Presentation Outline

I. Individual Behavior in Organization i. It describes a form of learning in which a

A. Theories of Human Behavior – a voluntary response is strengthened or
Psychological Approach weakened depending on its association
i. Top 5 Theories with either positive or negative
1. Psychoanalytic Theory by Sigmund Freud consequences. The strengthening of a
2. Behavioristic Theory by B.F. Skinner response occurs through reinforcement.
a. Definition
ii. Skinner described two types of
i. Also known as behavioural psychology
reinforcement: positive reinforcement,
ii. It is a theory of learning based on the
which is the introduction of a positive
idea that all behaviours are acquired
consequence such as food, pleasurable
through conditioning
activities, or attention from others, and
b. Conditioning
negative reinforcement, which is the
i. It occurs through interaction with the
removal of a negative consequence such
environment.
as pain or a loud noise.
ii. Behaviorists believe that our responses
to environmental stimuli shape our iii. Skinner saw human behavior as shaped
actions. by trial and error through reinforcement
and punishment, without any reference to
1. Behaviorism equated learning with
inner conflicts or perceptions. In his
behaviors that can be observed and
theory, mental disorders represented
measured.
maladaptive behaviors that were learned
2. Reinforcement is key to successful and could be unlearned through behavior
transfer through behavioristic learning modification.
3. Strong emphasis on the stimulus, the 3. Humanistic Theory by Carl Roger
response and the relationship between 4. Cognitive Theory of Development by Jean
them Piaget
a. Definition
c. 2 Major Types of Conditioning
i. It explains how a child constructs a
i. Classical conditioning
mental model of the world
1. It is a technique frequently used in
ii. It disregarded the idea that intelligence
behavioral training in which a neutral
was a fixed trait and regarded cognitive
stimulus is paired with a naturally
development as a process.
occurring stimulus.
b. Three Basic Component to Cognitive
2. Eventually, the neutral stimulus comes
Theory
to evoke the same response as the
i. Schemas
naturally occurring stimulus, even
1. They are the basic building blocks of
without the naturally occurring stimulus
such cognitive models, and enable us
presenting itself. The associated
to form a mental representation of the
stimulus is now known as the
world
conditioned stimulus and the learned
2. A way of organizing knowledge
behavior is known as the conditioned
ii. Adaptation
response.
1. It is a Process that enables the
transition from one stage to another
ii. Operant conditioning
a. Assimilation
1. It sometimes referred to as
i. It is using an existing schema to
instrumental conditioning
deal with a new object or situation.
2. is a method of learning that occurs
b. Accommodation
through reinforcements and
i. It happens when the existing
punishments. Through operant
schema (knowledge) does not
conditioning, an association is made
work, and needs to be changed to
between a behavior and a
deal with a new object or situation.
consequence for that behavior.
c. Equilibrium
3. When a desirable result follows an
i. When a child's schemas can deal
action, the behavior becomes more
with most new information through
likely to occur again in the future.
assimilation.
Responses followed by adverse
iii. Stages of Cognitive Development
outcomes, on the other hand, become
1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth up to 2 years
less likely to happen again in the future.
old)
d. B.F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
 a. The infant knows the world through
their movements and sensations.
b. Infants learn that things continue to
exist even though they cannot be
seen (object permanence).
2. Pre-operational Stage (2-7 years old)
a. Children begin to think symbolically
and learn to use words and pictures
to represent objects.
b. Children at this stage tend to be
egocentric and struggle to see things
from the perspective of others.
3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11
years old)
a. Their thinking becomes more logical
and organized, but still very concrete.
b. They begin to understand the
concept of conservation
4. Formal Operational Stage (11 years old
and over)
a. At this stage, the adolescent or young
adult begins to think abstractly and
reason about hypothetical problems.
b. Teens begin to think more about
moral, philosophical, ethical, social,
and political issues that require
theoretical and abstract reasoning.
5. Gestalt Psychology Theory by Fritz Perl
et.al.
a. Definition
i. Founded by German thinkers Max
Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt
Koffka.
iv. Characteristics of Motivation
B. Characteristics of Achiever (D.C.
McClelland)
i. High Achiever
1. It turned on by the accomplishment of a
certain task
2. The goals matter more than the external
results such as money or power.
3. The goal oriented, prioritized tasks to best
meet their objectives
4. They like to receive feedback on how well
they are doing and it serves as their
encouragement.
ii. Low Achiever
1. It tends to vacillate or indecisive
v. Characteristics of Motivation
2. They seek direction, motivation and
reinforcement from others.
3. The task oriented, they may well attempt to
do too many things at a time.
iii. Achievement Motivation
1. It is defined as the need for success or the
attainment of excellence.
2. It is a necessary and universal human
factor.
ii. The theory proposes that the whole of an
object or scene is more important than its
individual parts. Observing the whole
helps us find order in chaos and unity
among outwardly unrelated parts and
pieces of information.
iii. Gestalt psychologists developed a set of
principles to explain perceptual
organization, or how smaller objects are
grouped to form larger ones. These
principles are often referred to as the
"Laws of Perceptual Organization."
b. Laws of Perceptual Organization
i. Law of Pragnanz - This law holds that
objects/ patterns in the environment are
seen in a way that makes them appear
as simple as possible.
ii. Law of Similarity - The Law of Similarity
states that similar objects are perceived
as being grouped together.
iii. Law of Proximity - According to the law of
proximity, things that are near each other
seem to be grouped together.
iv. Law of Figure and Ground - Viewers will
perceive an object (figure) and a surface
(ground) even if shapes are grouped
together.
v. Law of Closure - refers to our perception
of objects or spaces that are incomplete
or not fully enclosed. As a result, we add
the missing information ourselves to
perceive the whole.
vi. Law of Continuity - Objects will be
grouped as a whole if they are co-linear,
or follow a direction.
1. Self-Motivated, Self-Directed
2. Goal Oriented
3. Set Challenging but Realistic Goals
4. Goal is accomplishment or challenge itself
5. Assume personal responsibility for
problem solving
6. Calculate risks
7. Set moderate objectives
8. Sequence tasks in relation to goals
9. Want frequent feedback on results
10. Evaluate by monitoring results and
establishing check points
11. Non-traditional
12. Interdependent at earlier age
1. Achievement - It characterized by concern
for excellence
2. Affiliation - It characterized by concern for
establishing and maintaining close
personal relationships
3. Influence - characterized by concern with
making an impact on others
4. Control - characterized by a concern for
orderliness
 5. Extension – characterized by concern for
others
6. Dependence – a desire for the help of
others in one’s own self-development
C. The Human Side Enterprise (D. McGregor)
i. Definition
1. Individuals achieve their goals through and
with the assistance of organizations just as
organizations employ individuals to attain
their objectives
2. According to Whyte, SOCIAL ETHICS is a
“contemporary body of thought which
makes orally legitimate the pressures of
society against the individual.”
3. 2 Proposition of Social Ethics
a. A belief in “belongingness” as the
ultimate need of the individual
b. A belief in the application to achieve the
“belongingness”
4. Chris Argyris – The conflict between man
and organization
a. Employees desire independence while
organization wants dependence
ii. Conformity in Organization
1. Organization-man theory – man is required
to conform to the organization rather than
the organization conforming to the
individual
2. Conformity presupposes dependence on
the norms established by others without
independent thinking.
3. Three group to which one conforms:
a. The organization itself
b. The informal work groups
c. The external community
4. Business organizations encourage
initiative and creativity and have been
among the supporters of individuality
iii. Conformity in Organization
1. Through its policies, systems, procedures
and rules, organizations resort to
conformity in order to achieve coordinated
action in realizing their objectives.
2. Legitimacy of organizational influence can
be the subject of agreement among the
parties involved and thereby result in
satisfaction in their relationship.
iv. Rights to Privacy
1. Privacy refers to the employee’s thoughts,
opinions, and motives, to his private
psyche more than his private activities.
2. Religious, political and social beliefs are
part of the employee’s inner self and
should, therefore, not be subject to
analysis as a requirement for getting or
keeping a job, unless the person’s attitudes
adversely affect his job performance.
v. People’s Complex Needs
1. H. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
a. Physiological needs – primary needs
(food, clothing and shelter)
b. Safety/security needs – protection
c. Belongingness and love needs – for
association, acceptance by others,
giving and receiving friendship and love
d. Esteem – Ego needs
e. Cognitive
f. Aesthetic
g. Self-actualization needs
h. Self-transcendence needs
2. Douglas McGregor – “Man is a wanting
animal – as soon as one of his needs is
satisfied, another appears in its place.
This process is unending. It continues
from birth to deaths. Man continuously
puts forth effort – works, if you please – to
satisfy his needs.”.
vi. Theory X and Theory Y
1. Definition
a. Douglas McGregor – great advocates
of Human Relations approach
b. He advanced Theory X and Theory Y in
connection with organizational
behavior
c. He claims that most management
actions flow directly from whatever
theory of human behavior managers
hold.
d. Management’s assumptions about
human behavior:
i. Personnel practices
ii. Decision making
iii. Operation practices
iv. Organizational design
2. Theory X
a. The typical person dislikes work and
will avoid it if possible.
b. The typical person lacks responsibility,
has little ambition, and seeks security
above all.
c. Most people must be coerced,
controlled, and threatened with
punishment to get them to work.
d. Note :
i. With these assumptions,
management’s role is to coerce and
control employees.
ii. negative, manifesting immaturity and
distrust
iii. does not recognize the existence of
potentialities in employees
3. Theory Y
a. Work is as natural play or rest.
b. People are not inherently lazy. They
have become that way as a result of
experience.
c. People will exercise self-direction and
self-control in the service of objectives
to which they are committed.
d. People have potentials. Under proper
conditions, they learn to accept and
seek responsibility. They have
imagination, ingenuity, and creativity
that can be applied to work.
 e. Note:
i. With these assumptions,
management’s role is to develop the
potential in employees and help them
release that potential toward
common objectives.
ii. positive, manifesting one of trust and
maturity
iii. open up wide range of possibilities for
the formulation of new managerial
policies
iv. challenge management to innovate,
discover new ways of organizing and
directing human effort
D. The Human Side Enterprise (D. McGregor)
i. Definition
1. It explains that when hiring an employee,
the company does not only pay for the
"hand" or skill but also the whole human
being.
2. It explains that the firm also hires the
values, attitudes and other personal
attributes the worker brings to the
workplace.
II. Motivation
A. A Needs Approach (Maslow)
i. The five-stage model can be divided into
deficiency needs and growth needs.
1. Deficiency Needs are the first four levels
which arise due to deprivation (the state of
not something the people need).
2. Growth Needs which is the top level do
not originate from the absence of
something but rather from a desire to
grow as a person. Once these growth
needs have been fulfilled, one might be
able to achieve the highest level which is
the self-actualization.
B. . Acquired Needs (D.C. McClelland):
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
i. Definition
1. Also known as Three Needs Theory
2. Proposed by David McClelland in the year
1960’s in his book “The Achieving
Society”
3. Also develop soon after Maslow’s
Hierarchy of Needs
4. Its revolves around three important
aspects, namely Achievement, Power and
Achievement and he pointed out that it is
regardless of our age, sex, race or culture,
all of us possess one of these needs and
are driven by it also he puts forth that the
specific needs of an individual are
acquired and shaped over time through
the experiences he has had in life.
ii. Three Important Aspects
1. Needs of Achievement
a. People who seeks the achievement and
attainment of realistic but challenging
goals, and upwards progress in their job
b. Characteristics:
i. They are Challenging
ii. They like working Alone or with other
Achiever
iii. They are self-motivated
iv. They like feedback to assess their
progress
v. These individual will perform better if
money is linked with their
achievements.
vi. They like feedback to assess
themselves
2. Needs of Affiliation
a. These people is a team-player, they are
motivated by a need to be liked and for
friendly relationships and likes to have
interactions with others.
b. Characteristics:
i. They are concerned in “being liked”
and “being accepted”
ii. They Form Informal Relationships
iii. They are very cooperative
iv. These people perform better in
team
3. Needs of Power
a. These have a powerful need to lead and
take charge and are driven towards
enhancing their personal status and
prestige
b. Characteristics:
i. They like to control others
ii. They are argumentative
iii. They have ability to influence
people
iv. These people are suitable for
leadership roles
iii. Application of the Theory
1. Identifying the Preference/Needs
a. Use Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
i. McClelland used it as a tool to
measure the individual needs of
different people
ii. It is a test of imagination that
presents the subject with series of
 ambiguous pictures and it asked to
develop a spontaneous story for
each.
iii. It is a set of black and white
pictures on cards, each showing an
emotionally powerful situation.
2. Identifying the Preference/Needs
a. Motivate them according to their needs
i. High Need of Achievement
1. They should be given
challenging but realistic projects
2. They should be given a fair and
balanced appraisal
3. They must be grouped with other
achiever for best performance
4. While money is not an important
motivator, it is an effective form
of feedback
ii. High Need of Achievement
1. To try to integrate them with a
team whenever possible
2. Not to assign risky task to them
as they don’t like uncertainty and
risk
3. To be personal while providing
feedback
4. To give balanced feedback
5. To emphasize on their good
working relationship and your
trust in them
6. To praise them in private
iii. High Needs of Power
1. To assign them with goal-
oriented projects or task
2. To be direct with them while
providing feedback
3. To help them further their career
goal