CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Objective
The main objective of the project is to design an antenna for local television stations in
the country that suits the local TV channels with varying element lengths. The quality of
reception is kept in mind where the length of elements are varied.

Problem definition
Currently in the country yagi antenna are used but they are made with no criteria or
design but pure imitation of foreign country antennas which operate on different TV
frequencies as compared to the Kenyans one. Through research it was noted that the
antennas in the country are made with over emphasis on cost effectiveness hence
compromising on the effectiveness of the antenna. TV stations in the country have their
transmitting stations in different points all over the country hence making the
transmission of radio electromagnetic waves difficult as we move away from the
transmitting antenna the RF signal becomes weak due to obstacles and interference from
other communication waves in the atmosphere hence the requirement of high gain
antennas with high directivity. The study of the yagi antenna was done where lengths of
the directors were varied with different constant spacing with the use of a solid and tubes
materials. Availability of the materials was considered in case of need of large scale
productions . Study of how to improve signal reception was done
size of elements was taken to consideration.

1
ANTENNA FUNDAMENTALS

Definition
An antenna is basically the structure associated with the transition between a guided
wave and free space wave or vice versa. An antenna is considered as a conversion device
or transducer which converts electrical energy in form of RF signal into electromagnetic
waves(transmitting antenna) and also intercepting the same electromagnectic waves to
produce a RF signal for the receiver input(receiving antenna) [1].The directional pattern
of a transmitting antenna is identical to its directional pattern as a receiving antenna,
provided that non-linear or unilateral devices are not employed. The conventional
antenna is a conductor, or system of conductors, that radiates or intercepts
electromagnetic wave energy. An ideal antenna has a definite length and a uniform
diameter, and is completely isolated in space. However, this ideal antenna is not realistic.
Many factors make the design of an antenna for a communications system a more
complex problem which include the height of the radiator above the earth, the
conductivity of the earth below it, and the shape and dimensions of the antenna.All of
these above factors affect the radiated-field pattern of the antenna in space. Another
problem in antenna design is that the radiation pattern of the antenna must be directed
between certain angles in a horizontal or vertical plane, or both.

Most practical transmitting antennas are divided into two basic classifications, hertz
(half-wave) antennas and marconi (quarter-wave) antennas. Hertz antennas are generally
installed some distance above the ground and are positioned to radiate either vertically or
horizontally. Marconi antennas Operate with one end grounded and are mounted
perpendicular to the Earth or to a surface acting as a ground. Hertz antennas are generally
used for frequencies above 2 megahertz. Marconi antennas are used for frequencies
below 2 megahertz and may be used at higher frequencies in certain applications. [2]

Current and voltage distribution on an antenna

A current through the antenna produces a magnetic field, and a charge on the antenna
produces an electric field. Figure 1-1 shows the current and voltage distribution on a half-
wave (Hertz) antenna. In view A, a Piece of wire is cut in half and attached to the

2
terminals of a high-frequency ac generator. The frequency Of the generator is set so that
each half of the wire is 1/4 wavelength of the output. The result is a common type of
antenna known as a dipole.

Figure 1-1.—Current and voltage distribution on an antenna.

At a given time the right side of the generator is positive and the left side negative. Like
charges repel Because of this, electrons will flow away from the negative terminal as far
as possible, but will be attracted to the positive terminal. View B shows the direction and
distribution of electron flow. The distribution curve shows that most current flows in the

3
center and none flows at the ends. The current distribution over the antenna will always
be the same no matter how much or how little current is flowing. However, current at any
given point on the antenna will vary directly with the amount of voltage developed by the
generator.

One-quarter cycles after electrons have begun to flow, the generator will develop its
maximum voltage and the current will decrease to 0. At that time the condition shown in
view C will exist. No current will be flowing, but a maximum number of electrons will be
at the left end of the line and a minimum number at the right end. The charge distribution
view C along the wire will vary as the voltage of the generator varies. Therefore, the
following conclusions may be draw:

1. A current flows in the antenna with an amplitude that varies with the generator
voltage.

2. A sinusoidal distribution of charge exists on the antenna. Every 1/2 cycle, the
charges reverse polarity

3. The sinusoidal variation in charge magnitude lags the sinusoidal variation in

current by 1/4 cycle.

The electromagnetic radiation from an antenna is made up of two components, the E field
and the H field. The two fields occur 90 degrees out of phase with each other. These
fields add and produce a single electromagnetic field. The total energy in the radiated
wave remains constant in space except for some absorption of energy by the Earth.
However, as the wave advances, the energy spreads out over a greater area and, at any
given point, decreases as the distance increases. Various factors in the antenna circuit
affect the radiation of these waves. In figure 1-2, for example, if an alternating current is
applied at the A end of the length of wire from A to B, the wave will travel along the wire
until it reaches the B end.
Wire
A B
½ wavelength
` Figure 1-2 a ½ wavelength wire.

4
Since the B end is free, an open circuit exists and the wave cannot travel farther. This is a
point of high impedance. The wave bounces back (reflects) from this point of high
impedance and travels toward the starting point, where it is again reflected. The energy of
the wave would be gradually dissipated by the resistance of the wire of this back-and-
forth motion (oscillation); however, each time it reaches the starting point, the wave is
reinforced by an amount sufficient to replace the energy lost. This results in continuous
oscillations of energy along the wire and high voltages at the A end of the wire. These
oscillations are applied to the antenna at a rate equal to the frequency of radiation
intercepted. These impulses must be properly timed to sustain oscillations in the antenna.
The rate at which the waves travel along the wire is constant at approximately
300,000,000 meters per second. The length of the antenna must be such that a wave will
travel from one end to the other and back again during the period of 1 cycle of the RF
voltage [3].

Figure 1-3.Standing waves of voltage and current on an antenna.

5
Look at the current and voltage (charge) distribution on the antenna in figure 1-3.A
maximum movement of electrons is in the center of the antenna at all times; therefore, the
center of the antenna is at low impedance. This condition is called a standing wave of
current. The points of high current and high voltage are known as current and voltage
loops. The points of minimum current and minimum voltage are known as current and
voltage nodes. View A shows a current loop and current nodes. View B shows voltage
loops and a voltage node. View C shows the resultant voltage and current loops and
nodes. The presence of standing waves describes the condition of resonance in an
antenna. At resonance the waves travel back and forth in the antenna reinforcing each
other and the electromagnetic waves are transmitted into space at maximum radiation.
When the antenna is not at resonance, the waves tend to cancel each other and lose
energy in the form of heat [2].

ARRAY ANTENNAS
An array antenna is a special arrangement of basic antenna components involving new
factors and concepts. An array antenna is made up of more than one element, but the
basic element is generally the dipole. Sometimes the basic element is made longer or
shorter than a half-wave, but the deviation usually is not great [1].

A driven element is similar to the dipole connected directly to the transmission line. It
obtains its power directly from the transmitter or, as a receiving antenna; it delivers the
received energy directly to the receiver [1].

A parasitic element is located near the driven element from which it gets its power. It is
placed close enough to the driven element to permit coupling. A parasitic element is
sometimes placed so it will produce maximum radiation (during transmission) from its
associated driver. When it operates to reinforce energy coming from the driver toward it,
the parasitic element is referred to as a director. If a parasitic element is placed so it
causes maximum energy radiation in a direction away from itself and toward the driven
element, that parasitic element is called a reflector.If all of the elements in an array are
driven, the array is referred to as a driven array .If one or more elements are parasitic, the
entire system usually is considered to be a parasitic array. [1]

6
multielement arrays frequently are classified according to their directivity. a bidirectional
array radiates in opposite directions along the line of maximum radiation. A nidirectional
array radiates in only one general direction [1]

Arrays can be described with respect to their radiation patterns and the types of elements
of which they are made. Identify them by the physical placement of the elements and the
direction of radiation with respect to these elements. Broadside array designates an array
in which the direction of maximum radiation is perpendicular to the plane containing
these elements. In actual practice, this term is confined to those arrays in which the
elements themselves are also broadside, or parallel, with respect to each other. A
collinear array is one in which all the elements lie in a straight line with no radiation at
the ends of the array. The direction of maximum radiation is perpendicular to the axis of
the elements.[2&1]

End-fire array is one in which the principal direction of radiation is along the plane of
the array and perpendicular to the elements. Radiation is from the end of the array, which
is the reason this arrangement is referred to as an end-fire array. The currents in the
elements of the end-fire array are usually 180 degrees out of phase with each other as
indicated by the arrows in the figure. The construction of the end-fire array is like that of
a ladder lying on its side (elements horizontal). The dipoles in an end-fire array are closer
together (1/8-wavelength to 1/4 -wavelength spacing) than they are for a broadside array.
Closer spacing between elements permits compactness of construction. For this reason an
end-fire array is preferred to other arrays when high gain or sharp directivity is desired in
a confined space. However, the close coupling creates certain disadvantages. Radiation
resistance is extremely low, sometimes as low as 10 ohms, making antenna losses greater.
The end-fire array is confined mostly to narrow bandwidth. With changes in climatic or
atmospheric conditions, the danger of detuning exists [2].

Mutual impedance of an array

Antennas in an array couple to each other because they receive a portion of the power
radiated from nearby elements. This affects the input impedance seen by each element,
which depends on the array excitation. We scan a phased array by changing the feeding
coefficients, and this changes the element input impedance called the scan impedance. To

7
first order, the coupling or mutual impedance is proportional to the element pattern level
along the array face, and we reduce coupling by using narrower-beamwidth elements.

Figure 1-4.—typical end-fire array.

Mutual coupling can be represented by impedance, admittance, or scattering parameter
matrix.The first element of an N-element array has the impedance equation:

V1 = Z11 I1 + Z12 I 2 + Z13 I 3 + ....... + Z1N I N

If we know the radiation amplitudes, we calculate the ratio of the currents:

æ I2 I3 IN ö
V1 = I1 ç Z11 + Z12 + Z13 + ....... + Z1 N ÷
è I1 I1 I1 ø
The effective or scan impedance of the first element is:

V1 I2 I3 IN
Z1 = = Z11 + Z12 + Z13 + ....... + Z1 N
I1 I1 I1 I1
It depends on the self-impedance and the excitation of all the other antennas. The power
into the first element is

8
 æ I2 I3 IN ö
P1 = Re(V I1* ) = I I1* Re ç Z11 + Z12 + Z13 + ....... + Z1 N ÷ ....*
è ø
1 1
I1 I1 I1
By knowing the feeding coefficients and the mutual impedances, we can compute the
total input power and gain. In general, every antenna in the array has different input
impedances. As the feeding coefficients change in a phased array to scan the beam, so
will the impedance of elements. The scan impedance change with scan angle causes
problems with the feed network. We can repeat the same arguments for slots using
mutual conductance, since magnetic currents are proportional to the voltage across each
slot.[4]

ANTENNA CHARACTERISTICS

Reciprocity of antenna
This property of interchangeability of the same antenna for transmitting and receiving is
known as antenna reciprocity because antenna characteristics are essentially the same for
sending and receiving electromagnetic energy. In general, the various properties of an
antenna apply equally, regardless of whether the antenna is used for transmitting or
receiving. The more efficient a certain antenna is for transmitting, the more efficient it
will be for receiving on the same frequency. Likewise, the directive properties of a given
antenna also will be the same whether it is used for transmitting or receiving. For
example, if a certain antenna used with a transmitter radiates a maximum amount of
energy at right angles to the axis of the antenna and minimum amount of radiation along
the axis of the antenna, as shown in figure 1-5, if this same antenna were used as a
receiving antenna, as shown in view B, it would receive best in the same directions in
which it produced maximum radiation; that is, at right angles to the axis of the antenna.

Polarization
The radiation field is composed of electric and magnetic lines of force. These lines of
force are always at right angles to each other. Their intensities rise and fall together,
reaching their maximums 90 degrees apart. The electric field determines the direction of
polarization of the wave. In a vertically polarized wave, the electric lines of force lie in a
9
vertical direction. In a horizontally polarized wave, the electric lines of force lie in a
horizontal direction.

Figure 1-5.—Reciprocity of antennas.

Circular polarization has the electric lines of force rotating through 360 degrees with
every cycle of RF energy. The electric field was chosen as the reference field because the
intensity of the wave is usually measured in terms of the electric field intensity (volts,
millivolts, or microvolts per meter). When a single-wire antenna is used to extract energy
from a passing radio wave, maximum pickup will result when the antenna is oriented in
the same direction as the electric field. Thus a vertical antenna is used for the efficient
reception of vertically polarized waves, and a horizontal antenna is used for the reception
of horizontally polarized waves. In some cases the orientation of the electric field does
not remain constant.Instead, the field rotates as the wave travels through space. Under

10
these conditions both horizontal and vertical components of the field exist and the wave
is said to have an elliptical polarization.[2]

Wavelength
Antenna size often refered relative to wavelength. For example: a half-wave dipole,
which is approximately a half-wavelength long. Wavelength is the distance a radio wave
will travel during one cycle. The formula for wavelength is:

c
l=
f

where f is the resonance frequency

c = 3 ´108 m [speed of light]

Note: The length of a half-wave dipole is slightly less than a half-

wavelength due to end effect. The speed of propagation in coaxial cable is slower than in
air, so the wavelength in the cable is shorter. The velocity of propagation of
electromagnetic waves in coax is usually given as a percentage of free space velocity, and
is different for different types of coax.

Antenna bandwidth is an operating band of frequencies within the limits of which other
parameters do not exceed the limits of the tolerances called for by the technical
requirements.Usually, the parameter depending the most on frequency defines the limits
of the operating frequency band.For example, a change in the position of the radiation
pattern maximum, expansion of the beam and a drop in directive gain, and so on can
stipulate a frequency band limitation. [1]

Receiving antenna is one designed for reception of radio waves and conversion into
radio-frequency currents. The main characteristics of such an antenna are gain, directive
gain, effective area, antenna aperture efficiency, and frequency response.[1]

11
Broadband antenna is an antenna used for reception and transmission of signals in a
broad frequency band or on various frequencies. This type of antenna is capable of
operating with an upper and lower frequency ratio of up to 5:1 and more, with a slight
change in radiation pattern shape. Log periodic and helical antennas fall in this category.
These antennas sometimes are called frequency-independent antennas.[1]

Directivity.
It is a measure of the ability of an antenna to concentrate radiated power in a particular
direction .It measures the power density an actual antenna radiates in the direction of its
strongest emission, relative to the power density radiated by an ideal isotropic radiator
antenna radiating the same amount of total power [1]. Mathematically, the directivity is
defined as the maximum of the directive gain:

Where θ and φ are the standard spherical coordinate’s angles Radiated power density is
the power per unit solid angle such that

4π is the total solid angle for a sphere (also the surface area of a unit sphere, similar to 2π
being the total angle for a circle and the perimeter of a unit circle).

The denominator, , represents the average radiated

power density

directivity is expressed in dBi, so that

12
The reason the units are dBi (decibel relative to an isotropic radiator) is that for an
isotropic radiator, the radiated power density is a constant, and therefore equals the
average radiated power density (the denominator). This isotropic radiator is not directive
at all but has nevertheless a directivity stricto senso equal to 1. This can be misleading
and is much better described in dBi.

[6]

Antenna Gain
It is defined as the ratio of the radiation intensity of an antenna in a given direction to the
intensity that would be produced by a hypothetical ideal antenna that radiates equally in
all directions (isotropically) and has no losses. [1]Since the radiation intensity from a
lossless isotropic antenna equals the power into the antenna divided by a solid angle of 4п
steradians, we can write the following equation:

Although the gain of an antenna is directly related to its directivity, the antenna gain is a
measure that takes into account the efficiency of the antenna as well as its directional
capabilities. In contrast, directivity is defined as a measure that takes into account only
the directional properties of the antenna and therefore it is only influenced by the antenna
pattern. However, if we assumed an ideal antenna without losses then Antenna Gain will
equal directivity as the antenna efficiency factor equals 1 (100% efficiency). In practice,
the gain of an antenna is always less than its directivity.

13
The formulas above show the relationship between antenna gain and directivity, where
εcd = Prad / Pin is the antenna efficiency factor, D the directivity of the antenna and G the
antenna gain. In the antenna world, we usually deal with a “relative gain” which is
defined as the power gain ratio in a specific direction of the antenna, to the power gain
ratio of a reference antenna in the same direction. The input power must be the same for
both antennas while performing this type of measurement. The reference antenna is
usually a dipole, horn or any other type of antenna whose power gain is already
calculated or known.

In the case that the direction of radiation is not stated, the power gain is always calculated
in the direction of maximum radiation. The maximum directivity of an actual antenna can
vary from 1.76 dB for a short dipole, to as much as 50 dB for a large dish antenna. The
maximum gain of a real antenna has no lower bound, and is often -10 dB or less for
electrically small antennas.Taking into consideration the radiation efficiency of an
antenna; we can express a relationship between the antenna’s total radiated power and the
total power input as:

In the above formula, antenna radiation efficiency only includes conduction efficiency
and dielectric efficiency and does not include reflection efficiency as part of the total
efficiency factor. Moreover, the IEEE standards state that “gain does not include losses
arising from impedance mismatches and polarization mismatches”. Antenna Absolute

14
Gain is another definition for antenna gain. However, Absolute Gain does include the
reflection or mismatch losses.

In this equation, εrefl is the reflection efficiency, and εcd includes the dielectric and
conduction efficiency. The term εeff is the total antenna efficiency factor.Taking into
account polarization effects in the antenna, we can also define the partial gain of an
antenna for a given polarization as that part of the radiation intensity corresponding to a
given polarization divided by the total radiation intensity of an isotropic antenna.[7] As a
result of this definition for the partial gain in a given direction, we can conclude that the
total gain of an antenna is the sum of partial gains for any two orthogonal polarizations.

Gtotal = Gθ + Gφ

The terms Uθ and Uφ represent the radiation intensity in a given direction contained in
their respective E field component. Commonly, the gain of an antenna is expressed in
terms of decibels instead of dimensionless quantities. The formula to convert
dimensionless units to dB is given below:

GdB = 10log10(εcdDdimmensionless)

GdB = 10log10(Gdimmensionless)

15
Radiation pattern.

The radiation pattern of an antenna is the geometric (graphical) pattern depiction of the
relative field strength transmitted from or received by the antenna.[1] For the ideal
isotropic antenna, this would be a sphere. For a typical dipole, this would be a toroid. The
radiation pattern of an antenna is typically represented by a three dimensional graph, or
polar plots of the horizontal and vertical cross sections. The graph should show sidelobes
and backlobes, where the antenna's gain is at a minima or maxima. Radiation pattern of
an antenna can also be defined as the locus of all points where the emitted power per unit
surface is the same. The radiated power per unit surface is proportional to the squared
electrical field of the electromagnetic wave. The radiation pattern is the locus of points
with the same electrical field. In this representation, the reference is usually the best angle
of emission. The graphs can be drawn using cartesian (rectangular) coordinates or a polar
plot. Polar plots are useful to measure the beamwidth, which is, by convention, the angle
at the -3dB points around the max gain. [7] The four drawings below are the radiation
patterns of a same half-wave antenna.

Radiation pattern of a half-wave dipole antenna.

Gain of a half-wave dipole. The scale is in dBi.
Linear scale.

16
 3D Radiation pattern of a half-wave dipole
antenna.
Gain of a half-wave dipole. Cartesian
representation.

Figure 1-7.radiation patterns

Antenna radiation regions

Near-Field and Far-Field Patterns

The radiation pattern in the region close to the antenna is not exactly the same as the
pattern at large distances. The term near-field refers to the field pattern that exists close to
the antenna; the term far-field refers to the field pattern at large distances. The far-field is
also called the radiation field, and is what is most commonly of interest. The near-field is
called the induction field (although it also has a radiation component).Ordinarily, it is the
radiated power that is of interest, and so antenna patterns are usually measured in the far-
field region. For pattern measurement it is important to choose a distance sufficiently
large to be in the far-field, well out of the near-field. The minimum permissible distance
depends on the dimensions of the antenna in relation to the wavelength. The accepted
formula for this distance is:

17
 2
2D
R m in =
l

Where Rmin is the minimum distance D is the largest dimension of the antenna and l is the
wavelength.

When extremely high power is being radiated the near-field pattern is needed to
determine what regions near the antenna, if any, are hazardous to human beings.

Radiation resistance

Radiation resistance that part of an antenna's feedpoint resistance that is caused by the
radiation of electromagnetic waves from the antenna. The radiation resistance is
determined by the geometry of the antenna and not by the materials of which it is made.

18
It can be viewed as the equivalent resistance to a resistor in the same circuit. Radiation
resistance is caused by the radiation reaction of the conduction electrons in the
antenna.When electrons are accelerated, as occurs when an AC electrical field is
impressed on an antenna, they will radiate electromagnetic waves. These waves carry
energy that is taken from the electrons. The loss of energy of the electrons appears as an
effective resistance to the movement of the electrons, analogous to the ohmic resistance
caused by scattering of the electrons in the crystal lattice of the metallic conductor. While
the energy lost by ohmic resistance is converted to heat, the energy lost by radiation
resistance is converted to electromagnetic radiation. Power is calculated as:

P = I2 R

where I is the electric current flowing into the feeds of the antenna and P is the power in
the resulting electromagnetic field. The result is that there is a virtual, effective
resistance:

This effective resistance is called the radiation resistance. Thus the radiation resistance of
an antenna is a good indicator of the strength of the electromagnetic field radiated by a
transmitting antenna or being received by a receiving antenna, since its value is directly
proportional to the power of the field. Electromagnetic theory employs Maxwell's
equations on a very small piece of the length of an antenna to determine the behavior of
that small increment and then uses integration to aggregate the behavior to that of the
entire antenna. As result the derivation gives the radiation resistance of a small (less than
a quarter wavelength) dipole antenna as

19
where is the length of the antenna in meters, λ is the wavelength of the signal in meters,
and R is measured in ohms. The radiation resistance of a half wave dipole in free space is
73 ohms.

Aperture is a surface, near or on an antenna, on which it is convenient to make

assumptions regarding the field values for the purpose of computing fields at external
points. More generally, the aperture of an antenna is its physical area projected on a plane
perpendicular to the mainbeam direction.[1]
Effective aperture a measure of the effective absorption area presented by the antenna
to the Incident wave. [1] If G receiving antenna gain, and the l wavelength of the
radiation, then the effective aperture is
l2
Ae (q , f ) = G (q , f )
4p

Ae
The aperture efficiency ha is defined as h a = (dimensionless) where Ae is the
A
effective aperture and A is the physical area of the antenna aperture.[1]

Front-to-back ratio
it is the ratio of the energy radiated in the principal direction compared to the energy
radiated in the opposite direction for a given antenna. The front-to-back ratio of an array
is the proportion of energy radiated in the principal direction of radiation to the energy
radiated in the opposite direction. A high front-to-back ratio is desirable because this
means that a minimum amount of energy is radiated in the undesired direction. Since
completely suppressing all such radiation is impossible, an infinite ratio cannot be
achieved. In actual practice, however, rather high values can be attained. Usually the
length and spacing of the parasitic elements are adjusted so that a maximum front-to-back
ratio is obtained, rather than maximum gain in the desired direction.[2]

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CHAPTER 2

YAGI –UDA ANTENNA

The Yagi-Uda antenna is multielement parasitic array which was invented in 1926 by
Shintaro Uda of Tohoku Imperial University, Sendai, Japan, with the collaboration of
Hidetsugu Yagi, also of Tohoku Imperial University An antenna in which the gain of a
single dipole element is enhanced by placing a reflector element behind the dipole and
one or more director elements in front of it . The radiation from the different elements
arrives in phase in the forward direction, but out of phase by various amounts in the other
directions. The gain is slightly increased by the reflector and further enhanced by the first
director element. Additional director elements further increase the gain and improve the
front-to-back ratio, up to a point of diminishing returns. The director and the reflector in
the Yagi antenna are usually welded to a conducting rod or tube at their centers. This
support does not interfere with the operation of the antenna Since the driven element is
center-fed, it is not welded to the supporting rod which is the horizontal section between
all of the elements refered to as the boom. All of the elements usually lie in the same
plane. The center impedance can be increased by using a folded dipole as the driven
element. The folding concept is used to make the antenna self-resonant . The Yagi was
first widely used during World War II for airborne radar sets, because of its simplicity
and directionality .This type of antenna has traditionally been used for local television
reception. Its variants have found applications in the more modern communication
systems at higher frequencies and smaller sizes, and have even been adapted to printed-
circuit techniques in some applications. [8]

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 Figure 2-1.Structure of a yagi -uda

Since these antennas can be made highly directive with good radiation efficiency, they
have found new applications and new manufacturing techniques with miniaturization.
They can be printed on microwave circuit substrates with high dielectric constants, which
reduce their size even further. The parasitic electromagnetic coupling demonstrated in the
Yagi-Uda antenna has been adapted to many new types of miniaturized antennas
applicable to mobile communication devices in wide use, and will be used in future
wireless Internet devices.

THE DRIVEN ELEMENT

The driven element of a Yagi is the feed point where the feed line is attached from the
transmitter to the Yagi to perform the transfer of power from the transmitter to the
antenna. A dipole driven element will be resonant when its electrical length is 1/2 of the
wavelength of the frequency applied to its feed point. The feed point in the picture above
is on the center of the driven element.[8]

THE DIRECTOR
The directors are the shortest of the parasitic elements and this end of the Yagi is aimed
at the receiving station. It is resonant slightly higher in frequency than the driven element,
and its length will be about 5% shorter, progressively than the driven element. The
directors lengths can vary, depending upon the director spacing, the number of directors
used in the antenna, the desired pattern, pattern bandwidth and element diameter. The

22
numbers of directors that can be used are determined by the physical size (length) of the
supporting boom needed by your design. The directors are used to provide the antenna
with directional pattern and gain. The amount of gain is directly proportional to the
length of the antenna array and not by the number of directors used. The spacing of the
directors can range from 0.2 wavelength to 0.3 wavelength [9]

THE REFLECTOR
The reflector is the element that is placed at the rear of the driven element. It's resonant
frequency is lower, and typically slightly larger than resonant length of the driven
element by about approximately 5% longer. Its length will vary depending on the spacing
and the element diameter. The spacing of the reflector will be between .1 wavelengths
and .25 wavelengths. Its spacing will depend upon the gain, bandwidth, F/B ratio, and
sidelobe pattern requirements of the final antenna design. [9]

23
CHAPTER THREE

ANALYSIS OF A YAGI-UDA ANTENNA

The Yagi–Uda antenna functions as an endfire array, meaning that radiation is along the
axis of the array in the direction of the director elements. The nondriven, or parasitic,
reflector and director elements are excited through mutual coupling between themselves
and the fed dipole. Quantitative consideration of mutual coupling effects will show that
the current excited on the reflector element will lag in phase from the driven element
current, while the current excited on the director element leads in phase by approximately
the same amount. phase shifts are typically greater than the free-space phase delay
between the elements, so basic array theory [8] leads to the conclusion that the main
beam of the array will be in the direction of the director elements. Adding more reflector
elements to the left of the feed has little effect on the array, since radiation is
predominantly along the director elements. An increase in the number of directors
increases the directivity of the array, although this increase reaches the point of
diminishing returns after about 10–15 director elements. In general, the greater number of
parasitic elements used, the greater the gain. However, a greater number of such elements
causes the array to have a narrower frequency response as well as a narrower beamwidth.
Therefore, proper adjustment of the antenna is critical. The gain does not increase
directly with the number of elements used. For example, a three-element Yagi array has a
relative power gain of 5 dB. Adding another director results in a 2 dB increase.
Additional directors have less and less effect.[1]

Operation of yagi-uda as a parasitic array

The parasitic element is fed inductively by radiated energy coming from the driven
element. It is in NO way connected directly to the driven element.When the parasitic
element is placed so that it radiates away from the driven element, the element is a
director. When the parasitic element is placed so that it radiates toward the driven
element, the parasitic element is a reflector.The directivity pattern resulting from the
action of parasitic elements depends on two factors which are:

24
 · the tuning, determined by the length of the parasitic element
· the spacing between the parasitic and driven elements.
To a lesser degree, it also depends on the diameter of the parasitic element. When a
parasitic element is placed a fraction of a wavelength away from the driven element and
is of approximately resonant length, it will re-radiate the energy it intercepts. The
parasitic element is effectively a tuned circuit coupled to the driven element, much as the
two windings of a transformer are coupled together. The radiated energy from the driven
element causes a voltage to be developed in the parasitic element, which, in turn, sets up
a magnetic field. This magnetic field extends over to the driven element, which then has a
voltage induced in it. The magnitude and phase of the induced voltage depend on the
length of the parasitic element and the spacing between the elements. In actual practice
the length and spacing are arranged so that the phase and magnitude of the induced
voltage cause a unidirectional, horizontal-radiation pattern and an increase in gain. In the
parasitic array in figure 3-1, view A, the parasitic and driven elements are spaced ¼
wavelength apart. The radiated signal coming from the driven element strikes the
parasitic element after 1/4 cycle. The voltage developed in the parasitic element is 180
degrees out of phase with that of the driven element. This is because of the distance
traveled (90 degrees) and because the induced current lags the inducing flux by 90
degrees (90 + 90 = 180 degrees). The magnetic field set up by the parasitic element
induces a voltage in the driven element 1/4 cycle later because the spacing between the
elements is 1/4 wavelength. This induced voltage is in phase with that in the driven
element and causes an increase in radiation in the direction indicated in figure 3-1, view
A. Since the direction of the radiated energy is stronger in the direction away from the
parasitic element (toward the driven element), the parasitic element is called a reflector.
The radiation pattern as it would appear if you were looking down on the antenna is
shown in view B. The pattern as it would look if viewed from the ends of the elements is
shown in view C. [2]

25
26
 Figure 3-1 Patterns obtained using a reflector with proper spacing.
Because the voltage induced in the reflector is 180 degrees out of phase with the signal
produced at the driven element, a reduction in signal strength exists behind the reflector.
Since the magnitude of an induced voltage never quite equals that of the inducing
voltage, even in very closely coupled circuits, the energy behind the reflector (minor
lobe) is not reduced to 0.The spacing between the reflector and the driven element can be
reduced to about 15 percent of a wavelength. The parasitic element must be made
electrically inductive before it will act as a reflector. If this element is made about 5
percent longer than 1/2 wavelength, it will act as a reflector when the spacing is 15
percent of a wavelength. Changing the spacing and length can change the radiation
pattern so that maximum radiation is on the same side of the driven element as the
parasitic element. In this instance the parasitic element is called a director. Combining a
reflector and a director with the driven element causes a decrease in back radiation and an
increase in directivity. This combination results in the two main advantages of a parasitic
array which are unidirectivity and increased gain. If the parasitic array is rotated, it can
pick up or transmit in different directions because of the reduction of transmitted energy
in all but the desired direction due to unidirectivity. An antenna of this type is called a
rotary array. Size for size, both the gain and directivity of parasitic arrays are greater than
those of driven arrays. The disadvantage of parasitic arrays is that their adjustment is
critical and they do not operate over a wide frequency range. More gain and directivity
are obtained by changing the length of the parasitic elements.[2]

Mutual impendance of yagi

A Yagi–Uda antenna uses mutual coupling between standing-wave current elements to
produce a traveling-wave unidirectional pattern. It uses parasitic elements around the feed
element for reflectors and directors to produce an end-fire beam. Because the antenna can
be described as a slow wave structure , the directivity of a travelingwave antenna is
bounded when we include the directivity due to the element pattern. Maximum directivity
depends on length along the beam direction and not on the number of elements.
Consider two broadside-coupled dipoles. We describe the circuit relation between them
by a mutual impedance matrix:

27
 Eq(3-1)

where the diagonal elements of the matrix are equal from reciprocity. If we feed one
element and load the other, we can solve for the input impedance of the feed antenna:

Eq(3-2)

where Z2 is the load on the second antenna. We short the second antenna (Z2 = 0) to
maximize the induced standing-wave current and eliminate power dissipation:

Eq(3-3)

The mutual impedance between broadside-coupled dipoles (Z12) approaches the self
impedance (Z11) as we move the dipoles close together and causes the input impedance
[Eq.(3-3)] to approach zero.The second equation of Eq. (3-1) for a shorted antenna relates
the currents in the two dipoles.

Eq(3-4)

Since Z12 ≈ Z22, the current in the shorted dipole is opposite the current in the feed
element, and radiation from the induced current reduces the fields around the dipoles.
Given the current on the parasitic element, we solve for the far field by array techniques.
When the elements are spaced a distance d, with the parasitic element on the z-axis and

28
 the feed element at the origin, the normalized pattern response is;

Eq(3-5)
where Irejα = I2/I1 is the current of the parasitic element relative to the feed element. If
we take the power pattern difference between the pattern at θ = 0 and θ = 180◦,we get

Eq(3-6)

Case 1. δ = 180◦, E = 0, and we have equal pattern levels in both directions with a
null at θ = 90◦.
Case 2. 180◦ < δ < 360◦, E > 0. The parasitic element is a director, and the pattern in
its direction will be
higher (θ = 0) than at δ = 180◦.
Case 3. 0◦ < δ < 180◦,E < 0. The parasitic element is a reflector because the pattern
away from it (θ = 180◦) is higher than at θ = 0◦.
We look at the phase of the relative currents to determine whether a parasitic element is a
director or a reflector.
By use of these equations, Figure 3-2 was generated to show the phasing between a half-
wavelength dipole and a parasitic dipole as the length and spacing are varied. A parasitic
dipole of given length can be either a director or a reflector for different element spacing.
Generally, a director is somewhat shorter and a reflector is somewhat longer than the feed
element. If we reduce the length of the feed element or increase the element’s diameter,
the dividing line between a director and a reflector shifts upward. Figure 3-2 also shows
the decreased element length at the transition point for additional spaced elements.
With input matching we could increase the gain by 0.2 dB. A 3-dB gain bandwidth is
15% and a 1-dB gain bandwidth is 10%. At the 3-dB band edges the F/B ratio drops to
5.5 dB. As in many designs, the peak gain does not occur at the peak F/B value. The gain
rises by 0.2 dB to a 50-_ source at a point 3% higher in frequency than the point of
maximum F/B. The maximum gain with input impedance matching (8.6 dB) occurs at a
point 7% above the center frequency. The dipole element pattern narrows the E-plane
beamwidth and produces a null at 90◦ from the boresight. The traveling wave alone forms

29
the H-plane beam. A design to optimize the gain would have a phase progression along
the elements for short traveling-wave

Figure 3-2 Phase of current on a parasitic dipole relative to

current on a driven dipole.

30
 Figure 3-3 Three-element Yagi–Uda dipole antenna.
Figure 3-3 illustrates a three-element Yagi–Uda dipole antenna having one reflector and
one director around the feed element. The design is a compromise between various
characteristics. With a 50-_ source its response is as follows:
Gain = 7.6 dB Front/back ratio = 18.6dB
Input impedance = 33 − j7.5 VSWR= 1.57 (50-_ system)
E-plane beamwidth = 64◦ H-plane beamwidth = 105◦

We analyze Yagi–Uda antennas by using the moment method [10]. One can calculate the
mutual impedance matrix:
[V ] = [Z][I ] Eq.(3-7)
The input voltage vector [V ] has only one nonzero term of the feed element. By solving
the linear equations Eq. (3-7), we compute the currents at the base of each element. We
assume a sinusoidal current distribution on each element and solve for the pattern
response from the array of dipoles. We calculate the input impedance of the array by
using the moment method; and by retaining the current levels on the dipoles for a known
input power, we can calculate gain directly.

31
Current distributions in yagi-uda array

Fig. 3-4Typical Yagi-Uda array.

A summarized integral-equation formulation for the currents in the N elements of a Yagi-

Uda array using a three-term approximation for the driven element and two terms with
complex coefficients for the parasitic elements is shown in this section [E]. The N
simultaneous Integral equations to be solved are

Where is the phase constant,V0k=0,for k =2,V02 is the excitation voltage of a

function generator in element 2

32
In solving the simultaneous integral equations (l), the current distributions I i ( z ) are
assumed to have the
Following form :

With

and Ai(1) = 0, for i # 2. Substitution of (7) in (1) and use of certain approximate relations
for the integrals
involved yield

And two simultaneous matrix equations for the column matrices of complex coefficients

{A(2)} and {A(3)}:

geometrical dimensions are given, the complex coefficientsA2(1) ,{A(2)} and {A(3)}can be
determined from the equations
(11)-(13). With these coefficients known, the current distributions in all the dipole
elements of a Yagi-Uda array can be obtained from (7). We note that the mutual
coupling effects among the array elements are taken into consideration inherently in the
formulation and that the currents in the elements can deviate much form a
sinusoid[12],[13].

33
Length perturbation
To adjust the element lengths in a Yagi-Uda array for maximum directivity it is assumed
that the length of the ith element be changed by a small amount maximum directivity it is
assumed that the length of the ith element be changed by a small amount D hi( βo D hi
<< 1).
The perturbed currents Ii p ( z ) Will be obtained from a modified version of (7) :

With

Where

A similar approximation can be applied to the distance terms Rki(hk) in (3) a.nd ( 5 ) , to
account for the change D hk [11]. Perturbed definite integrals with element length in the
limits such as those in (1) and (2) may be written as follows:

With these approximations and t,he substitution of the perturbed currents I i p ( z ) in (1),
the matrices

34
 and and the complex coefficients A2(1) and { A(m) } in (12) and

(13) are changed to , A 2 ( l ) p , and { A(m) } p ,

respectively. We have

The expressions for the deviation matrices in (22)-( 25) are quite complicated and will be
omitted here in order
to conserve space. They can be found in [SI. However, it is important, to note that, the
kith elements of the square deviation matrices in ( 22 ) and (23) and the kth elements of
the column deviation matrices in (24) and (2.5) can each be expanded as the sum of two
terms, both being proportional to the deviation in element length. For
example, the kith element of the deviation matrix in (22) can be written as

Where and can be evaluated from integrals containing

where the current deviation coefficients and are to be

determined.
In addition, the number \k22dc1) appearing in the denominator

of (11) will also be changed by length perturbation to

35
Substituting (14)-(20) in (1) and (11)-( 13), and noting(21)-(30) we obtain, after second-
order deviation term have been neglected,

The perturbed current coefficients {A(2)}p and {A(3)}p can be the be determined from
(27)-(29).

36
CHAPTER 4
DESIGN PROCEDURES

The design of the antenna system is very important in a transmitting station. The antenna
must be able to radiate efficiently so the power supplied by the transmitter is not wasted.
An efficient transmitting antenna must have exact dimensions. The dimensions are
determined by the transmitting frequencies. The dimensions of the receiving antenna are
not critical for relatively low radio frequencies. However, as the frequency of the signal
being received increases, the design and installation of the receiving antenna become
more critical. This chapter shows the design of the proposed Yagi antenna. From the
project statement, the main concern is to design and construct a yagi antenna to receive
signals from local TV station transmission. The first specification is therefore the
frequency in which the antenna is to be employed. Since the antenna is meant for ultra
high frequencies applications the frequency must lie within the range of 300Mhz to
3000Mhz.The design of the yagi antenna was approached in an experimental way where
using varying antenna lengths of the dipoles and constant space between the dipoles two
antennas where build where a solid dipoles and tube dipoles where used

Resonant length of an antenna

What is desired is that the antenna behaves as a resonant circuit at the frequency of
operation. it can be visualized that resonance shall occur when electrons travel from
centre to the end and back in a time equal to that occupied by one half of input cycle. The
conditions that satisfy this requirement are as flow Consider a centre fed antenna of
length l meters

l
t = sec s
c
1
t' = sec s
2f

t = t ' (for resonance)

37
 l 1
=
c 2f
c
l=
2f

c
f = Where l is the signal wavelength
l

c lc l
l= = =
2c 2c 2
l
l
l= m
2

Thus an antenna whose length is ( (l ) meters where l is related to the frequency of the
2
applied signal by f= (c l ) Will behave as a resonance resulting in large amplitude
voltages and currents and hence a powerful electromagnetic wave. [3]

Broadband design of yagi-uda

Several approaches to widening the inherently bandwidth of the yagi-uda array were used
which included:

· Shortening the directors for high frequency operations

· Lengthening the reflector for low frequency operations
· Selecting the driven dipole for midband operations

The parasitic elements are then used primary to increase gain at the upper and lower
frequency limits of the array Reflector and the driven elements are design for low
frequency and mid frequency.The local TV stations frequencies are shown figure 4-1

STATUS OF TV FREQUENCIES
Identity TV Channel Station ID Frequency director length Status
KBC 4 KBC channel 1 335.25 0.447 On Air
Future Tech Electronics 9 Family TV 375.25 0.399 On Air
DMTV 21 471.25 0.316 On Air
KBC 23 KBC channel 1 487.25 0.308 On Air
KBC 29 K24 535.25 0.28 On Air

38
 KBC 31 KBC Metro 551.25 0.272 On Air
Royal Media Services 34 Citizen 575.25 0.261 On Air
Royal Media Services 39 Citizen 615.25 0.244 On Air
Nation Media Group 42 NTV 639.25 0.235 On Air
Kitambo Communications 45 Aljazeera 663.25 0.226 On Air
Capital Group 47 CNBC 679.25 0.221 On Air
Stellavision 56 STV 751.25 0.199 On Air
Lancia Media 57 Oxygen TV 759.25 0.198 On Air
KTN Baraza Ltd 59 KTN 775.25 0.193 On Air
Radio One IPP 62 EATV 799.25 0.188 On Air
mean 600.85

Figure 4-1 TV stations with their frequencies and calculated centre frequencies

The length (L) of the dipole was calculated as below Using the center frequency of
600.85

The length of the dipole or folded dipole required for resonance depends not only on the
frequency but also to a lesser extent on the ratio of the diameter of the element to the
wavelength

c
l=
f where

c = 3 ´108 m [speed of light]

f = 600.85Mz [centre frequency which is the mean average of the sum of all
tvs frequencies]

3 ´108 m
l= = 0.50
600.85MHz

L = l = 0.50 = 0.25
2 2

The reflector was calculated from data from table of figure where an average of the
frequencies below the centre frequencies was calculated as shown in figure 4-2

39
 STATUS OF TV FREQUENCIES BELOW THE CENTRE FREQUENCY
Identity TV Channel Frequency Station ID Status
KBC 4 335.25 KBC channel 1 On Air
Future Tech Electronics 9 375.25 Family TV On Air
DMTV 21 471.25 On Air
KBC 23 487.25 KBC channel 1 On Air
KBC 29 535.25 K24 On Air
KBC 31 551.25 KBC Metro On Air
Royal Media Services 34 575.25 Citizen On Air
MEAN 475.8214286
Figure 4-2-calculation of the reflector resonant frequency

the wavelength of the reflector was calculated as below

3 ´ 108 m
l= = 0.6304m
475.82 MHz

The length of the refector was as below

L = l = 0.63 = 0.315m
2 2

The lengths of the smallest director was calculated by the use of the highest frequency
799.25MGz

3 ´108 m
l= = 0.375m
799.25MHz

40
L = l = 0.375 = 0.187m
2 2

The lengths of the directors should vary between the length of dipole of 0.25m to the
smallest length due to the highest frequency of 0.187m.The director lengths of each TV
station frequency were calculated to give the general picture of suitable varying criteria
of the lengths. The lengths of the elements in the high-frequency array are shorter than
those in the low-frequency array as shown in figure 4-1.

For experimental and testing purpose, reduction of 2%,3% ,4%and 6% was chosen

The dipole length=0.25m

2% reduction we have

=0.02×0.25=0.005m

Resulted into twelve directors of length given by figure 4-3a

Directors D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 D8 D9 D10 D11 D12

Lengths(m) 0.245 0.240 0.235 0.230 0.225 0.220 0.215 0.210 0.205 0.200 0.195 0.190

Figure 4-3a Lengths of director with 2% reduction

3% reduction we have

=0.03×0.25=0.0075m

Resulted to eight directors of lengths given in the figure 4-3b

Directors D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 D8

Lengths(m) 0.2425 0.235 0.2275 0.2200 0.2125 0.205 0.1975 0.1900

Figure 4-3b Lengths of director with 3% reduction

41
4% reduction we have

=0.04×0.25=0.01m

Resulted to six directors of lengths given in the figure 4-3c

Directors D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6

Lengths .m 0.24 0.23 0.22 0.21 0.20 0.19

Figure 4-3cLengths of director with 4% reduction

6% reduction we have

=0.06×0.25=0.015m

Resulted to four directors of lengths given in the figure 4-3d

Directors D1 D2 D3 D4

lengths 0.235 0.22 0.205 0.19

Figure 4-3d Lengths of director with 3% reduction

Reflector to dipole spacing. A spacing of 0.25wavelength was used.

0.25×0.5=0.125m

This above spacing was chosen to achieve most reflection leading to a high gain

The spacing from dipole to director and between the director a spacing of 0.2 wavelength
was used to allow use of more directors. 0.2×0.5=0.1m

42
CONSTRUCTION

Materials used

· 12mm×12mm square aluminum tube

· 6.5mm solid aluminum rod
· 7.4mm aluminum tube(the only available in market)
· 75 Ohm RG-8 coax cable
· RP-TNC connectors for RG-8 cable
· Plastic insulators
· Bolts and nuts
· Plastic mould connector

Tools used:

· Steel Ruler
· Hack saw
· Flat file
· Hole Punch
· Soldering iron and solder
· Drill drill bit
· Rubber mallet
· Subscriber
· Venier caliper
· divider

Making the folded dipole

A round solid former was used to make corners at the folded dipole. The solid round rod
was hold tightly with the holding device and room was left for the bending of aluminum

43
rod. The first bend was made at the first marked point at one end. To make the first bend,
the mark was calculated exactly where the bend should begin, and the aluminum Straight
part was clamped and the free end tightly pulled around the former. The tube bends quite
easily without collapsing significantly. For the aluminum rod a soft mallet was used to
encourage the tubing to follow tightly around the former, especially towards the finish of
the bend. Care was taken in bending the tube to avoid it from collapsing. An allowance
was made for the spring off the bend from the former when marking out the bend at the
opposite end .when marking the second bend the two ends of the folded dipole were
ensured to be on the same plane. Some corrections were made by twisting. Some extra
length was left so that the ends of the tube and solid overlapped in the centre when the
dipole was folded. The exact centre was found and the ends were trimmed to give
allowance to the boom. Marks for the mounting holes to plastic connector were made
using a centre punch. An electrical drill with the right drilling bit was used to drill the
holes with care. The separation distance from centre to centre(width) and lengths of the
folded dipoles was measured and tabulated in figure 4-5a.The final folded dipole is
shown in figure 4-5b.the resultant are

lengths of the folded dipoles separation distance

centre(width)

Aluminum rod (6.5mm) 252.7mm 52.5mm

Aluminum tube (7.4) 252.2 54.6mm

Figure 4-5aTables of dimensions of the folded dipoles

44
 Figure 4-5b Folded dipole

The plastic connector

A strong, thick walled plastic round connector with some screws wire holding was
purchased from suppliers. Two slots had to be made on the edges of the connector to
facilitate the fixing of the folded dipole using a square file. Two holes were made at a
marked distance to allow the fixing of the folded dipole on the plastic connector. Other
two holes were made to allow fixing of the plastic connector to the boom.

A B

Figure 4-6 showing the plastic connector(A) and a connected folded dipole

The trim ends of the folded dipole were soldered to the screws which allow tight
connection to the coaxial cable. When fixing the dipole care was taken to ensure that no
ground of electrical connection between the folded dipole and the boom as it will result in
unwanted RF currents running along the boom. The folded dipole was fixed in a way that
driven side was made to be on the same level plane with the parasitic elements.two vent
hole where made on the bottom of the plastic connector to allow it to ventilation and
avoid accumulation of rain water which can cause a connection to the boom ,short circuit

45
or so damage the coax flexible cable. The holes allows slow atmospheric corrosion as
moisture will get its way through.

Reflector

A plain ``sufuria sinia’’ was bought as it is made from aluminum for the parabolic
reflector. The diameter of the reflector was made to be 310mm.the centre was allocated
for cooking cover with the use of a scriber. Using a pencil and a plain A2 drawing paper
,the outer boundary was drawn on the papar giving its exact outer circle. The diameter of
the reflector was measured using a vernier caliper. Using the diameter arcs were made on
the circle dividing it into equal circumfrecial lengths and segments. The arcs exactly
opposite to each other were interlinked with straight lines. The intersection of the lines
gave the exact location of the centre. using the centre the inner diameter was divided
into five spaces by drawing circles with spacing of 2cm apart. The intersection between
these circles and the diagonal lines through the centre was used to make perforations on
the parabolic reflector. A centre punch was used to make drilling guides. Holes were
made by use of deferent sizes of drill bits starting from the smallest nice finish was
achieved by the use of a file and slight touch with bigger drill bits compared to the holes
to remove the debris.

Figure 4-7 The parabolic reflector

A hole slightly larger than the boom was made at the centre to avoid an electrical
connection to the boom and plastic insulator was joined to the reflector by using small
niles. The parabolic reflector is shown in figure 4-7

46
Directors

The aluminum rod and tube were cut out into the calculated lengths shown in figures 4-3
and 4-4 into directors with the use of the hack saw and a steel rule for the measurements.
Nice finishing on the edges was achieved by the use of a cutting tool in the lath machine
and flat file. The directors were then slotted / laced into the plastic insulators (rivets) with
care not to bend the elements. The plastic insulators were slotted into the centre of the
directors leaving equal length at both ends. Figure 4-8 shows the picture of one director.

Figure 4-8 A director slotted through the plastic connector

Boom

The boom is a square aluminum tube. Two holes were drilled at one end to enable the
fixing of the folded dipole connected to the plastic connector . All the elements were
slotted into the boom.the reflector was placed 0.125m from the feed dipole and the rest of
array was spaced at equal space of 0.1m. Figure 4-9 show the complete array.

Figure 4-9 the complete antenna

47
CHAPTER 5

SIMULATION RESULTS WITH SUPER NEC SOFT WARE

Figure 5-1a data for 2% reduction of director lengths simulation

Directors D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 D8 D9 D10 D11 D12

Lengths(m) 0.245 0.240 0.235 0.230 0.225 0.220 0.215 0.210 0.205 0.200 0.195 0.190

Figure 5-1b data for 3% reduction of director lengths simulation

Directors D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 D8

Lengths(m) 0.2425 0.235 0.2275 0.2200 0.2125 0.205 0.1975 0.1900

Figure 5-1c data for 4% reduction of director lengths simulation

Directors D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6

Lengths (m) 0.24 0.23 0.22 0.21 0.20 0.19

Figure 5-1d data for 6% reduction of director lengths simulation

Directors D1 D2 D3 D4

Lengths(m) 0.235 0.22 0.205 0.19

The above data values were simulated radiation patterns and gain curves verse
frequency were plotted

Figures 5-2a 2% reduction of director lengths array

48
The following radiation pattern was achieved at at test frequency of 501MGHs for the
2% reduction

Figures 5-2 b 2% reduction radiation pattern at 501MHz

Figure 5-2c
gain curve for

49
2% reduction of director lengths

At 2%

Maximum gain achieved 13.5dBi

Bandwidth at 13.5× 0.7071=9.55dBi

=543.75-412.5=131.25MHz has the smallest bandwidth but the largest gain of 13.5dBi

50
Figures 5-3a 3% reduction of length radiation pattern at 501MHz

51
Figure 5-3b gain curve of 3% reduction of lengths

At 3%

Maximum gain achieved =12dBi

Bandwidth at 0.7071×12=8.5dBi

=562-418=144MHz

The bandwidth improved with a reduction in the gain

52
Figures 5-4a array for 4% reduction of lengths

53
Figure 5-4b radiation pattern for 4% reduction at 501MHz

54
Figue 5-4c gain curve for 4% reduction of directors lengths

At 4% maximum gain achieved =11.5

Bandwidth at 0.7071×11.5=8.13dBi =556-410=146MHz

55
Figures 5-5a array for 6% reduction of director lengths

56
Figure 5-5b radiation pattern for 6% reduction at 501MHz

57
Figure 5-5c gain curve for 6% reduction of director lengths

At 6%

Maximum gain of 10.8dBi

Bandwidth at 0.7071×10.8=7.64dBi= 570-412=158MHz

The 6% reduction has a higher bandwidth but the smallest gain of about 7.64dBi

58
The current distribution for the percentage reduction is shown in the following figures

Figure 5-6 current distribution for 2% reduction

Figure 5-7 current distribution for 4% reduction

59
Figure 5-8 current distribution for 6% reduction

60
Testing
Testing of the above antenna was done with several TV sets where most of the TVs
stations where tested by pointing to the direction of their transmitting antennas for
example for the reception of KTN the antenna was pointed to ngong. The yagi-uda
antenna was able to receive most of the tv channels except a few which had a weak
signal as the transmitting stations are far and due to interference communication signals
in the atmosphere.

Advantages of yagi-uda antenna

when compared with other aerial systems of similar size yagi array is found to have the
highest robust form the effect of adding the reflector and the directors is to cause the
feed impedance of the dipole to fall considerably . yagi antennas are widely used to
achieve high gain in a very simple structure. Note the important feature that only one
element in the Yagi–Uda array is directly driven; this greatly simplifies the construction
of the array. Yagi-uda antennas have high directivity as it receives maximumly in the
direction of maximum transmission radiation in line with the transmitting antenna.
Disadvantages of yagi-uda arrays
The variation of elements lengths and spacing causes inter related changes in the feed
impedance of a yagi array. To obtain maximum possible forward gain experimentally is
extremely difficult because for each change of element length it is necessary to readjust
the matching either by moving the reflector or by resetting matching device.
Shortcomings include effect of poor weather on antennas e.g. strong winds leading to
detuning of the antenna, obstacles affecting the reception of the signals leading to
suspension of antennas on high heights to avoid obstacles

Future study recommendations

Yagi design for high frequency in wireless communication is recommended as there is a
need of affordable wifi communications antenna which has seen a renewed interest on
design of simple antennas with available materials. This makes Yagi a nice option as its
simple structure enables its construction research on how to make a 2.4GHz yagi for wifi
and wireless communication is recommended due to its high directivity and simple
structure.

61
CONCLUSION
As the reduction percentage of the lengths is varied from 2% to 6% as seen from the
simulation results the gain, directivity, bandwidth and no of elements changes. The
number of elements reduces as the percentage is increased because the shortest length
of the last director due to the highest frequency remains the same. The reduction in the
number of elements leads to a reduction in gain and directivity. The 6% reduction had
the largest bandwidth as it had low directivity.2% reduction had the highest gain of
13.5dBi but smallest bandwidth while the 4% reduction had a moderate gain 11.5dBi
and a large bandwidth making it suitable for yagi antenna. Reduction greater than 6%
leads to poor yagi as the coupling is reduced significantly.

The bandwidth of the antenna reduces with 2% reduction as it has the most elements
hence high gain and directivity narrowing the bandwidth.

From the TV test the directivity of the yagi antenna is high as the antenna reception
improved significantly with the pointing of the antenna in line with the transmitting
antennas. The 2% reduction antenna had the highest directivity as it had most number
of elements. the 6% had least directivity as it had the least number of elements.

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REFERENCES

[1] IEEE Standard Definitions of Terms for Antennas

[2] Introduction to Wave Propagation, Transmission Lines, and Antennas NAVEDTRA 14182

[3] colour television and video technology by A.K.Maini second edition

[4] MODERN ANTENNA DESIGN Second Edition THOMAS A. MILLIGAN IEEE PRESS A JOHN

[5]VHF-UHF MANUAL by G.R. JESSOP

[6] Antenna Theory (3rd edition), by C. Balanis, Wiley, 2005, ISBN 0-471-66782-X

[7] Antenna for all applications (3rd edition), by John de Kraus, Ronald J. Marhefka, 2002, ISBN
0-07-232103-2

[8]H .Yagi, Beam transmission of ultra-short waves , Proceedings of the IRE, vol. 16, pp. 715-
740, June 1928. The URL is to a 1997 IEEE reprint of the classic article.

[9]See also Beam Transmission Of Ultra Short Waves: An Introduction To The Classic Paper By
H. Yagi by D.M. Pozar, in Proceedings of the IEEE, Volume 85, Issue 11, Nov. 1997 Page(s):1857
- 1863.

[10] C. S. Liang and Y. T. Lo, A multiple-field study for the multiarm log-spiral antennas,IEEE
Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, vol. AP-16, no. 6, November 1968,pp. 656–664.

[11] C.S. CHEN,``Perturbation tachniques for directivity optimization of yagi-uda arrays,’’Phd.

Dissertation,Syracuse university, Syracuse,N.Y.;1974

[12]R.W.P.King,R.B.Mack and S.S.Sandler, Arrays of Cylindrical Dipoles. New York:

Cambridge,1968

[13]D.K. Cheng and C.A.Chen, ``Optamum element spacings for Yagi-Uda,” Syracuse university,
Syracuse,N.Y.,Tech Rep. TR-72-9,Nov.1972.

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