GENERIC COATING TYPES
Lloyd M. Smith, General Editor, Corrosion Control Consultants and Labs
Polyester and
Vinyl Ester Coatings
by William R. Slama
Master Builders, Inc.
P
olyester and vinyl ester resin-
based linings are known for
their solvent and chemical
resistance. The different resins in
these linings have broad resistance
ranges, with acid resistance being a
major strength. Some of the specific
resins resist 1 or more chemicals or
types of chemicals better than other
resins, so systems often are fine-
tuned by the choice of resin for a
particular chemical environment.
Esters are the reaction product
of an organic acid and an alcohol.
Polymers used in this class of mate-
rials are the unsaturated polyesters
formed by reaction of unsaturated
dibasic acids and dihydric alcohols.
Styrene or a similar vinyl-type
monomer is used to cross-link
the resin and form the film. The
polymerization is initiated by a cata-
lyst, with the reaction by free radical
addition, which is a chemical reac-
tion mechanism unique to this class
of coatings.
The word “lining” in the coatings
industry is commonly defined as a
material used to protect the inside
surface of a tank, vessel, or similar
structure from highly corrosive or
potentially highly corrosive expo-
sures. Linings can be monolithic sys-
tems or built-up systems. Because of
their typically thick application and
use in severe chemical conditions,
polyesters and vinyl esters normally
are referred to as linings. They offer
good adhesion to most substrates,
although most applications are on
steel or concrete.
These linings include several sys-
tems varying in thickness, type of
88 / Journal of Protective Coatings & Linings
Table 1
Properties of Lining Fillers and Reinforcements
Silica Fillers
Carbon Fillers
Hard Mineral Fillers
Fiberglass Chopped Mat
Fiberglass Woven Cloth
Fiberglass "C" Grade Veil
Synthetic Reinforcements
Glass Flakes
Mica Flakes
Tables courtesy of the author
fillers and reinforcement, and appli-
cation method. For each lining sys-
tem, various polyester and vinyl
ester resin bases are used to achieve
the desired chemical resistance.
History of Development
Since the 1960s, polyester and vinyl
ester linings have been used exte
nsively for their high chemical resis-
tance. They previously had been
used in mortars for chemical-resis-
tant brick linings and fiberglass-rein-
forced plastic (FRP) structures such
as tanks, pipes, and ducts, so their
use in protective linings is a natural
extension of their broad chemical re-
sistance properties.
Early linings were reinforced with
chopped fiberglass strands or woven
fiberglass cloth (woven roving). Sili-
ca and other particulate fillers were
incorporated to enhance physical
Most used, good permeation resistance, low cost
Electrical conductivity or fluoride resistance
Increased abrasion resistance
Good chemical resistance
Strong, bidirectional reinforcement
Best chemical resistance
Where fluorides would attack glass
Best permeation resistance when aligned
Good permeation and chemical resistance
properties and minimize curing
shrinkage, the release of heat after
mixing, and a high coefficient of
thermal expansion compared to the
substrate. These linings were ap-
plied by trowel and roller up to 1⁄4 in.
(6 mm) thick.
As these linings were developed,
flake fillers were added to increase
resistance to permeation by water
vapor. This property is important for
immersion or wet service at elevated
temperatures. Glass and mica flakes
were used to extend the service
temperatures of the linings in hot,
aqueous environments. This type of
lining can withstand immersion tem-
peratures of 180 to 212 F (82 to 100
C) at thicknesses of 60 to 150 mils
(1.5 to 3.8 mm).
Thinner, spray-applied systems
were formulated to reduce material
cost and increase application rate.
Copyright ©1996, Technology Publishing Company
Spray-applied systems of 2 coats, ness for polyester- and vinyl ester- an unsaturated monomer (usually
15 to 20 mils (375 to 500 microme- based coatings. styrene) to form the resin compo-
ters) each, proved to be useful for nent. By addition of a peroxide cata-
more economical chemical-resistant General Chemical Characteristics lyst, a free radical addition reaction
applications at temperatures up to and Variations occurs that transforms the liquid
130 F (55 C). Eight to 10 mils (200 to This group of linings is based on un- resin into an infusible solid film. A
250 micrometers) per coat appears saturated thermosetting resins (as free radical is a species that has an
to be the practical minimum thick- prepolymers) that are dissolved in unpaired electron and is so reactive
that it only has a transient existence.
The free radical polymerization reac-
tion occurs at the carbon-carbon
Table 2 double bonds (C=C) of the unsatu-
Chemical Resistance Ratings for rated moieties. Although the
Polyester and Vinyl Ester Linings monomer may be volatile in its liq-
uid state, it is the cross-linking
Generic Resin Type agent, and it is incorporated into the
Chemical ISO BIS-A CHLOR VINYL-E NOV-VE
film. Thus, these systems theoretical-
Acetic Acid–10% D1 C1 C1 C1 A1 ly are 100 percent solids formula-
Acetic Acid–100% E2 D2 D2 D2 D1
tions. Evaporation is not required as
Acetone N N N N C2
Ammonium Hydroxide–20% N E1 N E1 E1 in solvent-borne systems.
Ammonium Nitrate A1 A1 A1 A1 A1 Polyester prepolymers are pro-
Benzene D2 D1 D1 E2 D1
Chromic Acid–10% N E1 C1 N E1 duced by a condensation reaction
Formaldehyde A1 A1 A1 A1 A1 of organic acids and polyols. The
Formic Acid E2 D1 D1 E1 D1
Gasoline–Unleaded A1 A1 A1 A1 A1 choice of reactants will establish
Hydrochloric Acid–10% E1 A1 A1 A1 A1 the resulting polymer properties—
Hydrochloric Acid–37% E2 D2 D2 D1 D1
Hydrofluoric Acid–10% * E1 D1 D1 D1 D1
mechanical properties, thermal sta-
Kerosene A1 A1 A1 A1 A1 bility, and chemical resistance. Com-
Methylene Chloride N N N N E2
monly used polyols include bisphe-
Methyl Ethyl Ketone E2 E2 E2 E2 D2
Nitric Acid–10% D2 B1 A1 C1 A1 nol A, neopentyl glycol, and
Nitric Acid–60% N D1 D1 N D1 propylene glycol. The most common
Oils A1 A1 A1 A1 A1
Phosphoric Acid–85% A1 A1 A1 A1 A1 organic acid reactants are isophthalic
Sodium Chlorate B1 A1 A1 A1 A1 acid, orthophthalic anhydride,
Sodium Hydroxide–10% * N D1 N D1 D1
Sodium Hydroxide–50% * N C1 N C1 C1 terephthalic acid, fumaric acid, and
Sulfuric Acid–50% B2 B1 A1 B1 A1 maleic anhydride.
Sulfuric Acid–75% E2 E1 E1 E1 E1
Toluene N E2 E2 E2 E1
Vinyl ester resins are a type or
Trichloroethylene N E2 E2 E2 E1 subset of polyester resin. Vinyl ester
Vinegar (Acetic Acid–3%) A1 A1 A1 A1 A1
prepolymers are formed by reaction
These ratings are typical for polyester and vinyl ester linings and reflect the of epoxy resin (polyol) with acrylic
maximum recommended temperatures. Maximum temperature for any
given lining type may be lower depending on lining thickness and or methacrylic acid, which contains
permeation resistance. See Table 3.
the vinyl group. Bisphenol A and
Resin Abbreviations Ratings novolac epoxies generally are used.
ISO Isophthalic 1 Good for immersion or constant flow
Novolac-based vinyl esters are more
BIS-A Bisphenol-A Fumarate 2 Limited to spillage or secondary containment
CHLOR Chlorinated A Good to 200 F (93 C) reactive than bisphenol A and pro-
VINYL-E Vinyl Ester B Good to 180 F (82 C) duce polymers with greater thermal
NOV-VE Novolac Vinyl Ester C Good to 140 F (60 C)
D Good to 120 F (49 C) stability and chemical resistance.
E Good to 100 F (38 C)
N Not Recommended
General Performance Properties
*Exposed lining surface requires carbon filler or
Strengths of Polyesters
synthetic veil
and Vinyl Esters
These resins generally are low in
viscosity and cure quickly at ambi-
continued

Copyright ©1996, Technology Publishing Company MAY 1996 / 89

GENERIC COATING TYPES
ent temperatures without post cur-
ing. They offer excellent adhesion
and high strength.
Polyesters and vinyl esters are
known for their chemical resistance,
although most are better in acidic
environments than in strong alkaline
conditions. (Alkaline solutions attack
the ester linkage, reforming the
polyol and a salt of the carboxylic
90 / Journal of Protective Coatings & Linings
acid.) They are resistant to organics,
including solvents, as well.
Polyesters and vinyl esters are
used in applications that require
resistance to aggressive chemicals
and elevated temperatures as high
as 212 F (100 C) wet or 350 F (177
C) dry.
Uses include tank linings; floor
linings; secondary containment lin-
ings; and coatings for structural
steel, walls, and ceilings.
Limitations of Polyesters and
Vinyl Esters
These resins undergo high shrinkage
and give off heat during cure. The
heat and the shrinkage produce a
trapped tensile strain (pre-stress)
that can lead to cracking or disbond-
ment, especially at very low operat-
ing temperatures. If not reinforced,
the resins are brittle.
Modification by addition of fillers
or reinforcement to increase flexibili-
ty usually reduces resistance to
chemicals and decreases thermal sta-
bility. The resins have a high coeffi-
cient of thermal expansion, so rein-
forcement is critical.
The resins generally are inhibited
by contact with oxygen during cure.
This inhibits surface cure, and the
top (air-exposed) surface does not
cross-link completely, significantly
reducing chemical resistance. For
thick linings, this usually is not a
critical factor. However, for thin
coatings (less than 40 mils or 1 mm),
and for maximum chemical resis-
tance, it may be critical. The tenden-
cy and degree of sensitivity to air in-
hibition vary greatly among the
different resins in this group. Paraf-
finic additives often are incorporated
in lining topcoats to reduce air inhi-
bition by forming a film over the
surface before cure.
Proper formulation is required to
take advantage of the chemical resis-
tance properties of these materials
while minimizing potential pitfalls.
Lining Types and Components
Unreinforced Filled Systems
These products use a particulate
filler to extend the base resin. Silica
fillers, including graded, washed,
and dried sands, along with crushed
or fumed silica flour and other
mineral fillers, are used. The pre-
blended fillers usually are furnished
continued
Copyright ©1996, Technology Publishing Company
GENERIC COATING TYPES
as a separate component referred to
as an aggregate.
At the time of application, the
hardener (or activator) is first added
to the resin component, and the 2
are mixed thoroughly. Next, the
aggregate or filler is added and
mixed until uniform. The compound
is spread on the substrate, such as
a floor, and troweled to the desig-
nated thickness. A typical thickness
is 1⁄4 in. (6 mm).
A high fill ratio (5 to 10 parts filler
to 1 part resin by weight) is used to
reduce cost, minimize curing shrink-
age, and reduce the coefficient
of thermal expansion of the film.
Because this combination tends
to be very rigid and brittle, flexibiliz-
ers may be added to the resin, re-
ducing the chemical resistance. Use
of these products generally is limited
to concrete floors. They have high
resistance to abrasion damage. They
are relatively rigid, however, and
92 / Journal of Protective Coatings & Linings
will crack over moving cracks in
the concrete.
Alternatively, this type of product
may be installed by the broadcast
system. There are several variations,
but the most common method in-
volves application of the resin/hard-
ener mix, which is poured directly
onto the concrete surface and
spread by squeegee or roller.
Immediately, a filler is broadcast
onto the surface by hand or me-
chanical means. It usually is applied
to excess, until it no longer sinks
into the resin and no resin is visible.
After the resin cures, the surface is
swept to remove the unbonded, ex-
cess filler.
This process may be repeated sev-
eral times, depending on the thick-
ness desired. Finally, 1 or more ad-
ditional coats of the resin are
applied to smooth and seal the sur-
face. This system is generally 1⁄16 to 1⁄4
in. (11⁄2 to 6 mm) thick.
Reinforced Composite Linings
Fiberglass reinforcements are used
extensively to add strength to a lin-
ing. In addition to increasing
strength and resistance to cracking,
they greatly reduce curing shrinkage
and coefficient of thermal expan-
sion. The relatively high modulus of
elasticity of fiberglass and its ability
to be bonded by the resin make it
very effective for linings.
In addition to fiberglass reinforce-
ment, one or more layers contain
fillers such as silica, carbon, or hard
mineral particles. These fillers are
especially necessary for elevated
temperature service in aqueous envi-
ronments. Typical system construc-
tion for several lining types is shown
in Figs. 1 and 2. Thickness generally
ranges from 1⁄8 to 1⁄4 in. (3 to 6 mm).
Most systems use preformed layers
of chopped fiberglass strands or
woven fiberglass “cloth.” During
lining installation, the fiberglass is
Copyright ©1996, Technology Publishing Company
GENERIC COATING TYPES

saturated with catalyzed resin and

rolled thoroughly to fully wet the in-
dividual glass strands and remove
air bubbles.
A combination of chopped fiber-
glass strands and catalyzed resin
also can be spray-applied using a
chopper gun. Continuous strands of
fiberglass called roving are chopped
into short strands, typically 1 to 2 in.
(25 to 50 mm), and injected into the
catalyzed resin stream exiting the
gun. Though effective for some ap-
plications, this method relies heavily
on operator expertise to maintain
reasonable control of thickness.
Chemical-grade fiberglass veil
called “C” veil is more resistant to
attack and normally is used as a
top reinforcement layer. However,
synthetic fiber reinforcements (e.g.,
polyester) are used on the top
surface instead of the fiberglass veil
for environments such as hydrofluo-
ric acid or hot caustic that would
attack glass.

Flake-Reinforced Linings
and Coatings
Flake reinforcement is most effective
at providing a barrier to permeation
of the lining. The aligned flakes
make the path of water or other
contaminants through the resin
much longer. Since the flakes are
not permeable, water molecules
must travel a much greater distance,
and the resistance of the composite
is greatly increased. This barrier ef-
fect is important for high tempera-
ture immersion service.
Trowel-applied glass flake-rein-
forced systems provide the highest
permeation resistance since large
glass flakes up to 1⁄8 in. (3 mm) in
diameter can be incorporated
(Fig. 3). These linings are rolled
after application to minimize
trapped air and assist in flake align-
ment. These systems normally are
applied in 2 or more layers. Thick-
ness ranges from 60 to 160 mils (11⁄2
continued

Copyright ©1996, Technology Publishing Company MAY 1996 / 93

GENERIC COATING TYPES

Resin-saturated
fiberglass cloth
Troweled Troweled
filled topcoat filled basecoat
Primer

Fig. 1 - Fiberglass cloth-reinforced lining with filled basecoat and topcoat

2 layers
2 resin coats fiberglass mat
Surface mat Troweled
or veil filled basecoat
Primer

Fig. 2 - Fiberglass mat-reinforced lining with silica-filled basecoat

to 4 mm) for temperature service up
to 200 F (93 C).
Smaller glass or mica flakes are
used in spray-applied systems. The
flakes, though not as well aligned,
still provide a high degree of rein-
forcement and increased permeation
resistance. Spray application reduces
applied cost. Spray-applied systems
typically withstand immersion tem-
peratures of 130 to 150 F (54 to 66
C) when applied in 2 to 3 coats at
30 to 80 mils (3⁄4 to 2 mm). In nonim-
mersion conditions, flake-reinforced
polyester linings can withstand tem-
peratures of 300 to 350 F (149 to 177
C), while vinyl esters can withstand
Copyright ©1996, Technology Publishing Company
350 to 400 F (177 to 204 C). Thinner
systems of 2 coats at 20 mils (1⁄2 mm)
normally are recommended for mild,
nonimmersion applications (Fig. 4).
Crack-Bridging Linings
Chemical-resistant polyester and
vinyl ester linings are somewhat
rigid but function well on steel sub-
strates. However, they have very lit-
tle, if any, ability to remain continu-
ous without cracking or to bridge
cracks in concrete substrates that
open after the lining is installed.
That is because the localized strain
over the crack (the change in width
divided by the original width) is ex-
MAY 1996 / 95
GENERIC COATING TYPES
Troweled and rolled,
glass flake-reinforced
basecoat and topcoat
Primer
Fig. 3 - Troweled glass flake lining
Spray-applied,
flake-reinforced
basecoat and topcoat
Primer
Fig. 4 - Spray-applied, flake-reinforced lining
tremely high and can cause a crack over moving cracks. The basecoat
to propagate through the lining. may be neoprene, urethane, or
Making the resin more flexible is heavily flexibilized epoxy. In this
not a valid option, since that would way, the localized crack movement
reduce the chemical resistance. To results in high shear deformation in
provide the high chemical resistance the soft basecoat, and the high mod-
of these linings and bridge crack ulus spreads the strain over a wide
movements in concrete substrates area (4 to 20 in. or 102 to 508 mm)
caused by shrinkage or thermal of the chemical-resistant top layers.
movement, special engineered com- The desired, highly resistant lining
posite linings have been developed. layer is applied over this decoupling
These systems incorporate a very system (Fig. 5). Essentially, the crack
low modulus (soft) basecoat or displacement is spread over a 6- to
membrane with a tough, high modu- 12-inch (152- to 305-mm) width of
lus, fiberglass-reinforced layer to lining so that the strain can be toler-
“disengage” the lining from the sub- ated without cracking.
strate in areas of high strain, such as Other linings or lining systems,
96 / Journal of Protective Coatings & Linings
even fiberglass-reinforced linings,
will crack when substrate cracks
open as little as 2 mils (50 microme-
ters). Composite crack-bridging
systems can accept crack movement
up to 120 mils (3 mm) without
cracking.
Lining Formulation
Even though the lining formats (re-
inforcement types and application
steps) and the base resins of poly-
ester and vinyl ester linings from dif-
ferent manufacturers may be the
same, individual lining ingredients
and performance may vary. This is
because of the many interactive ele-
ments that make up the final lining
or coating.
The resin and monomer combina-
tion must contain promoters to help
initiate the reaction when the cata-
lyst is added. Inhibitors are neces-
sary to maintain a useful shelf life
without pre-hardening or gelation
of the resin. Flexibilizers may reduce
brittleness, and pigments may pro-
vide color for appearance or to
distinguish between coats during
application.
Thixotropic agents and polar
agents are combined to build the
sag resistance necessary to hold
thick layers on vertical or overhead
surfaces before curing. Fillers, flakes,
or reinforcements are essential to es-
tablish needed physical properties
and reduce permeability. Wetting
and coupling agents are used to
maintain adhesion between the resin
and the surfaces of the fillers. Level-
ing or flow agents may be added to
provide smoother surfaces. Proper-
ties of key fillers and reinforcements
are shown in Table 1.
Silica filler blends are the most
cost-effective for building thickness
for durability, permeation resistance,
and reduced shrinkage and coeffi-
cient of expansion.
Carbon fillers and synthetic fiber
reinforcements are used where silica
continued
Copyright ©1996, Technology Publishing Company
 GENERIC COATING TYPES

Fiberglass
mat-reinforced layer
Flexible
Chemical-resistant low modulus
topcoat basecoat
Primer

Fig. 5 - Crack-bridging lining system

Cold Wall Effect

Lining Steel Substrate

180 F
∆P ∆T 30 F (32 C)
(-1 C)
150 F 148 F (64 C)
(66 C)

Liquid 70 F (21 C)
@180 F (82 C) Ambient Air

Fig. 6 - Greater water pressure at liquid-lining interface than at

lining-steel interfaces drives water to lining-steel interface, possibly resulting
in delamination.

would be chemically attacked. Physical And Performance

Carbon also is used to produce elec-
trical conductivity on lining
and flooring surfaces to discharge
static electricity.
To increase abrasion resistance,
hard mineral fillers such as alu-
minum oxide are incorporated.
Glass fibers are most often used in
thick lining systems in the form of
chopped strand mat, woven cloth,
and chemical grade surface veil.
Flake fillers are most efficient in re-
ducing permeation.
Properties
Shrinkage and Coefficient of
Thermal Expansion
Polyester and vinyl ester resins ex-
hibit relatively high shrinkage during
cure. On a volumetric basis, 8 to 10
percent shrinkage during cure is typ-
ical for the neat resin with no fillers,
additives, or reinforcements. The co-
efficient of thermal expansion is
20 to 40 x 10-6 in./in./F (36 to 72 x
10-6mm/mm/C). Because the linings
continued

98 / Journal of Protective Coatings & Linings Copyright ©1996, Technology Publishing Company
 GENERIC COATING TYPES

are applied to rigid steel and elongation capability of the lining bon steel substrates, however, usual-
concrete substrates, which have co- system. The amount of elongation or ly will be rigid enough, with maxi-
efficients of thermal expansion of imposed strain that will crack these mum surface strains of 0.07 to 0.1
about 6 x 10 -6 in./in./F (11 x linings is typically from 0.25 to 0.5 percent. Special emphasis should be
10 -6 mm/ mm/C), fillers and rein- percent. Manufacturers provide rec- placed on areas of high local strain
forcements are important to mini- ommendations for the design of or bending. These include floor-to-
mize the stresses developed in the equipment to be lined with regard wall junctions of tanks and bottom
lining during cure and created by to the maximum strain or amount of areas with poor support. Certain
changes in temperature. flexing that their linings can reliably types of storage tanks with lap-weld-
Given the thickness and rigidity of tolerate. Normal design for most car- continued
the substrates, the lining must ac-
commodate thermal expansion and
contraction of the surface to which it
is applied. The lining must undergo
the imposed strain and resulting
stress without cracking, delaminat-
ing, or shearing from the substrate.
The coefficient of thermal expansion
for complete linings ranges from
12 to 15 x 10-6 in./in./F (22 to 27 x
10-6mm/mm/C) for filled, reinforced
systems and large glass flake-rein-
forced systems to more than 20 x
10-6 in./in./F (36 x 10-6 mm/mm/C)
for spray-applied, mica-filled sys-
tems. Fortunately, these systems nor-
mally have enough flexibility to ac-
commodate the thermal strains.

Adhesion
These systems have good adhesion
to carbon steel, many other metals,
and concrete. However, a coarse,
angular abrasive blast profile is im-
perative on metallic substrates to
help mechanically lock the coating
into the surface so that it will with-
stand the stresses caused by curing
and temperature changes.

Flexibility
The chemical-resistant base resins
used to produce these linings are
relatively rigid, with maximum elon-
gation of 2 to 5 percent. Some spe-
cialty resins have higher elongation,
up to 10 percent, but, generally, as
elongation and flexibility go up,
chemical resistance and thermal sta-
bility are reduced.
Adding fillers and reinforcements
to strengthen and increase perme-
ation resistance greatly reduces the
Copyright ©1996, Technology Publishing Company MAY 1996 / 101
 GENERIC COATING TYPES

ed bottoms require special attention When elevated temperature service at elevated temperatures, high per-
in designing and applying the lining. is involved, the best test method is meation resistance is necessary to
Where tank bottom support is in- an application directly to the avoid failure by blistering or loss of
complete, grouting may be recom- vessel wall so that the effect of the adhesion. Permeability is reduced by
mended to minimize flexing. Con- thermal gradient on permeation addition of reinforcements and
crete, as a substrate, is much less is evaluated. fillers. The type and amount of filler
flexible. Aside from crack move- are important to the lining’s perme-
ments, concrete strain will never ex- Permeation Resistance ability. Large glass flakes, troweled
ceed 0.01 to 0.02 percent. Because polyester and vinyl ester and rolled for orientation parallel to
linings may be placed in immersion continued
Chemical Resistance
As previously stated, polyester and
vinyl ester linings are used widely
for their resistance to a broad range
of chemicals. Isophthalic polyesters
generally have poorer chemical re-
sistance than vinyl esters and more
chemical-resistant polyesters. How-
ever, isophthalic polyesters are less
expensive than vinyl esters and
other polyesters and may give ade-
quate performance in a specific ex-
posure environment.1 Bisphenol A
fumarate resins have the advantage
of very broad resistance, including
strong alkaline environments. Chlori-
nated polyesters, while not good in
alkaline conditions, excel in strong
mineral and oxidizing acids. Chlori-
nated polyesters are the best choice
for strong chromic acid. Vinyl esters
also offer resistance to a wide pH
range and high temperatures. No-
volac and other high molecular
weight vinyl ester resins offer better
stability in high temperatures and
improved resistance to sulfuric acid.
Table 2 shows typical chemical re-
sistance capabilities for a range of
chemicals and resin types. The tem-
peratures shown are maximums, and
the type (thickness and construc-
tion) of lining may reduce the maxi-
mum temperature capability of the
lining. Even though generalizations
can be made for these linings based
on the type of resin and reinforce-
ment, performance will not be uni-
form because each product is a
proprietary formulation. Consult
the lining manufacturer for specific
recommendations, and perform in-
service coupon tests, if possible.
Copyright ©1996, Technology Publishing Company MAY 1996 / 103
GENERIC COATING TYPES

Table 3
Permeability of Various Polyester and Vinyl Ester Linings

Lining Type
Permeability Thickness Permeance Max. wet
Filler/ perm in. mils perms* Relative service
Resin Reinforcement Application (g/Pa•s•m) (mm) (g/Pa•s•m2) permeance F (C)

Novolac 1/8 in. (3 mm) Trowel & roll 0.00011 70 0.0016 1 200+
Vinyl Ester Flake glass 2 coats (160E-15) (1.8) (9.15E-11) (93+)
Bisphenol A 1/8 in. (3 mm) Trowel & roll 0.00022 70 0.0031 2 200+
Polyester Flake glass 2 coats (319E-15) (1.8) (1.77E-10) (93+)
Novolac 1/64 in. (0.4 mm) Spray 0.00100 54 0.0185 12 150
Vinyl Ester Flake glass 3 coats (1.4 E-12) (1.4) (1.06E-09) (66)
Bisphenol A Silica filler Trowel/roll & 0.00310 150 0.0207 13 160
Polyester fiberglass cloth trowel topcoat (4E-12) (3.8) (1.18E-09) (71)
Bisphenol A Silica filler Trowel basecoat 0.00440 125 0.0352 22 160
Polyester fiberglass mat mat/resin coats (6E-12) (3.2) (2.01E-09) (71)
Bisphenol A Mica flake Spray 0.00160 35 0.0457 29 130
Polyester 2 coats (2E-12) (0.9) (2.61E-09) (54)
Bisphenol A Fiberglass mat Roller-applied 0.00780 60 0.1300 81 120
Polyester fiberglass mat (11E-12) (1.5) (7.44E-09) (49)
Isophthalic Mica flake Spray 0.00300 18 0.1667 104 120
Polyester 2 coats (4E-12) (0.46) (9.54E-09) (49)

* Perm = Grains of moisture/hr/ft2/in. Hg (g/Pa•s•m2)

NOTE: “E” in the metric conversions for perms and perm inches stands for exponent (e.g., 9.15E-11 is the same as 9.15 x 10 -11).

the substrate, are most effective in
reducing permeability. Silica, carbon,
and other particulate fillers are effec-
tive because of the large amount
that can be added to the resin, re-
sulting in the ability to build a thick-
er layer. Fiberglass, in various forms,
though very effective for reinforce-
ment, does little to reduce perme-
ation because of the small amount
that can be used (5 to 20 percent by
volume).
Permeability and lining permeance
for various lining types are shown in
Table 3. Permeability is the property
of the material regardless of thick-
ness, and permeance (permeability
divided by thickness) is the property
of a lining at a given thickness.
These properties are measured using
the procedure outlined in ASTM E
96, Test Methods for Water Vapor
Transmission of Materials.
Note the great difference in per-
meability using different fillers.
Aligned glass flake fillers are by far
the most effective in reducing per-
meability and, in turn, increasing
ability to withstand higher tempera-
ture immersion service.
The maximum wet service temper-
ature tends to follow the lining per-
meance. This temperature is best es-
tablished by testing the lining in
accordance with ASTM C 868, Test
Method for Chemical Resistance
of Protective Linings. This method
is for testing by the one-sided
immersion or Atlas cell test. It is an
important laboratory test for evalua-
tion of linings to be used in aqueous
environments at elevated tempera-
tures because of the “driving force”
created by the temperature gradient
within the lining—cooler at the sub-
strate than at the immersed surface
(Fig. 6). Commonly referred to as
the “cold wall effect,” this can cause
condensation of water at the sub-
strate surface, resulting in corrosion
and blistering.
Uses of Polyesters and
Vinyl Esters
Polyester and vinyl ester lining sys-
tems are used for top to bottom pro-
tection of industrial plants and
equipment, especially where acid or
organic chemicals are present. These
uses include protective, spray-ap-
plied coatings for ceilings, walls,
hoods, ducts, and tank exteriors; in-
terior tank linings; reinforced floor-
ing for process spillage areas; and
trenches, sumps, and secondary
containment surfaces.
There are many applications for
these products throughout the
continued

104 / Journal of Protective Coatings & Linings Copyright ©1996, Technology Publishing Company

chemical process industry and in a
variety of other industries that han-
dle corrosive chemicals. Examples
are given below.
• In primary metals plants, these
products may serve as reinforced
linings to protect concrete floors,
foundations, and trenches from acids
used for pickling.
• The pharmaceutical industry uses
reinforced vinyl ester for sanitary
protection of process floors exposed
to acid and organic solvent spills.
Special crack-bridging versions are
used for truck unloading areas and
secondary containment basins.
• For more than 25 years, the power
industry has used flake-reinforced
and fiberglass-reinforced linings for
scrubbers, tanks, ducts, and stacks
to protect critical flue gas desulfur-
ization (FGD) equipment for long-
term service.
• The waste treatment industry con-
tinues to use these systems for stor-
age and neutralization tanks, un-
loading areas, and secondary
containment basins.
• Chlorine producers use flake-rein-
forced linings for elevated tempera-
ture brine storage tanks.
• Municipal sanitation facilities use
fiberglass- and flake-reinforced lin-
ings and coatings for grit chambers,
sumps, and wet wells.
• Glass flake-reinforced polyester
linings are used in food-related ap-
plications such as starch tanks.
Application Considerations
Environment
Temperature of the surface and the
adjacent air typically should be be-
tween 45 and 120 F (7 and 49 C)
during product application to pro-
vide proper cure. Excessive temper-
ature can cause bubbling, pinholing,
or high thermal stress in the finished
lining. Consult the manufacturer’s lit-
erature for the exact temperature
range.
The surface temperature should be
at least 5 F (3 C) above the dew
Copyright ©1996, Technology Publishing Company
GENERIC COATING TYPES
point of the air in the work area to
avoid condensation or application
on a wet surface.
Surface Preparation
Because of the generally high thick-
ness of these systems and their use
at elevated temperatures, proper sur-
face preparation is essential to prod-
uct performance.
Concrete surfaces should be abra-
sive blasted and have sufficient ten-
sile strength for the system being ap-
plied. Minimum acceptable tensile
strength is about 200 to 300 psi (1.4
to 2.1 MPa), which is the maximum
tensile strength achieved by portland
cement concrete. Surface tensile
strength can be determined in accor-
dance with ASTM D 4541, Standard
Test Method for Pull-off Strength of
Coatings Using Portable Adhesion
Testers.
Steel should be blasted with a
coarse, angular abrasive to produce
a minimum profile of 3 mils (75 mi-
crometers). Shot blasting produces a
peened surface, so grit blasting is re-
quired.
Stainless steel and alloys may re-
quire harder or larger blast media or
higher blast pressures to achieve the
desired profile. Surface cleanliness
in accordance with SSPC-SP 5, White
Metal Blast Cleaning, is almost al-
ways required.
Product Application
Application procedures for these
thick-film lining systems include
troweling, rolling, and spraying. Ap-
plicators should have special train-
ing and experience with the method
being used, and they should closely
follow the recommendations of the
lining manufacturer for equipment
and procedures.
Components of the material
should be mixed in strict accordance
with published procedures. Thick-
ness and time between coats should
be within allowable limits.
continued
MAY 1996 / 107
GENERIC COATING TYPES
Quality Control
Procedures
Quality control procedures should
verify environmental conditions dur-
ing surface preparation and applica-
tion, proper mixing, applied thick-
ness, and continuity of the lining.
Since lining thickness is important
to establish a barrier to chemical at-
tack and permeation, it should
be checked at pre-established spac-
ing or locations to ensure that the
minimum allowable thickness has
been applied.
Excessive thickness may detract
from lining performance by causing
cracking, so a maximum thickness is
usually established. Dry film thick-
ness is checked using various mag-
netic gauges on steel substrates and
eddy current gauges on other metal-
lic substrates. Coating thickness on
concrete is checked with wet film
gauges during application.
Lining continuity—the absence of
108 / Journal of Protective Coatings & Linings
holes through the lining—is impor-
tant so that corrosive material does
not have a path to attack the sub-
strate. For these thick linings,
the only practical method of inspec-
tion is with a high voltage holiday
detector.
NACE RP 01-88, Standard Recom-
mended Practice for Discontinuity
(Holiday) Testing of Protective Coat-
ings, presents the method for high
voltage spark testing. Consult the
lining manufacturer for the maxi-
mum voltage to use. Where a hole
in the lining exists, the high voltage
will cause a spark to jump through
to the substrate. Using too high a
voltage may produce a holiday in
the film.
Steel substrates are, of course,
very conductive. Concrete substrates
usually require special conductive
primers for reliable testing. The
method recommended for testing
on concrete surfaces is ASTM D
4787, Standard Practice for Continu-
ity Verification of Liquid or Sheet
Linings Applied to Concrete Sub-
strates.
Health and Safety
Precautions
Procedures for protecting workers’
safety and health are contained in
the lining manufacturers’ published
installation instructions and Material
Safety Data Sheets. Worker protec-
tion procedures should be followed
carefully. Following are some gener-
al comments about exposure levels
and the risks of styrene.
The American Conference of Gov-
ernmental Industrial Hygienists has
determined that styrene monomer
has a threshold limit value (TLV)
of 50 ppm as an eight-hour, time-
weighted average (TWA). Areas
where styrene is used should
be well ventilated to avoid buildup
of fumes.
Overexposure to styrene is report-
ed to have adverse health effects on
workers. Proper skin protection
should be worn, and appropriate
respiratory protection should be
used, especially if styrene vapors ex-
ceed 50 ppm. Among the observed
effects are skin irritations; eye, nose,
and throat irritations; depression of
the central nervous system; damage
to the peripheral nervous system;
and chromosomal changes. Al-
though styrene has been classified
as a possible human carcinogen,
studies have not followed enough
workers long enough to accurately
assess the cancer risks of occupa-
tional exposure.2
Uncured resins are flammable, so
no welding or open flames should
be allowed in or near the work area.
Conclusion
A wide range of polyester and vinyl
ester lining products is being used
for high performance, cost-effective
protection of steel and concrete sur-
faces subject to chemical environ-
Copyright ©1996, Technology Publishing Company
 GENERIC COATING TYPES

ments. Other advantages of these Nau, Patrick R., and Benjamin S. “Monolithic Linings for Immer-
systems include their adhesion, Fultz. “Coatings and Linings for sion Service.” In Pulp and
strength, flexibility, solvent resis- Secondary Chemical Contain- Paper Industry Corrosion Prob-
tance, and heat resistance. ment in Power Plants.” JPCL lems. Houston, TX: NACE,
However, chemical resistance may October 1990: 42-49. 1974.
be reduced by the addition of fillers Severance, W.A. “Monolithic Linings Washburn, Robert B., Marshall J.
or reinforcements and by contact for Chemical Waste Disposal.” Galloway, and William R. Slama.
with oxygen during cure. Also, they Materials Performance August “Reinforced, Chemical-Resistant,
usually perform better in acidic than 1981: 36-40. Thermoset Linings.” JPCL Octo-
in alkaline environments. Particulate Severance, W.A., and M.J. Galloway. ber 1985: 30-42.
filler or aggregate is added to some
polyester and vinyl ester lining sys-
tems to extend the base resin.
In other cases, they are reinforced
with various kinds of fiberglass
or with glass or mica flakes. These
thick-film lining systems typically
are applied by trowel, roller, or
spray equipment. Proper lining
thickness is essential to provide ef-
fective protection in a myriad of in-
dustrial uses. JPCL

References
1. Louis C. Sumbry, Robert Trull,
and Jacqueline Klaiss, “The
Successful Application of FRP
Linings in Above-Ground Storage
Tanks: A 20-Year History,” JPCL
(March 1990), 40-44.
2. Carl Zenz, Ed., Occupational
Medicine, Third Edition (St.
Louis, MO: Mosby, 1994), pp.
724-729.

Bibliography
ASTM Committee D 33. Publication
STP 837, Manual of Protective
Linings for Flue Gas Desulfuriza-
tion Systems. Philadelphia, PA:
ASTM, 1984.
Barkey, T.D., W.R. Slama, and N.B.
Fancher. “Physical and Mathe-
matical Representations for
the Determination of Crack-
Bridging Ability of Lining Sys-
tems.” In Managing Costs and
Risks for Effective and Durable
Protection: Proceedings from
the SSPC 94 Seminars (SSPC
94-19). Atlanta, GA, November
1994. Pittsburgh, PA: SSPC,
1994.
Copyright ©1996, Technology Publishing Company MAY 1996 / 109