MATERIAL STUDIES:

Worked Stone

Stone Artefacts
Artefacts can largely be placed into two different categories:

a) Chipped stone technology (knapped/flaked stone) – involves the working of rocks with good
conchoidal fracture e.g: flint/obsidian
b) Ground stone technology (non-flaked stone/macrolithic tools) – involves abrading and percussion as
key production processes

Procurement of raw materials:

Rocks are variable; whether igneous, metamorphic or sedimentary, each has individual textures, chemical and
physical properties that make them suitable for different methods. Although the type of rock used could have
been influenced by cultural and geographical choices, stones were largely procured through the following
mechanisms:

 Trade or exchange – providence can be determined by petrographic analysis and p-XRF analysis (non-
destructive) of archaeological stone artefacts.
 Collection from secondary deposits – Collecting of stones from the immediate vicinity (e.g river beds
or recycled material). In such cases, stones were most likely selected based on their readily suitable
properties for the intended task and as such did not require any further shaping.
 Quarries – open-air sources from which rock is extracted by fracturing or enhancing the effects of
freeze-thaw or other types of physical weathering.
 Mines – e.g: flint/ salt mining

Production of stone artefacts:

Stone artefacts can further be categorized into objects modified only through use (e.g: hammer stones and
polishing stones) and are considered expedient tools and those that have been intentionally modified to acquire
their specific shape and surface finish. These are shaped using a variety of methods and techniques:

 Flaking – Removal of flakes by percussion or applied pressure. Possible to stones with a homogenous
structure (e.g: basalt, lydite, quartzite).
 Hammering – Removal of detached grains by hammering into a certain shape. Usually on coarser,
cobbled rock with cohesive structure (e.g: quartzite).
 Pecking – Removal of small-sized particles by means of direct percussion using tools with rounded or
convex surfaces. Leaves more regularly spaced percussive marks and is more precise but lengthy
compared to flaking as only small quantities of material are removed.
 Grinding – Gradual removal of rock particles through abrasion (e.g: flint, diabase, granite). It
strengthens the working edge of the axe increasing durability. Used to make axes and adzes for example
 Polishing – Abrasive technique that results in a smooth and shiny surface (reflects light). Polishing
stones are often made of very fine-grained sandstone or limestone. This technique in combination with
grinding also enhances the colour and properties of rocks.
 Sawing – Cutting of rocks to allow the controlled and more precise removal of material (e.g: in
production and modification of stone axes in the Neolithic). Wooden planks, sandstone plates, tendon
or leather strips all with quartz sand and water are suggested possibilities for sawing materials.
 Drilling – Perforation of a material (e,g: shaft-hole axes, beads and wrist guards). This could have been
done in two ways:
a) Solid Drill: either side of the object, resulting in an hourglass-shaped or biconical hole.
b) Hollow Drill: used on one side, resulting in a cylindrical perforation.
 MATERIAL STUDIES:
Worked Stone

Assessing the use of tools:

1) The shape of the used surfaces
2) Residue
3) Gloss
4) Striations could indicate the direction and way the tool was used. Observed with a stereomicroscope.
5) Roughness

Common object types:

Hammer Stones and Anvils – “Identified by presence of impact features, indentations
and flak scars on one or more of their rounded sides.” Anvils show a slight depression
with impact scars in the shape of indentations.

Axes – Although size and shape can vary, the cross section (round, oval rectangular) is
always symmetrical. They are hafted parallel to the shaft; thin-butted axes put through
the shaft while thick-butted were hafted against the shaft. The manufacturing process
includes roughly cutting or sawing the semi-finished product, hammering to shape,
grinding the axe.

Adzes – Have an asymmetrical cross-section. Hafted at right angles to

the shaft. Probably served as hacks or hoes, woodworking or tree-felling.

Hammer Axes (shaft-hole axes) – Heterogeneous category in which the

longitudinal direction of the hole is parallel to the cutting edge.

Querns and Grinders – Querns (grinding slabs or millstones) are the

stationary stone pairs of grinders (also handstones), the upper, hand-
held tool. Usually they are made of coarse-grained, often porous rock
(e.g: Basalt, Granite, and Sandstone). Different types of quern can be
distinguished:

Type Lower Stone Grinder Other Features

Saddle- flat, ovate or rectangular, made at least as long as the
shaped of a coarse-grained stone quern is wide
Dish shaped with variable size
Dish-Shaped Small with one flat side
(can be up to 10cm deep)
Roman invention.
Two flat disks, convex base stone and a concave runner
Hand mill Runner is rotated with a
which slide along each other
wooden handle
Percussive/pitted surface
Mortars Basin Ground with a pestle and/or abrasive wear are
frequently visible.

Polishing Tools – characterized by their smooth texture and visible, light reflecting sheen as well as multiple
striations as a result of abrasive and tribochemical interactions.

Ornaments – universal stone artefact

Notes on Collection method and processing:

 Should be collected systematically (not only most recognizable)
 Recovery of every stone (including non-modified) is important
 Advisable to bag stone artefacts separately and in a protected environment
 Those kept for residue analysis should not be treated, washed and be stored in clean and
uncontaminated environment.