UNIT – 3

FOOD INDUSTRY

CHARACTERISTICS OF FOOD INDUSTRY

Overview of the Food Industry:

• Commercial movement of food from field to fork

• Traditionally, food production was centered around two activities:
• Labor-intensive agricultural activities
• Personal food preparation
• Modern food industry is the result of technological & cultural changes that have
occurred over the last 150 years

The components of the food industry include:

• Regulation: local, regional, national and international rules & regulations for food
production & sale, including food Quality & food safety, & industry lobbying
activities
• Education: academic, vocational, consultancy
• R&D: food technology
• Financial services: insurance, credit
• Manufacturing: agrichemicals, seed, farm machinery & supplies, agricultural
construction, etc.
• Agriculture: raising of crops and livestock, seafood
• Food processing: preparation of fresh products for market, manufacture of prepared
food products
• Marketing: promotion of generic products (e.g. milk board), new products, public
opinion, through advertising, packaging, public relations, etc
• Wholesale & distribution: warehousing, transportation ,logistics
• Retail: supermarket chains and independent food stores, direct-to-consumer,
restaurant, food services

• Modern food industry is reliant on technology, transportation, management & logistics

for physical fulfillment, and on marketing and government regulation for maintaining
an efficient consumer market.
• Food is grown, processed, & transported in a global manner
• Wide range of businesses and individuals are employed by profit from all aspects of
this huge and complex system

Industry Size
• Processed food sales worldwide are approximately US$3.2 trillion (2004)

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 • In the U.S., consumers spend approximately US$1trillion annually for food, or nearly
10% of the GDP
• Over 16.5 million people are employed in the food industry
• India is the second largest producer of food next to China
• India has the potential of being the biggest with the food and agricultural sector
• Accounts for less than 1.5 per cent of international food trade
• The Indian food industries sales turnover was Rs 140,000 crore annually at the start of year
2000
• The industry has the highest number of plants approved by the US Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) outside the USA

Indian Food Processing

Sector Subsector

Fruit & vegetables, Meat & poultry Soft-drink bottling, Confectionery

Milk & milk products, Alcoholic
beverages, Fisheries, Plantation,
Grain processing, Confectionery,
Soya-based products, Mineral
water, High protein foods
manufacture, Fishing, aquaculture,
Grain-milling & grain-based
products, Meat and poultry
processing, Alcoholic beverages,
Milk processing, Tomato paste,
Fast-food, Ready-to-eat breakfast
cereals, Food additives, flavors

Food Processing
• The Indian food processing industry is presently growing at14 % against 6-7 per cent
growth in 2003-04
• The industry received foreign direct investments (FDI)totaling US$ 143.80 million in
2007-08 against US$ 5.70million in the previous fiscal year
• The size of the global processed-food market is estimated at US$ 3.2 trillion
• Nearly 80 % of agricultural products in the developed countries get processed and
packaged
• The ministry of food processing is planning to set up 350 new food processing units by
October this year
• The food and grocery market in India is the sixth largest in the world
• Food and grocery retail contributes to 70 % of the total retail sales

Indian food market

• The Indian food market is estimated at over US$ 182 billion
• According to consultancy firm McKinsey & Co, the retail food sector in India was US$
70 billion in 2008
• Despite a global slowdown, Indian spice exports are growing
• India exported 470,520 tonnes of spices valued at US$ 11.68 billion an all time high in
2008-09
• 99% of the food processing industry is unorganised

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 • Immense scope for growth for the organised sector
• The organised food retail sector is largely dominated by restaurants, fast food outlets

Major investments
• Private investment has been one of the key drivers for growth of the Indian food
industry
Government Initiatives
• The new trade policy places increased focus on agro-based industries
• Food processing industries in the list of priority sectors for bank lending
• The government has started work on 10 Mega Food Parks, & is planning to increase the
number to 30 by 2015
• Fruit and vegetable processing units have been completely exempted from paying excise
duty
Food Safety Regulations in India
• Ministry of Food and Consumer Affairs main Government agency dealing with product
standards for consumption in the domestic market
• The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) is the main Standard Setting body in India for all
domestic market requirements
• The Export Inspection Council (EIC) is the Chief enforcement body for exports
• Policies and plans for the food processing industries is coordinated by the Ministry of
Food Processing Industries formed in 2001

Ministry Legislation
Ministry of Agriculture Insecticide Act
Milk and Milk Product Control Order (MMPO)
Meat Food Product Order 1973
Ministry of Rural Development: Agricultural Produce (Grading and Marking)
Directorate of Marketing and Act
Inspection (DMI)
Ministry of Health & Family Prevention of Food Adulteration Act 1954
Welfare

Ministry of Food Processing Fruits & Vegetable Products (Control) Order –

Industries FPO 1955

Ministry of Commerce Export (Quality Control & Inspections) Act

1963

Ministry of Civil Supplies, Standards of Weights & Measures Act

Consumer Affairs & Public Standards of Weights & Measures
Distribution (Enforcement) Act
Solvent Extracted Oils, De-oiled Meal &
Edible Flour Control Order, 1967

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 Vegetable Products Control Order, 1976
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) Act 1986

Ministry of Environment Aquaculture Authority Notification 1997 &

& Forests 2002
Environment (Protection) Act1986,
Environment (Protection) Third Amendment
Rules, 2002
Coastal Regulation Zone – Notification 21 May
2002
Aquaculture Authority - Notification

EFFECT OF PROCESSING ON
NUTRIENT CONTENT OF FOODS

Food processing
• Set of methods and techniques used to transform raw ingredients into food or to
transform food into other forms for consumption by humans or animals either in the
home or by the food processing industry
• Takes clean, harvested crops or slaughtered & butchered animal products & uses these to
produce attractive, marketable & often long-life food products
• Similar processes are used to produce animal feed

Food processing methods:

• Removal of unwanted outer layers
Ex. Potato peeling or the skinning of peaches,
De-husking, milling & polishing of cereals
• Chopping or slicing
Ex. Diced carrots.
• Mincing & macerating
• Liquefaction
Ex. Fruit juice
• Fermentation
Ex. Beer breweries
• Emulsification
• Cooking, such as boiling, broiling, frying, steaming or grilling
• Deep frying
• Baking
• Mixing
• Addition of gas
Ex. Bread
Soft drinks
• Proofing
• Spray drying
• Pasteurization

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 • Packaging

Factors influencing losses due to processing :

• Genetic make-up of the plant or animal
• Soil in which it is grown
• Use of fertilizer
• Prevailing weather
• Maturity at harvest
• Packaging
• Storage conditions
• Method of preparation for processing
• The storage conditions and handling after processing

The effect of food processing on nutrient content will depend on:

• Characteristics of the food being processed
• Concentration of the nutrient in the food
• The sensitivity of the nutrient to conditions such as heat, oxygen,pH and light
Ex. Sensitivity of vitamin C to heat varies with pH
• Food has to be a good source of a particular nutrient
Ex. The losses of protein (amino acids) during blanching of legumes, more significant
than of vitamin C
• Processing to be done within the recommended guidelines
Ex. For heat and pH over-processing will destroy nutrient content, taste & appearance

Effect of Processing on Nutrient Foods

Nutrient Effect of Processing
Fat Oxidation accelerated by light

Protein Denatured by heat (improves digestion)

Amino Acids Some are sensitive to light. Lysine bio – availability reduced
by non - enzymatic browning
Vitamin C Decreases during storage, drying, heating, oxidation
(Ascorbic acid) Cell damage (e.g. chopping or slicing)
Losses due to oxidation catalyzed by copper, iron
Stable to heat under acidic conditions
Ex. Pasteurization of orange juice
Vitamin B1 Destroyed by high temperatures, neutral and alkaline
(Thiamine) (e.g. baking soda, baking powder) conditions
Lost in cooking water
Vitamin B2 Sensitive to light at neutral and alkaline conditions
(Riboflavin) Moderately heat stable under neutral conditions
Sensitive to heat under alkaline conditions

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Vitamin B3 The most stable vitamin
(Niacin, Stable to heat and light
Nicotinamide) Leaches into cooking water
Folate Decreases with storage, or prolonged heating
Lost in cooking water
Vitamin B6 Heat stable in alkaline and acidic conditions
(Pyridoxine) Pyridoxal is heat labile
Vitamin B12 Destroyed by light and high pH

Carotenes Easily destroyed by heat

Oxidises and isomerises when exposed to heat and light
Vitamin A Very heat labile
Easily oxidised
Vitamin D Oxidises when exposed to heat and light

Vitamin E Oxidises readily

Heat Processes:
• Heating can be both beneficial & detrimental to nutrient content of foods
• Generally improves the digestibility of foods, making some nutrients more available
Ex. Protein in legumes
• Reducing sugars - non-enzymatic (Maillard) browning, tocreate an indigestible complex
• Reduction in protein quality of the food
• Lysine content most often affected
• Vitamin C destroyed by heating
• Losses of other labile nutrients depend on the extent of heating and other prevailing
conditions, such as pH

Dehydration:
• Two processes occur during drying:
Addition of heat
Removal of moisture from the food
• Nutritional losses during drying are more due to the application of heat than to the
removal of moisture, exception is thiamine

Losses during the drying process depend on:

• Preparation procedures before drying, Ex. Slicing, Blanching
• Drying temperature
• Drying time
• Storage conditions

Nutrient losses during drying:

• Losses during preparation are greater than losses during drying

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 • Nutrient losses during drying can be decreased by drying at a low temperature and
shortening drying time
• Storing under dry conditions and at low oxygen levels
• Sulphites formed are anti-oxidant to prevent browning & preservation of fruits ,seafood &
meat
• Increased loss of thiamine from food

Blanching
• Destruction or inactivation of enzymes that affect the colour, texture, flavour and nutritive
value of foods during storage
• Results in significant nutrient losses from fruits & vegetables

The nutrient losses during blanching will depend on several factors:

• The food item
• Surface area exposed
• The method used (steam blanching or hot water blanching)
• Contact time
• Amount of agitation

Losses in Nutrients During Blanching:

Food Item Nutrient Losses in Steam Losses in Water

Blanching (%) Blanching (%)

Peas Vit. C 12 26

Peas Amino acids 13 25

Spinach Amino acids 60 80

• Nutrient losses in blanching result from:

Thermal degradation, oxidation & leaching

• Hot water blanching results in more losses due to leaching of water-soluble vitamins,
minerals and amino acids
• Addition of sodium bicarbonate (or other alkali) to the blanching water for preserving the
colour softens the texture of the vegetable and increases destruction of vitamin C and
thiamine
Salting:
• Commonly used for meat and fish
• Loss of fluid & some of the water-soluble proteins, vitamins & minerals

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 • Some proteins are also denatured by the salt
Smoking:
• Usually follows salting or curing
• Bactericidal & anti-oxidative function
• Reduces oxidative changes in fats, proteins and vitamins
• Nutrient losses due to heat, flow of gases & interaction of the smoke components with
proteins
• The heat and flow of gases cause drying of the food item
• Increase in the protein and fat concentration of the food
• Increased concentration of curing agent in cured foods
• Denaturation of proteins, but the amino acid content retained
• Carcinogenic substances deposited & absorbed on foods

Concentration:
• Nutrient changes depend on:
Contents of the mixture
Temperature
• Decreased water content & increase in other nutrients
• Sugars in solution with water will crystallize out if the water content becomes too low or
on refrigeration
• Will not affect the sugar content, only the appearance & texture of the food
• Heat & high concentration of salt & minerals, can denature proteins, resulting in gelling

ANALYSIS OF FOOD CONSTITUENTS

Stages in Food Analysis:

• Setting the protocol
• Sampling the food
• Preparing the sample for extraction of the compound of interest (COI)
• Extraction of the COI
• Separation from, or removal of, substances interfering with the detection of the COI
• Detection of the COI
• Identification and/or quantification of the COI
• Recording the information

Protocol:
• Clearly defined
• Adhere to it
• Report results unambiguously
• Verified by the analyst

Sampling:
• Process of preparing a representative portion of the whole food for analysis
• Internal standard added to allow any subsequent losses to be compensated

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 for during the analysis

Preparation of the Sample for Extraction:

• Grinding
• Digestion
• Centrifugation
• Occasionally, mainly for liquid foods, no preparation for extraction is required

Extraction:
• A part of the sample is removed from the whole starting sample
• Part containing the COI /unwanted part being discarded
• Leaving a less complex & usually more concentrated remainder for further study
Direct Analysis without Extraction:
• The analyte can be in sufficient concentration, & free from interference from the matrix
• Liquid food, no extraction necessary
• Sample can be injected directly into the separation stage,
• Ex. HPLC
• More feasible with the use of guard columns
• Resolving power of the separation & detection stages improve
• The use of chromatography–MS & electrophoresis–MS Separation
• Chromatographic and electrophoretic processes
• Finally resolve components of mixtures for detection & identification

Detection for Identification &/or Quantification:

• The signal recorded when a component of the sample is registered above a base line
• Signal content converted into qualitative or quantitative information
Direct detection by remote sensing of the food sample:
• Detection by a sensing probe
• Required analytical data extracted directly
• No physical, chemical, or biochemical intervention
• Rapid, economical in time and resources, & ideal for automation

Recording the Information

Extraction of Organic Analytes:

• Material rendered accessible to the extracting agent
• Removal of the analytes from the sample matrix
• Removal of interferents from the matrix
• Use of chemical & physical methods to make qualitative or quantitative measurements

Standardisation and Validation of Methods:

• Known quantities of standard reference materials mixed into food samples
• Subsequent methodology calibrated against losses occurring during handling to
provide quantitative measurements

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Recovery, Sensitivity and Limit of Detection:
• Measures of method performance, such as recovery, the limit of detection (LOD), and
quantification (LOQ), generally based on the use of standard addition Based on the
assumption that the additional standard material behaves like the natural substance in any
physical and chemical treatments employed
• Losses during extraction should be kept to a minimum
• For high sensitivity in trace component analysis, it is important to have as near a loss-free
system as possible
• LOD is expressed as the threshold sensitivity of the detector to the remaining molecules,
and is given a signal-to-noise ratio, e.g. 4 : 1
• LOQ is the lowest concentration of an analyte that can be determined with precision &
accuracy

Precision, Accuracy, Reproducibility & Repeatability:

• Measures of reliability include the extraction stage, & errors of analysis need to be
accounted for
• Replication of the sampling & standardisation of the procedure is normal
• Statistical evaluation of the reliability of this stage integral

Certified Reference Material (CRM):

• The importance of the suitability of the reference material used in the validation process

Measurement Uncertainty:
• Sample preparation is estimated to be the major stage of an analytical chromatographic
procedure
• Extraction process can make the major contribution to the total uncertainty of the assay

Hints for analysts:

• Use adequate working techniques
• Use large volumes
• Minimise the number of working steps
• Make sample and reference measurements in a close time proximity & use the same
instrument
• Use an internal standard
• Prepare an artificial matrix or use a certified matrix reference material
• Perform multiple analyses

Remote Sampling:
Four categories of sampling are :
• Non-contact sampling
• Remote sampling
• Extractive loop sampling
• Grab sampling (remote off-line analyser)

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Preparation for Extraction:
• The preparation is to render the sample easier to extract

The main extraction aids are:

Change of Volume:
• Dilution aids processes where there is plenty of material
• Where particulate matter might block filters or membranes
• Trace amounts of analytes may be concentrated to increase the chance of detection
• Removal by dissection, often under the microscope
• Useful means of pre-concentration of the analyte
• Employed when interest is focused on only a part of the foodstuff
• Ex. Seeds of a fruit or the intermuscular fat of a cut of meat

Change of pH:
• A mixture zwitterionic proteins, at a particular pH contain
positively charged & negatively charged components
• Separation can be effected directly by electrophoresis
• Changing the pH of a food sample can facilitate the release of selected analytes

Change of Structure (Cell Disruption):

• Disintegrate & homogenise, break down the bulk structure
• Target components accessible to the extractant
• Very dry and hard foods (<5% moisture) are ground to a powder, Ex. in a mortar
• Dry foods (<15% moisture) disintegrated in a blender
• Wet foods liquidised to a slurry or pulp

Biochemical Release:
• Enzyme hydrolysis to degrade the cellular structure to release analytes from the matrix to
provide greater yield
• Mild acid and alkaline hydrolyses are used to release compounds bound to structures

Chemical Release:
• Whole food chemically digested to release the analyte
• For proximate analysis of protein, the food is digested in conc. H2SO4
• The resultant nitrogen is converted into (NH4)2SO4, which on distillation with NaOH
releases NH3

Microwave-assisted Extraction (MAE):

• MAE is a sample preparation step
• Internal vibrational energy is provided to the food matrix
• This releases components into the liquid state
• Or render components accessible to extraction

Ultrasound-assisted Extraction (UAE):

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 • Ultrasonics is another way of providing internal energy into the bulk of the material
• To interact with the structure & aid the extraction of components that otherwise would
remain immobilised

Change of State:
• Some soluble constituents can be treated with a chemical coagulating reagent, causing
them to precipitate
• In analytical terms, the larger the particle size precipitated the easier will be the separation
by filtration extraction
• Small particles block filter beds & extend the separation time

Centrifugation:
• Alternative means of separation
• Works well with certain two-phase systems
• Two layers separated by decanting the supernatant phase, leaving the COI more
concentrated as either coagulant or supernatant
• Additional heating, stirring or adding an electrolyte required if colloidal suspensions
involved

Change of Chemical Composition:

• Efficacious to add a chemical reaction into the protocol to avoid interference between the
analyte and other co- extracted material at a later stage in the assay
• Ex. Derivatisation to increase the volatility of compounds for headspace (HS) analysis, or
to change the retention time (RT) in chromatographic separation

Flow Switching and Automation:

• The employment of instrumental methods under computer control is viewed as an
extraction aid since processes like on-line flow switching (FS) may be used to effect
extractions by diverting unwanted fractions away from the final separation stage

General Approach to Extraction of Analytes:

Phase Separation:
• Foods are natural polyphasic systems
• Simple phase separation methods may remove unwanted fractions of the matrix
• Maceration can be used to produce a slurry that may be physically separated into solid and
liquid fractions
• Organic solvents used to remove soluble components from the aqueous food matrix

Filter Bed:
• The simplest form of phase separation is filtration
• On phase separation some of the sample is in the liquid & some in the solid state
• Particles of the solids when greater than pore size of filtration medium will be retained on
the filter bed

Separating Funnel:

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 • The distribution of analytes with different partition constants between two immiscible
liquid phases enables separation
• If the amount of COI in one phase greatly exceeds the other then a single-stage extraction
enough

Filter Funnel:
• Solid has formed in a liquid food
• Comminuted food matrix contains sufficient liquid phase
• Suitable porosity filter paper will extract the solid, and purify the liquid food, for further
study

Büchner Funnel:
• A range of sizes and porosities of fixed glass frits
• Ability to add a medium such as Celite as a filtration aid
• Büchner funnel invaluable in food analysis

Centrifuge:
• Soluble & insoluble components of a food matrix can be separated by centrifugation
• An extraction can be made by decanting the supernatant
• Precipitation & separation by filtration/centrifugation
• Many food assays contain a centrifugation step

Decanting:
• Centrifugation, precipitation, simple settling or sedimentation separates the liquid & solid
phases
• The liquid phase can then be decanted to extract the soluble components
• When distribution ratios less distinct, multiple extractions or countercurrent distribution
necessary

Labile Samples:
• When sample is sensitive to light or heat
• Special extraction conditions to be used
• Mandatory to work in the dark at reduced temperatures
• Ex. Carotenoid samples

Extraction Methods- Partition:

• Four physical processes recognized:
• Solvation
• Distillation
• Adsorption
• Diffusion

Associated Processes/ Extraction Aids:

• Percolation
• Filtration
• Precipitation

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 • Microwave radiation
• Enzyme hydrolysis
• Release or removal of components from the bulk material

Partition:
• Chemical compound in a food matrix transfers to an extractant
• Partition constants quantify the efficacy of the extraction

Partition–Extraction:
• If two compounds are soluble in two immiscible solvents to different extents
• Distribution according to their partition or distribution constants, Ex. Food Flavour
Industry
• Gas/Liquid, Liquid/Liquid, Solid/Liquid Partition

Solvation - Solid/Liquid Extraction:

• Solvent extraction is a particular case of partition
• Immiscible solvent added to comminuted food sample & shaken
• First the particles swell by sorption & capillarity
• Then diffusion from the solid into the solvent occurs
• Diffusion proportional to their partition constants

The extraction process is governed by:

• Nature of the solvent
• pH of the medium
• Particle dimensions
• Temperature
• Volume of solvent
• Number of extraction steps

Methods for food analysis:

Pressurised Liquid Extraction (PLE):
• Efficiency increases as the temperature and/or pressure of the liquid extractant
approaches the supercritical region
Subcritical water extraction (SWE):
• Hot-water extracted analytes mix under pressure with an organic solvent
• Mixture cooled rapidly & water enters a polar, sub- critical state & partitions with the
organic solvent
Pressurised Hot-water Extraction (PHWE):
• Dielectric constant of water decreases as the temperature increases
• Non-polar analytes dissolve easier in low dielectric constant solvents
• Used for contaminant analyses
Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE):
• Supercritical fluid similar in properties to a dense gas
• Ex. Non-toxic CO2 as extractant

Distillation:

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 • Food constituents can be volatilised without decomposition
• Then concentrated by condensation into an extract
• Extraction is effected through distillation
• Historically, volatilisation, distillation & fractionation associated with production of food
essences
• More recently used for analysis of food flavour compounds
Steam Distillation:
• A very important process in food science
• Many foods contain water, and are cooked in water
• It serves to extract volatile materials to an external collector for further analysis
Organic Solvent Distillation –Extraction:
• Mainly for extraction of water from food samples
• A higher boiling non-polar solvent volatilises a lower boiling polar solvent, carrying it
during distillation
• More dense polar solvent can be collected below the non-polar distilling solvent into a
burette for quantitative measurement
Countercurrent Distribution:
• Continuous agitation of a binary phase system (two immiscible solvents)
• One solvent moves in a direction opposed to the flow of the other (countercurrent)
• Enables equilibria to be established between the solvents
• Solutes distribute proportional to their partition constants

Adsorption:
• Adsorption of molecules to solid (or liquid) immobilised particles
• Reversibility of adsorption defines type of extraction or separation
• Chromatographic technique is the vehicle used in modern analytical chemistry to achieve
separations
Solid-phase Extraction (SPE)
• Rules same as liquid chromatography
• A tube filled with an adsorbent powder is wetted with a solvent & then a sample in the
same solvent is applied to the top of the column
• Either the compound of interest washes through with the solvent & contaminants & is
retained on the column or vice versa
• COI concentrated by being eluted in a small volume of a suitable solvent
There are six general categories or modes of extraction:
• Adsorption
• Bonded phase partition
• Normal phase
• Reversed phase
• Ion-pairing
• Ion-exchange

Diffusion:
• Flow of molecules or ions from a point of higher to lower concentration
• Movement of analytes across membranes in processes like dialysis & permeation
• Classically, membrane separations like dialysis viewed as diffusion

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PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF THE MAJOR FOOD COMPONENTS
Proximate analysis of a food sample determines:
• Total protein
• Fat
• Carbohydrate
• Ash
• moisture
• Reported as the percentage composition of the product
Total Protein:
• The total protein content of a food sample is estimated as total nitrogen (Ex. Kjeldahl
method)
• Digestion, salt neutralisation & titration of the ammonia released against standard acid
• A conversion factor is applied to calculate the total protein
• Some functional groups, –NO2 and –N=N–, do not react & need conversion to amine
before further treatment
• Methods depend upon the combustion/digestion of the organic matter of the sample to
release N for chemical reaction & volumetric estimation
Some of the methods of estimation are:
• Lassaigne Test
• Kjeldahl Method
• Dumas Method
• Biuret method

Lassaigne Test:
• Qualitative measurement of N, S, & the halogens
• Sample heated with Na if N is present, NaCN is formed
• This is reacted with FeSO4 to form the hydroxide, which is precipitated
• Heating to near boiling allows the ferrocyanide to form, which with acidified FeCl3
forms Prussian blue precipitate
Kjeldahl Method:
• Developed in 1883, based on most organic N compounds converting into (NH4)2SO4
when heated with Conc. H2SO4
• Digestion carried out slowly over a microburner in a loosely stoppered digestion flask to
avoid losses by splashing
• Digestion products then quantitatively rinsed into a flask
• Treated with excess alkali added from funnel
Kjeldahl Method:
• The ammonia generated is distilled over into a flask
• From here it is steam distilled & condensed via the water-cooled condenser into standard
acid in a flask
• This acid is titrated to ascertain the yield of ammonia

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 • New methods have been developed to replace the Kjeldahl method
• Because of the necessity of carrying out two assays to find the difference between NPN
& total protein N
• Long time taken by the Kjeldahl digestion, distillation & titration analysis
• Ion chromatography to determine N as the ammonium ion, to replace the distillation &
titration stages of the Kjeldahl method
• Microwaves for the efficient digestion of food matrices in an open vessel microwave
system to reduce the sample preparation time
• A colorimetric method for measuring N in Kjeldahl digests circumvented the distillation &
titration stages & reduced the analysis time
• Used in nutritional studies on dairy products, dry cereals, cereal-based products, legumes,
& cooked food mixtures
Dumas Method:
• Dumas’ method is based on the decomposition of compounds to CO2, H2O, & gaseous N
by heated CuO & a bright Cu spiral
• Nitrogen formed is collected over a solution of KOH
• The organic sample mixed with an excess of fine CuO
• Inserted into the 1 m long combustion tube With a packing of coarse CuO
• A spiral of bright metallic Cu gauze – to decompose oxides of N
• The nitrometer has a 40% solution of KOH
• CO2 used to purge the tube of air while the furnace heated
• Water & CO2 produced by the combustion of the organic sample adsorbed or condensed
• N gas collected in the manometer
• Volume recorded & corrected for NTP
Biuret Reaction:
• Biuret is formed from substances containing two or more –NH-CO- groups
• Biuret in the presence of dilute CuSO4 gives a characteristic violet that can be quantified
• Proteins & related compounds made strongly alkaline with NaOH
• Useful to estimate non-protein NNon-protein Nitrogen
• Kjeldahl method has been used to measure the nitrogen content of fractions made from
foods by various extraction techniques
• NPN in pooled sweet and acid wheys was estimated by membrane dialysis at different
MW cut-offs

Total Carbohydrate:
Monosaccharides:
• Sugars
• Polysaccharides
Starch
Cellulose
Soluble & insoluble fibre

Total Lipid (Fat):

• Calculated simply as the material is extracted into diethyl ether

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 • Many chemically different forms of fat present
• Digestion of the protein & carbohydrate for the efficient release
of fat from the tissue
• Modern solvent-extraction methods employed to improve reproducibility
Food labelling requirements entail separation into:
• Saturated
• Polyunsaturated
• Monounsaturated fractions
• Omega 3 fatty acids

Moisture Content and Total Solids (Ash):

• Moisture is measured as a mass difference after dehydration, & total solids
• Ash is recorded as the material remaining after the removal of all vaporisable material by
high temperature combustion in a furnace (Ex. at 500 ºC)
• Moisture may also be determined by chemical reaction
Water Content – Direct Methods:
Azeotropic Solvent Distillation:
• Water is the major component of most fresh foods
• Determination of moisture content defines the dry matter composition
• The Dean and Stark azeotropic solvent distillation–extraction method has been in use for
many years
• The water is co-distilled by the solvent, e.g. toluene, & condensed into a side arm for
volumetric estimation
Disadvantages:
• The use of large amounts of organic solvents
• The long time taken to reach a constant reading of the water distilled over
Mass Difference:
Evaporative Heating (Dehydration):
• A simple method of measuring moisture content is to heat the food to dryness by
evaporating the water into the atmosphere (oven method) – a direct form of total volatile
extraction – & measure the loss in mass
• The temperature of evaporation has to be carefully chosen to minimise thermal
decomposition of labile substances to avoid volatile loss, of water
Disadvantage:
• The long time taken to reach a constant residual weight
Carter-Simon Moisture Meter:
• Operated at 150 ºC
• Finely ground sample heated in an oven for 20 min
• Followed by cooling in a dessicator for 10 min
• The loss in weight is calibrated
Rapid Radiant Heating:
• Infrared & microwave- Rapid
• More reliable since modern automated instruments remove inconsistency
Dessication:
• The wet sample is placed in a desiccator with a strong desiccant, such as P2O5, & weigh
the sample at intervals until equilibrium is reached

18
Chemical Reaction & Volumetric Titration:
Karl Fischer Titration:
• MeOH reacts with SO2 in the presence of a base to give the methyl sulphonic acid anion
• Which is then oxidised if free water is present
• 3B + MeOH + I2 + SO2 + H2O = 3BH+ + MeOSO− + 2I−
• The amount of iodine consumed is measured by coulometry or volumetric titration
• It is related quantitatively to the amount of free water present
• Modern development has been to find less toxic reagents & to automate the sample
preparation & titration
• Ex. Mettler-Toledo DL 38 Karl Fischer Titrator
Combinations of Direct Methods:
Evaporation & Titration:
• If the water vapour released during heating is directed through a Karl Fischer titration cell
the moisture content may be calculated from the titre
Evaporation, Hydration and Electrolysis:
• Water vapour released during evaporation is passed through a tube of P2O5
• The phosphoric acid hydration product may be electrolysed & the H2 & O2 measured
Water Content – Indirect Methods:
Rapid and Remote Sensors: NMR Spectroscopy:
• Free water (the H nucleus) is detected and the relaxation time is related to the physical
environment of the nuclei
• Calibration is necessary for every food matrix NIR Spectroscopy
• FT-IR and chemometrics enable remote sensors to measure water & other parameters in
“at-line” mode in food processing plants

Total Solids:
Evaporative Methods:
• The residue after the extractable water has been evaporated is called the total solids
• It is an essential part of the proximate analysis
• Traditionally, oven evaporation methods have been used
• Ex. Direct forced-air oven-drying methods for milk
In-line Sensors:
• Used in measurement of total solids/moisture content
• Ex. In continuous fruit juice processing
• Gives good results over prolonged use without problems of deposit build up

Total Lipid
Acid Digestion:
• A simple method of measuring the total fat content of food is to digest a sample in
concentrated H2SO4 & measure the remaining lipid layer in a graduated tube
• Suitable for measuring fat content of tree nuts, peanuts, sunflower seeds, avocado &
olives
SFE & Enzyme Trans-esterification:
• The rapid measurement of total nutritional fat content of meat used SFE at 12.16 MPa &
50 ºC
• The extract was trans-esterified with MeOH and catalysed by an immobilised lipase

19
 • SFC was used to monitor the conversion of the triglycerides into FAMEs & the FAs were
analysed by GC
• Total fat, saturated fat & monounsaturated fat contents were calculated from the GC data
Total Carbohydrate:
• Sugars (mono & oligosaccharides)
• Starch Polysaccharides
• Non-Starch polysaccharides
• Pectin
• Soluble dietary fibre
• Insoluble dietary fibre (Cellulose & Hemicellulose)
Total starch:
• Digestible starch
• Resistant starch
• Dietary fibre
Saccharide Content by GC-MS:
• GC-MS is used to detect & quantify the volatile derivatives of the hydrolysed saccharides
• The food is hydrolysed to prepare a sample for GC-MS analysis of monosaccharides &
oligosaccharides
• Ex. GC-MS of honey carbohydrates involved dilution, transfer to the autosampler vial and
freeze drying for 4 h
Polysaccharides:
• Food grade polysaccharide gums like, tragacanth, karaya, ghatti, carob, guar, arabic and
xanthan are hydrolysed to their neutral monosaccharides & derivatised for GC-MS
• Sample preparation includes defatting, starch degradation & protein precipitation
Starch Content: Total Starch
• 2 M KOH used to dissolve the RS & the total starch hydrolysed with amyloglucosidase
• The released glucose was determined
• TS calculated as glucose × 0.9
• Ex. Bread, spaghetti, rice, biscuits, lentils, chickpeas, beans, frozen peas, boiled potatoes
& crisps
Resistant Starch:
• Milling, defatting, & homogenisation of the sample matrix
• Buffered at pH 1.5
• Digested with pepsin
• Re-buffered to pH 6.9
• Digested with alpha-amylase
• Centrifuged & washed
• Supernatants discarded
• RS dispersed with KOH with constant shaking
• Adjusted to pH 4.75
• Hydrolysed to glucose with amyloglucosidase
• Centrifuged
• Supernatants collected, made up to volume, Washed and re-buffered
• Glucose released quantified from a standard curve
• Ex. Rice, spaghetti, biscuit, white bread etc.
• DS calculated as the difference between TS and RS

20
Non-starch Polysaccharide Content:
• Many nutritional groups use the phrase non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) to include all
the components known as dietary fibre

NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF FOODS

Reference Daily Intake/Recommended Daily Intake (RDI):

• Daily dietary intake level of a nutrient considered to be sufficient to meet the
requirements of nearly all (97–98%) healthy individuals in each life-stage & sex group
• Based on Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) from 1968
• The RDI is used to determine the Daily Value which is printed on food labels in the
U.S., Canada and Australia
• Newer RDA's have since been introduced in the Dietary Reference Intake system
• RDIs are still used for nutrition labeling

The Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) is a system of nutrition recommendations from the
Institute of Medicine (IOM) of the US National Academy of Sciences The DRI system is used by
both the United States & Canada and is intended for the general public and health professionals
Applications include:
• Composition of diets for schools, prisons, hospitals or nursing homes
• Industries developing new food stuffs
• Healthcare policy makers and public health officials

The current Dietary Reference Intake recommendation is composed of:

Estimated Average Requirements (EAR): expected to satisfy the needs of 50% of the people in
that age group
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA): the daily dietary intake level of a nutrient considered
sufficient to meet the requirements of nearly all (97–98%) healthy individuals in each life-stage
and gender group. It is approximately 20% higher than the EAR
Adequate Intake (AI): where no RDA has been established, but the amount established is
somewhat less firmly believed to be adequate for everyone in the demographic group
Tolerable upper intake levels (UL): to caution against excessive intake of nutrients (like vitamin
D) that can be harmful in large amounts

• The heating value or calorific value of a substance, usually a fuel or food, is the amount
of heat released during the combustion of a specified amount of it
• The calorific value of food is measured in kJ/kg
• Food energy is the amount of energy in food that is available through digestion
• Food energy is expressed in calories or joules & for this the food being measured must be
burned in a calorimeter
• A calorie is approximately equal to 4.1868 kilojoules (kJ)
• Kilojoule is the unit officially recommended by the WHO
• Fiber, fats, proteins, organic acids, polyols, & ethanol contain food energy or calories

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 • Non-caloric food includes water, vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, caffeine, spices, tea,
coffee & natural flavours
CALCULATION OF NUTRIENTS
Calculation of Energy
The amount of energy to be listed should be calculated
by using the following conversion factors:

Carbohydrates 4 kcal/g - 17 kJ

Protein 4 kcal/g - 17 kJ
Fat 9 kcal/g - 37 kJ
Alcohol (Ethanol) 7 kcal/g - 29 kJ
Organic acid 3 kcal/g - 13 kJ
•Each food has a specific metabolizable energy intake (MEI)
• Normally this value is obtained by multiplying the total amount of energy contained in a
food item by 85%
• 85% is the typical amount of energy actually obtained by a human after the digestive
processes have been completed
Biological value (BV)
• Is a measure of the proportion of absorbed protein from a food which becomes
incorporated into the proteins of the organism's body
• It indicates how readily the broken down protein can be used in protein synthesis in the
cells of the organism
• Proteins are the major source of nitrogen in food
• This method assumes protein is the only source of nitrogen
• It measures the proportion of this nitrogen absorbed by the body which is then excreted
• The remainder must have been incorporated into the proteins of the organisms body
• A ratio of nitrogen incorporated into the body over nitrogen absorbed gives a measure of
protein 'usability' - the BV
• Unlike some measures of protein usability, biological value does not take into account how
readily the protein can be digested & absorbed
BV, uses two similar scales:
• The true percentage utilization (usually shown with a percent symbol).
• The percentage utilization relative to a readily utilizable protein source, often egg (usually
shown as unitless)
• These two values will be similar but not identical
• The BV of a food varies greatly, and depends on a wide variety of factors
• In particular the BV value of a food varies depending on its preparation and the recent diet
of the organism
• This makes reliable determination of BV difficult & of limited use
• Fasting prior to testing is universally required in order to make the values reliable
• Commonly used in nutrition science in many mammalian organisms, & is a relevant
measure in humans
• BV is a popular guideline in bodybuilding in protein choice

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 • Whole egg has a value of 100, so foodstuffs that provide even more nitrogen than whole
eggs, can have a value of more that 100 Ex. Whey Protein Concentrate
• Biological value is determined based on this formula
• BV = ( Nr / Na ) x 100
Where:
• Na = nitrogen absorbed in proteins on the test diet
• Nr = nitrogen incorporated into the body on the test diet
• Nr = Ni - Ne(f) - Ne(u) - Nb
• Na = Ni - Ne(f)
• Where:
• Ni = nitrogen intake in proteins on the test diet
• Ne(f) = nitrogen excreted in faeces whilst on the test diet
• Ne(u) = nitrogen excreted in urine whilst on the test diet
• Nb = nitrogen excreted on a protein free diet
• The value can be 100 or less, including negative
• A BV of 100% indicates complete utilization of a dietary protein
• ie. 100% of the protein ingested and absorbed is incorporated into proteins
into the body
• Negative values are possible if excretion of nitrogen exceeds intake in
proteins
• All non-nitrogen containing diets have negative BV
Factors affecting BV
• Three major properties of a protein source affect its BV:
• Amino acid composition, and the limiting amino acid, which is usually lysine
• Preparation (cooking)
• Vitamin and mineral content
•
There are many other major methods of determining how readily a protein is used:
• Net Protein Utilization (NPU)
• Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER)
• Nitrogen Balance (NB)
• Protein Digestibility (PD)
• Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS)
• NPU, is the ratio of amino acid converted to proteins to the ratio of amino acids supplied
• PER is based on the weight gain of a test subject divided by its intake of a particular food
protein during the test period
• NB is the measure of nitrogen output subtracted from nitrogen input

LABELING OF FOOD CONSTITUENTS

Labelling of Food Constituents - Agencies & Standards:

• International
• National

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Labelling of Food Constituents - Types:
• Nutritional labeling
• Labeling for Specific Food Categories:
Organic Foods
Soy & Soy Products
Foods for Special Dietary Purposes

Labelling of Food Constituents - International Agencies & Standards:

• The Codex Alimentarius Commission & the FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme
• The former implements the latter programme

• Alimentarius (Latin, meaning Food Law or Code)

• The Codex is a collection of internationally adopted food standards presented in a uniform
manner
• It also includes provisions of an advisory nature in the form of codes of practice,
guidelines and other recommended measures to assist in achieving the purposes of the
Codex

Purpose of the Codex:

• To guide and promote the elaboration & establishment of definitions & requirements for
foods
• To assist in their harmonization
• To protect the health of consumers
• To facilitate international trade
• To ensure fair practices in the food trade
The Codex Alimentarius provides standards & guidelines on food labelling published in various
volumes of the Codex Alimentarius for their wide use and understanding by governments,
regulatory authorities, food industries & retailers, & consumers

FOOD LABEL

“Label” means any tag, brand, mark, pictorial or other descriptive matter, written, printed,
stencilled, marked, embossed or impressed on, or attached to, a container of food

“Labelling” includes any written, printed or graphic matter that is present on the label,
accompanies the food, or is displayed near the food, including that for the purpose of promoting its
sale or disposal

FOOD LABELLING:
Food labelling is the primary means of communicationbetween the producer & seller of food on
one hand, & the purchaser & consumer on the other
• The principal display panel or PDP, is that portion of the package label that is most likely
to be seen by the consumer at the time of purchase

24
 • Two or more different surfaces that are suitable for display as the PDP are called alternate
PDPs
• The information panel is the label panel immediately to the right of the PDP, as displayed
to the consumer
• If this panel is not usable, due to package design, then the information panel is the next
label panel immediately to the right
• “Information panel labeling" refers to the label statements that are generally required to be
placed together, without any intervening material, on the information panel, if such labeling
does not appear on the PDP
• These label statements include the name and address of the manufacturer, packer or
distributor, the ingredient list, and nutrition labeling
• Name and address of the manufacturer, packer or distributor should be provided on the
information panel
• The statement of identity is the name of the food. It must appear on the front label, or PDP
as well as any alternate PDP
• The net quantity of contents (net quantity statement) is the statement on the label which
provides the amount of food in the container or package
• The ingredient list is placed on the same label panel as the name and address of the
manufacturer, packer or distributor
• This may be either the information panel or the PDP
• The country of origin of the food to be declared if its omission would mislead or deceive
the consumer
• When a food undergoes processing in a second country which changes its nature, the
country in which the processing is performed to be considered to be the country of origin
for the purposes of labelling

National Standards of Food Labeling:

Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (PFA)

Fruit Products Order (FPO)
Packaged Commodities Rules (PCR) (Under Weights & Measures Act)

• In India we have a prevention of Food Adulteration Act (PFA)

• To regulate processed fruit and vegetable product we have Fruit Products Order (FPO)
• PFA comes under Ministry of Health
• FPO falls under the purview of Ministry of Food Processing Industry (earlier this was
under Ministry of Agriculture, Dept., of Food)
• The entire scope of these two legislation is based on the minimum standard of Foods and
related to prevention of food adulteration
• PFA and FPO only deal with permitted ingredients, limits thereof and safety standards
• Both PCR and PFA have punitive power
• FPO can only cancel licences for any violations & default
• "Codex India" the National Codex Contact Point (NCCP) for India, is located at the
Directorate General Of Health Services, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MOH &
FW), Government of India.

25
 • It coordinates and promotes Codex activities in India in association with the National
Codex Committee and facilitates India's input to the work of Codex through an established
consultation process
•

Indian food labelling standards & requirement are not very stringent & are governed by:
• PFA (Prevention of Food Adulteration Act)
• FPO (Fruit Products Order )
• Packaged Commodities Rules (PCR) under Weights & Measures Act

Labeling Of Foods:
Codex general standard for the labelingOf prepackaged foods - codex stan 1-1985 (Rev. 1-
1991)
• Adopted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission at its 14th Session, 1981 & subsequently
revised in 1985 and 1991 by the 16th and 19th Sessions & amended by the 23rd and 24th
Sessions, 1999 & 2001

Mandatory labelling of prepackaged foods:

Name Of the food
List of ingredients:
Regular ingredients
Foods & ingredients known to cause hypersensitivity always to be declared
The Major Food Allergens include:
• Cereals containing gluten
• Crustacea and products of these
• Eggs and egg products
• Fish and fish products
• Peanuts, soybeans & products of these
• Milk & milk products (lactose included)
• Tree nuts & nut products
• Sulphite in concentrations of 10 mg/kg or more
Net Contents & Drained Weight:
• The net contents to be declared in the metric system (“Système International” units)
Name & Address:
• The name and address of the manufacturer, packer, distributor, importer, exporter or
vendor of the food to be declared
Country of Origin:
• The country of origin of the food to be declared if its omission would mislead or deceive
the consumer
• When a food undergoes processing in a second country which changes its nature, the
country in which the processing is performed to be considered to be the country of origin
for the purposes of labeling

26
Lot Identification:
• Each container is to be embossed or otherwise permanently marked in code or in clear to
identify the producing factory and the lot

Date marking & storage instructions:

• The “date of minimum durability” is to be declared
• Special conditions for the storage of the food is to be declared on the label if the validity of
the date depends on it
Instructions for Use:
• Instructions for use, including reconstitution, where applicable, shall be included on the
label, as necessary, to ensure correct utilization of the food
Additional Mandatory Requirements:
• Quantitative labelling of ingredients
Irradiated Foods:
• The label of a food which has been treated with ionizing radiation shall carry a written
statement indicating that treatment in close proximity to the name of the food
• The use of the international food irradiation symbol, as , is optional, but when it is used, it
shall be in close proximity to the name of the food
Presentation of Mandatory Information - General
• Labels in prepackaged foods shall be applied in such a manner that they will not become
separated from the container
• Statements required to appear on the label by virtue of this standard or any other Codex
standards shall be clear, prominent, indelible and readily legible by the consumer under
normal conditions of purchase and use
• Where the container is covered by a wrapper, the wrapper shall carry the necessary
information or the label on the container shall be readily legible through the outer wrapper
or not obscured by it
• The name and net contents of the food shall appear in a prominent position and in the same
field of vision
Language:
• If the language on the original label is not acceptable, to the consumer for whom it is
intended, a supplementary label containing the mandatory information in the required
language may be used instead of relabeling
Nutrition Labelling:
• Codex Guidelines On Nutrition Labelling - Cac/Gl 2-1985 (Rev. 1 - 1993)
• Adopted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission at its 16th Session, 1985
• The Nutrient Reference Values for Food Labelling
• Purposes in Section 3.4.4 were amended by the 20th Session of the Commission, 1993
Scope
• These guidelines recommend procedures for the nutrition labelling of foods
• Apply to the nutrition labelling of all foods
• For foods for special dietary uses, more detailed provisions may be developed

Nutrition labelling
• Is a description intended to inform the consumer of nutritional properties of a food

27
 • Nutrition labelling consists of two components:
• Nutrient declaration
• Supplementary nutrition information
Nutrition Declaration:
• A standardized statement or listing of the nutrient content of a food
• Information supplied should be for the purpose of providing consumers with a suitable
profile of nutrients contained in the food & considered to be of nutritional importance
• The information should not lead consumers to believe that there is exact quantitative
knowledge of what
• individuals should eat in order to maintain health, but rather to convey an understanding of
the quantity of nutrients contained in the product
• A more exact quantitative delineation for individuals is not valid because there is no
meaningful way in which knowledge about individual requirements can be used in labeling
SUPPLEMENTARY NUTRITION INFORMATION:
• Intended to increase the consumer’s understanding of the nutritional value of their food
and to assist in interpreting the nutrient declaration
• The content will vary from one country to another and within any country from one target
population group to another according to the educational policy of the country & the needs
of the target groups
• The use of supplementary nutrition information on food labels should be optional
• Should only be given in addition to, & not in place of, the nutrient declaration, except for
target populations who have a high illiteracy rate &/or comparatively little knowledge of
nutrition
• For supplementary nutrition information, food group symbols or other pictorial or colour
presentations may be used without the nutrient declaration
• Supplementary nutrition information on labels should be accompanied by consumer
education programmes to increase consumer understanding & use of the information
Nutrition claim:
• Means any representation which states, suggests or implies that a food has particular
nutritional properties
• Including but not limited to:
• Energy value
• Content of protein, fat and carbohydrates
• Content of vitamins and minerals
Purpose of the guidelines:
• To ensure that nutrition labelling is effective:
• In providing the consumer with information about a food
• A wise choice of food can be made in providing a means
• for conveying information of the nutrient content of
• a food on the label
• In encouraging the use of sound nutrition principles in the
• formulation of foods which would benefit public health
• In providing the opportunity to include supplementary nutrition information on the label
• To ensure that nutrition labeling does not describe a product or present information about
it which is in any way false, misleading, deceptive or insignificant in any manner
• To ensure that no nutritional claims are made without nutrition labelling

28
• Nutrient:
• Any substance normally consumed as a constituent of food:
• Which provides energy
• Which is needed for growth, development & maintenance of life
• A deficit of which will cause characteristic bio-chemical or physiological changes to
occur
• Listing Of Nutrients:
• Declaration of the following should be mandatory:
• Energy value
• The amounts of Protein, available Carbohydrate (i.e., carbohydrate excluding dietary
fibre) & fat
• Amounts & types of any other nutrients for which claims have been made
• Minerals & vitamins for which recommended dietary intakes have been established
• Minerals & vitamins present in significant amounts
• Presentation Of Nutrient Content:
• The declaration of nutrient content should be numerical
• Information on energy value should be expressed in kJ & kcal per 100 g or per 100 ml or
per package for single portion
• May also be expressed as per serving or per portion provided that the number of portions
contained in the package is stated
• Information on the amounts of protein, carbohydrate and fat in the food should be
expressed in g per 100 g or per 100 ml or per package if the package contains only a single
portion
• Numerical information on vitamins and minerals should be expressed in metric units and/or
as a percentage of the Nutrient Reference Value per 100 g or per 100 ml or per package if
the package contains only a single portion
• Tolerances & Compliance:
• Tolerance limits should be set in relation to public health concerns, shelf-life, accuracy of
analysis, processing variability & inherent liability & variability of the nutrient in the
product, &, according to whether the nutrienthas been added or is naturally occurring in the
product
• Values used in nutrient declaration should be weighed average values
• Periodic Review Of Nutrition Labelling:
• Nutrient labelling should be reviewed periodically
• This is to maintain the list of nutrients, to be included in composition information, up-to-
date & in accord with public health facts about nutrition

Guidelines For Use Of Nutrition Claims- Cac/Gl 23-1997

• The Codex Guidelines for the Use of Nutrtion
• Claims were adopted by the Codex Alimentarius
• Commission at its 22nd Session, 1997 & amended at its 24th Session, 2001
• Nutrition claims should be consistent with national nutrition policy and support that
policy.
• Only nutrition claims that support national nutrition policy should be allowed

29
 • Nutrition claim means any representation which states, suggests or implies that a food has
particular nutritional properties including but not limited to the energy value & to the
content of protein, fat and carbohydrates, as well as the content of vitamins and minerals
Nutrition Labelling:
• Any food for which a nutrition claim is made should belabelled with a nutrient declaration
in accordance with Section 3 of the Codex Guidelines on Nutrition Labelling
• Nutrient content claim is a nutrition claim that describes the level of a nutrient contained in
a food Ex. “source of calcium”; “high in fibre and low in fat”
• Comparative claim is a claim that compares thenutrient levels &/or energy value of two or
more foods Ex. “reduced”; “less than”; “fewer”; “increased”; “more than”
• Nutrient function claim is a nutrition claim that describes the physiological role of the
nutrient in growth,development & normal functions of the body
• Examples:
• “Calcium aids in the development of strong bones & teeth”
• “Protein helps build and repair body tissues”
• “Iron is a factor in red blood cell formation”

Sample Table of Conditions for Nutrient Contents

• Component • Claims • Conditions (Not more
than)
• Energy • Low • 40 kcal/100 g solids
• 20 kcal/ml liquids

• Fat • Free • 0.5g/100g solids

• 0.5g/100ml liquids

Labeling of Organic Foods

Organic Foods:
• The U.S. Congress passed the Organic Foods Production Act of 1990, which established
the U.S. National Organic Standards Board (NOSB).
• In 1995, the NOSB defined organic agriculture as "an ecological production management
system that promotes and enhances biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological
activity. It is based on minimal use of off-farm inputs and on management practices that
restore, maintain and enhance ecological harmony."
• In organic farming use of pesticides, herbicides, & other additives or contaminants is
avoided

Certification & Labeling of Organic Foods:

• According to regulations set forth by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA),
organic foods must come from farms or ranches certified by a state or private agency that
has been accredited by the USDA

30
 • Foods labeled "100 % organic" must contain only organically produced ingredients,
excluding water & salt
• Foods labeled "organic" must contain, by weight, at least 95 % organically produced
ingredients
• Products meeting these requirements must display these terms on their principal display
panel & may use
• the USDA seal & the seal or mark of certifying agents on packages & in advertisements
• Foods labeled "made with organic ingredients" must contain, by weight, at least 70 %
organic ingredients
• Up to three separate organic ingredients may be listed on the principal display label, and a
certifying agent's seal or mark may be used on the package
• The use of a USDA seal is prohibited
• Livestock can be certified "organic" if they have been raised on organic foodstuffs for over
one year
Other labeling provisions include :
• Packaging of any product labeled "organic" must state the actual percentage of organic
ingredients
• Use the word "organic" to modify each organically produced ingredient
• The name and address of the certifying agent must be displayed on the label's information
panel
• There are no restrictions on the use of truthful labeling claims, such as "pesticide free," "no
drugs or growth hormones used," or "sustainably harvested"
• Products made with less than 50 percent organic ingredients may make no claim other than
designating specific organic ingredients with the ingredient information

FOOD ALLERGEN LABELING: LABELING OF SOY & SOY PRODUCTS

• Food Allergen Labeling & Consumer Protection

• Act (FALCPA) of 2004 addresses the labeling of all packaged foods regulated by the FDA
• Meat products, poultry products, & egg products,which are regulated by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA)
• Under FALCPA, a "major food allergen" is an ingredient that is one of the following
eight foods or food groups or an ingredient that contains protein derived from one of
them:
• Milk
• Egg
• Fish
• Crustacean shellfish
• Tree nuts
• Wheat
• Peanuts
• Soybeans
• Account for 90 % of all food allergies
• The terms "soybean," "soy," & "soya" are reasonable synonyms for the common or usual
name "soybeans,"

31
 • Any one of these terms may be used to identify the food source of the major food allergen
"soybeans "
• Packaged foods that are made using "soybeans" as an ingredient or as a component of a
multi- component ingredient (e.g., soy sauce or tofu) should continue to use the word
"soybeans" as the appropriate common or usual name for this ingredient to identify
properly the ingredient (e.g., "soy sauce (water, wheat, soybeans, salt)")

LABELING FOODS FOR SPECIAL DIETARY USES

General Standard for the Labelling Of & Claims for Prepackaged Foods for Special dietary
Uses - Codex Stan 146-19851:

• Adopted by the 16th Session of the Codex AlimentariusCommission in 1985

• Foods for Special Dietary Uses are those foods which are specially processed or formulated
to satisfy particular dietary requirements which exist because of a particular physical or
physiological condition &/or specific diseases & disorders & which are presented as such
• The composition of these foodstuffs must differ significantly from the composition of
ordinary foods of comparable nature, if such ordinary foods exist

General principles:
• Prepackaged Foods for Special Dietary Uses shall not be described or presented in a
manner that is false, misleading or deceptive or is likely to create an erroneous impression
regarding their character in any respect
• Nothing in the labelling and advertising of foods to which this standard applies shall imply
that advice from a qualified person is not needed

Mandatory Labeling:
• Name of the food
• List of ingredients
• Nutrition labeling:
• The amount of energy per 100 g or 100 ml of the food
• The number of grams of protein, available carbohydrate & fat per100 g or 100 ml of the
food
• The total quantity of those specific nutrients characterizing essential feature for the
special dietary use
• Net contents and drained weight
• Name and address
• Country of origin
• Lot identification
• Date marking and storage instructions
• Additional mandatory requirements for specific Foods
• Quantitative labelling of ingredients

32
Claims:
• Should be in accordance with the General Guidelines on Claims elaborated by the Codex
Alimentarius Commission or specific Codex Standard for Foods for Special Dietary Uses
Irradiated foods:
• Irradiated foods for special dietary uses shall be labelled in accordance with the General
Standard

References

• Extraction of Organic Analytes from Foods by Ron Self

• Food Analysis by S. Suzanne Nielsen
• Proximate analysis- Dictionary of Food and Nutrition by David A. Bender
• Food Chemistry by Meyer
• Chemical changes in food during processing by Thomas Richardson
& John W Finley
• Effect of Processing on Nutrient Content of Foods by Audrey Morris, Audia Barnett and
Olive-Jean Burrows
• Food flavours: biology & chemistry by Carolyn Fisher & Thomas R Scott
• Institutional and Legal Framework of Food Safety Regulations in India by R. Mehta & J.
George
• http://www.foodsfortrade.com/foodtraderpass/overview.php
• http://www.ibef.org/industry/foodindustry.aspx
• http://www.monkeydish.com/2006041422153/20-minute-university/how- heat-affects-
flavor.html
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_industry
• CODEX ALIMENTARIUS - Food labelling - Complete texts by FAO/WHO
• Food Labeling Guide by U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, Food and Drug
Administration
• http://www.fda.gov/Food/LabelingNutrition/ConsumerInformation/ucm078889.htm
• http://www.faqs.org/nutrition/Ome-Pop/Organic-Foods.html

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