15
The materials that make concr
Concrete consists of several different materials, most
of which are naturally occurring and plentiful (unlike
some other building materials that rely on scarce
or non-renewable resources). There are three
key ingredients:
■ Cement
■ Water
■ Aggregates (sand, gravel or crushed rock)

Other components, such as admixtures to improve

performance, may also be included in concrete. Perhaps
most important of all is reinforcement – this increases
the ways in which concrete can be used for buildings
and structures (half of all UK concrete is reinforced).

Clean cement manufacture North Greenwich Underground Station, London – under construction

Cement usually makes up about 10% of the mass

of the concrete mix, and is a very important
(but also the most energy-intensive) ingredient.
Portland cement is a key constituent – it is made
from abundant natural materials, limestone or chalk,
shale or clay, and supplementary materials, such as
sand, where necessary [1].

Energy is a major component of the cost of cement

manufacture due to the high temperature in the kiln
and the fact that the materials involved take in heat
(an endothermic chemical reaction takes place when
they are processed). Cement manufacture accounts for
Cement works, Staffordshire
about 2% of the UK’s carbon dioxide emissions (this is
in the context where occupancy of existing buildings
and new construction account for about 50%, and
Scrap tyres are an ideal secondary fuel: these burn at a very
transport over 30%).
high temperature and are a ‘cleaner fuel’ than coal. A single
Over the years the cement industry has reduced fuel cement kiln can recover energy from 1 million tyres every year.
consumption in its kilns by 40% (from 7.5 GJ to 4.5 GJ
per tonne of clinker from 1962 to 1997), which has
resulted in reductions in carbon dioxide and other
emissions. This improvement is levelling off as the
scope for potential gains is reducing, and so progress
is being sought in other areas such as the greater
use of non-fossil fuels. Traditionally, cement works
burned fossil fuels to achieve the required 1400˚C kiln
temperature, but now waste-derived ‘secondary’ fuels
are used to reduce the need for coal. These include
scrap tyres, solvents, domestic refuse, landfill gas,
selected paper and plastics [2]. The use of ‘alternative’
fuels in cement kilns also minimises the need for new
landfill sites and incineration plants, so the cement
industry is very keen to pursue this environmentally
considerate option.

Scrap tyres used as ‘clean fuel’ for cement kilns

16
 ecoconcrete
ete
Aggregates and recycled aggregates
Aggregates, including sand, gravel and crushed rock,
make up about 90% of the concrete mix. These are
usually available locally, or can be transported by rail
or water. The supply of aggregate for concrete
traditionally involves quarrying rock or extracting sand
and gravel. It is sensible to consider alternative recycled
aggregate sources that can lessen the environmental
impacts associated with these processes.

Waste concrete can be crushed and re-used as

Constructing the Earth Centre, Doncaster, using recycled concrete
from Grimethorpe colliery.
aggregate, with little or no degradation of strength
or performance of the new concrete. This results in
a significant decrease in the use of valuable natural
resources and a potential lowering of fuel consumption
through reduced transport and production processes.

In the UK, most recycled concrete aggregates have

UK reinforcing steel is made
from 100% recycled scrap steel.
been used in road construction, but the technology is
developing and there is demand from many potentially
significant markets. No matter how heavily reinforced
the concrete is, it can be recycled [3]. In the UK, about
24 million tonnes of recycled aggregates are derived
from concrete, brick and stone from construction and
demolition waste every year.

More than 2,000 tonnes of recycled concrete have

been used in the construction of the Earth Centre
in Yorkshire as part of a convention centre building.
The crushed and sorted concrete was recovered from
a former colliery and now forms the centre’s circular
primary structure.

Reinforcement manufacture
Reinforcement is 100%
recycled steel
All UK-produced reinforcing steel is made from steel
scrap. The process employed to make reinforcing steel
in the UK uses 100% recycled scrap as feedstock, and
at the end of its useful life all reinforcing steel can
be recovered for recycling again.

The embodied energy values for reinforcing steel are

based almost entirely on energy used to melt and
reform it (this is unlike UK structural steel, which is
mostly converted in an energy-intensive process from
iron ores). This can reduce energy input per tonne to
less than half of that for structural steel.

The reinforcement industry has invested heavily in its

manufacturing process to reduce emissions and reduce
energy input per tonne.

Placing reinforcement in a floor slab

17
The materials that make concr
Environmental responsibility
Recent figures show that 250 – 300 million tonnes of
materials are quarried every year for use as aggregates,
cement and other building materials.

For concrete, extraction techniques are very efficient

and lorry movements can be minimised by siting ready-
mixed concrete and cement works adjacent to quarries
or workings. In all, transport is responsible for about
10% of the environmental impacts of concrete, which
could be reduced if the amount of raw materials,
cement and concrete products moved by rail transport
were to be increased. Limestone quarry in Derbyshire

The cement industry’s emissions, which are mainly

to the atmosphere, have been reduced progressively,
but these reductions are now approaching the limits
of economic viability. Sulfur gases released from the
fuel are trapped inside the cement clinker, so very
little escapes. Nitrogen dioxide emissions are limited
by combustion control and by the use of alternative
fuels. Despite producing large tonnages of fine cement
powder, particulate emissions have been reduced by
98% since 1950. All UK cement works are certified to
ISO 14001: 1996, Environmental Management Systems,
or higher. In a survey of the area surrounding one
works in the north of England, scientists found that
air quality was ‘good’ for 99.9% of the time.

The UK cement and concrete industry is committed to

continuous environmental progress. From 1994 – 1998,
the following improvements were made (per unit
weight of concrete) [4]:
■ 2% less carbon dioxide
■ 48% less sulfur dioxide
■ 14% less nitrogen dioxide
Inside a cement kiln
■ 24% less particulate emissions

These figures were measured as part of research on

the environmental performance of the UK concrete
industry. Factsheets from the research are listed below
and are available from the British Cement Association.
■ Comparison of the environmental effects of three curing
alternatives for concrete blocks.
■ Concrete recycling – environmental analysis case study.
■ Effect of changes in cement manufacture on the environmental
performance of concrete.
■ Effect of formwork on the environmental impact of concrete.
■ Effects of ground granulated blastfurnace slag and pulverised
fuel ash upon the environmental impacts of concrete.
■ Environmental impacts of transport relative to those of concrete.
■ Environmental impacts of two glass fibre reinforced
concrete products.
■ Recycled concrete as aggregate in new concrete.

Transporting cement by train

18

ete
PFA is a useful by-product from coal-burning power stations
Production of cement makes use of potential waste
materials as a resource – an example of ‘industrial ecology’.
Attractive restoration of a quarry in Derbyshire
Bluewater shopping centre in Kent – a former quarry
ecoconcrete
Industrial ecology:
waste as a resource
Part of the cement content of concrete can include
potential waste materials from other industrial
processes. This is called ‘industrial ecology’ and has
been found to lessen the carbon dioxide emissions
associated with concrete [5]. When processed as
the by-products PFA and GGBS, these potential
waste materials account for about 15% of all
cementitious materials used every year in the UK
(about 2 million tonnes).
Pulverised fuel ash (PFA) is a by-product from coal-
burning power stations and requires little processing to
make it useful. Also called fly ash, PFA is used in many
applications, including the manufacture of lightweight
aggregate. Ground granulated blastfurnace slag (GGBS)
is a by-product from iron and steel production, and
can replace up to 70% of cement in a mix. Other by-
products used in Portland cement clinker can include
silica fume, ground limestone (from quarrying), ash
from water purifying plants, furnace ash, mill scale
and foundry sand.
Viable and attractive land recovery
Land use planners ensure that the need for mineral
extraction is balanced with local ecological
considerations. When a quarry is exhausted it can be
restored to its natural state (e.g. agricultural land),
converted to a nature reserve or it can be reclaimed
for leisure, commercial or residential use.
There are many examples of restored workings
operating as bird sanctuaries, water sports centres
or SSSIs (Sites of Special Scientific Interest). In Kent,
Bluewater shopping centre is a redevelopment of a
former quarry. This and several other former quarry
locations have won environmental awards.
References
[1] British Cement Association (1994). UK cement manufacture and
the environment. BCA, Crowthorne, Berkshire. 13 pp.
[2] Environmental Council of Concrete Organisations (1996). Cement,
concrete and the environment. ECCO, Skokie, Illinois, USA. 2 pp.
[3] Environmental Council of Concrete Organisations (1999).
Recycling concrete and masonry. ECCO, Skokie, Illinois, USA. 12 pp.
[4] Concrete Industry Alliance (2000). Environmental report for the UK
concrete industry 1994 – 1998. CIA, Crowthorne, Berkshire, 13 pp.
[5] Glavind, M. & Munch-Petersen, C. (2000). ‘Green’ concrete in
Denmark. Structural Concrete, March, pp.19 - 25.
19
Overview:
A positive contribution
Through the examples in this publication it is clear
that concrete is working hard in buildings, structures
and the built environment, but it is up to us to ensure
that it is given every possible chance to contribute
to sustainability by designing responsibly, taking all
life-cycle impacts into consideration. The decisions
made by designers and building occupiers are
fundamental to sustainability – it’s not simply
a matter of choosing concrete!

The hierarchy of impacts described on page 12

demonstrates that all members of society need to
work together to achieve the goals of reduced impacts,
minimum emissions and minimum waste. Although
the impacts from construction materials are very small Frame design for Lloyd’s Register of Shipping, London
in the context of our whole existence, the use of
concrete is one way in which eco-designers can
achieve a more sustainable built environment.

Concrete's contribution to a more sustainable

built environment:
■ Less energy intensive, more comfortable buildings
■ Airtight, well insulated structures with
stable temperatures
■ Long lasting structures with a low fire risk
■ Healthier, non-toxic buildings
■ Low maintenance finishes
■ Cooler, brighter and safer cities
■ Quieter, more fuel efficient roads
■ Cleaner water distribution networks
■ Space efficiency with underground structures
■ More effective use of brownland sites

Computer generated image of the BedZed

sustainable housing and business development, Surrey
Concrete can also feature the following:
■ 100% recycled steel in UK-produced reinforcement
■ Significantly less embodied energy per building
element than structural steel
■ ‘Industrial ecology’ through potential waste
put to good use
■ Cement production that uses clean-burn fuels
and is highly fuel efficient
■ Continuing improvement at all life-cycle stages
from production onwards
■ Opportunities for quiet, waste-conscious and
considerate construction
■ Potential for economic re-use of structures or
recycling of materials at end of use

Sensitive use of concrete in the landscape

20
 ecoconcrete
Relevant websites
Many of the websites listed below have sections dedicated to environmental and sustainability matters.
For an up to date list of cement and concrete industry websites, please visit: www.bca.org.uk

Cement and concrete websites

British Cement Association www.bca.org.uk
British Precast Concrete Federation www.britishprecast.org.uk
Concrete Society www.concrete.org.uk
CONSTRUCT www.construct.org.uk
Environmental Council of Concrete Organisations www.ecco.org
European Concrete website www.europeanconcrete.com
Ready-mixed Concrete Bureau www.rcb.org.uk
Reinforced Concrete Council www.rcc-info.org.uk

Other environment and sustainability websites

Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions www.detr.gov.uk
Energy Efficiency Office www.energy-efficiency.gov.uk
Environment Agency www.environment-agency.gov.uk
ISO 14001:1996 Environmental Management Systems www.iso.ch
World Business Council for Sustainable Development www.wbcsd.ch

Picture credits
Acknowledgements are due to the following for the illustrations listed.

Pages 4/5 River Dee estuary bridge Roger Brown

Icon House interior Veit Dennert KG
Pages 6/7 Icon House exterior Veit Dennert KG
ICF house, Bournemouth Beco Products Ltd
Pages 8/9 BedZed Peabody Trust
Tunnel-form construction Imagepoint
Concrete barrier Marksman International
Pages 10/11 Tunnel, Ipswich AMEC Civil Engineering Ltd
Wave power generator Martin Bond/Science Photo Library
Wind turbine Western Windpower
University of East London Daniel Thistlethwaite
Pages 14/15 Hollowcore flooring Bison Concrete Products Ltd
Concrete column RMC Readymix Ltd
Princess Margaret Hospital Movement for Innovation (M4I)
Pages 16/17 Cement works Blue Circle Cement
Scrap tyres Castle Cement
Earth Centre Jim Varney
Reinforcement manufacture ASW
Pages 18/19 Cement kiln Blue Circle Cement
Cement by rail Castle Cement
Restored quarry Blue Circle Cement
Bluewater retail park QA Photos Ltd
Pages 20/21 Lloyds Register Anthony Hunt Associates Ltd & Richard Rogers Partnership
BedZed Peabody Trust

Also the many photographs used on pages:

1 – 13 from the Concrete Society (1999 and 2000 Award winners)
1 – 13 from Trevor Jones (JJ Photo Services)
2 – 16 from the Ready-mixed Concrete Bureau/Rudkin Design
6 – 15 from the British Cement Association
12 – 17 from the Reinforced Concrete Council and the Building Research Establishment

21
ecoconcrete: the contribution of cement and concrete
CI/SfB
to a more sustainable built environment
J Glass
UDC
628.4.036
British Cement Association Publication 97.381