1

ADVANTAGE OF STANDARDS
 The standards assures the interoperability of products and services among various
telecommunication to the users, manufactures of the telecommunication equipment and the service
providers.
 The standards assure the quality of the products.
 It helps the user to have stability and confidence in a particular technology or application.
 There is a high possibility of reduced cost due to the mass manufacturing with the help of
regulations.
 The standards pave the suppliers and service providers for designing, implementing and servicing
their own telecommunication functions.
 The suppliers can work to a predefined specification.
 The new regulators and legislations by the standards organization and mastering the new
technologies gives new business opportunities to the manufactures and thus the new innovations to
the users
STANDARDS MAKING BODIES
International organizations

ITU The international telecommunication union

ISO The international organization for standardization

ETSI European telecommunication standards institute

National organizations

IEEE

ANSI American National Standards Institute

EIA Electronic Industries Association

EIA standards have CCITT Equivalent

TIA The telecommunication Industry association

Other national standards including British standards institution (BSI), Association Francise de normalizations
(AFNOR), Deutsches Institute Fur Normalische (DIN) and Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) are members of
ISO. COS is a group of major computer and telecommunication manufactures (more than 20 leading
companies) that have joined together to adopt ISO standards

__________________________________________________________
2

Cross bar Exchanges.

A telephony crossbar switch is an electromechanical device for switching telephone calls

In electronics, a crossbar switch (also known as cross-point switch, or matrix switch) is a switch
connecting multiple inputs to multiple outputs in a matrix manner. Originally the term was used literally,
for a matrix switch controlled by a grid of crossing metal bars, and later was broadened to matrix
switches in general. It is one of the principal switch architectures, together with a memory switch and a
crossover switch

The intersections between horizontal and vertical lines are called cross points. At each cross-
point some form of switch contact is needed to complete the connection between horizontal
and vertical lines, as shown in Figure 20b. Any of the 4 inlets can be connected to any of the
4 outlets by closing the appropriate switch contacts. For example;

a) Inlet 1 can be connected to outlet 2 by closing contact B.

b) Inlet 4 can be connected to outlet 3 by closing contact R.

Considering Figure 20a and 20b again, it can be seen that with 4 inlets and 4 outlets there are
16 cross points.

Fig. 20
Obviously, the number of cross points in any matrix switch can be calculated by multiplying
the number of inlets by the number of outlets. This is further illustrated in Figure. 20c
If there are n inlets and m outlets, then the number of cross point is (n x m).

3
POPULAR DIGITAL SWITCHING SYSTEMS
Different versions of DMS systems
DMS-10. It is a digital switch and cost effective. It is in service at suburban and rural areas. It
allows access to local and long distance service. It can handle upto 12000 subscribers. It is the
smallest of the DMS family.
DMS-100. It is a class 5 local office. It is designed to deliver services over subscribers
lines and trunks. It provides various services.
DMS-200. The DMS-200 switch has toll capabilities. It is used for toll center applications..
DMS-250. This is the long distance tandem switch that connects long distance calls. It is used by
the interexchange carriers. It is powerful.
DMS-300. This is the international exchange, which gates calls internationally. It
provides the most advanced range of international services. This system can interface with any
system. This is also known as the International Gateway system.
Explain DMS 100 in Detail.

The most common version of DMS system is DMS-100. This system is described below.
DMS-100. It is a class 5 local office with the ability to handle 1000 to 100,000 lines. It was first
put into service in 1979.
Hardware Architecture. The hardware architecture of the DMS switch consists of
the following main components:
1. Processor Modules
2. Switching Module
3. Maintenance Administration Position (MAP)
4. Peripheral Module.
5.Trunk Module (TM) and Line Module (LM
Fig. 6.11 shows the general hardware architecture of the DMS-100 system.

Switching Module. The DMS-100 system is equipped with two types of switching
matrix. They are dual shelf network (DSN) or enhanced network (ENET). With this
arrangement, it takes up less than 16% of the space for the same number of step by step system
20% of cross bar system. DMS offers remote switching with a bunch of remote modules.
The use of remote modules extends the advantage like plant floor savings, cost reduction, less
maintenance etc. The use of DSN and ENET supports narrow band and wide band services.
Trunk Module (TM) and Line Module (LM). The TM changes incoming speech into digital
format. TM has the ability to handle 30 analog trunks. The PCM information is combined with
trunks supervising and control signals and then transmitted to 2.56 Mb/s over speech
links to the network. Each trunk can carry 36 ccs. The TM also uses service circuits such as MF
receivers, announcement trunks and test circuits. LM gives an interface for a maximum of 640
analog lines and condenses the voice and
signalling into 2, 3, or 4 DS-30, 32 channel speech links. 4 speech links have the ability to
handle 3,700 Average Busy Season Busy Hour (ABSBH) CCS per LM.

4
3.3.2. Four Wire Circuits
The term four wire implies that there are two wires carrying the signals in one direction and
two wires carrying them in opposite direction. In normal telephone service, the local loops are
two wire circuits, on which a single telephone call can be transmitted in both directions. If the
distance between the subscribers is substantial, the amplifiers (repeaters) are necessary to
compensate the attenuation. As the amplifiers are unidirectional, for two-way communication,
four-wire transmission is necessary. The switching equipment in the local exchange and the
line from subscriber to local office (local loops) are two wire operation. The local exchange will
switch the subscriber loop to a toll conncecting trunk. This is also a two-wire transmission.
The toll offices are interconnected with inter tool trunks (which connects towns and cities).
These trunks are of four-wire transmission. Fig. 3.10 shows the simple arrangement of the two
wire and four wire transmission.

Echos and Singing.

An echo coming 0.5 msec after the
speech is not much effect. The echoes with a round trip delay of more than 45 msec cannot be
tolerated. Fig. 3.12 explains the path of the echo and the losses and gain of the signals at
various parts of the system.
Calculation jo sr ny class m krwae thi

Noise
Noise is an unwanted electrical energy. In any real physical systems, the signal arrived at
receiver may be accompanied by a unknown waveform which varies with time in an entirely
unpredictable manner. This unpredictable waveform in a random process is called noise.
White noise.This is the most common noise in communication. This noise is easy to
analyze and easy to find since it arises as thermal noise in all electrical components. The term
white is used in comparison with white light, which is a superposition of all visible specturm
components.
Impulse noise and intermodulation noise.
The most common form of noise in the telephone network are impulse noise and quantization noise. Impulse
noise has peaks of amplitude that saturate channel and blot out data. Impulse noise is the main source of
errors
in data.

Cross Talk
The current from the battery in the subscriber loop (when telephone handset is off hook) is
limited to the range of minimum 20 mA to maximum of 60 mA. The current variation depends
on the length of the subscriber loop. In long loops the current is less and in short loops the
current may exceed 60 mA (an electronic component varistor in telephone set is used to limit
the current with in 60 mA). The large current flow causes electromagnetic fields and thus
creates signal distortions in adjoining wires. This distortion is called cross talk. Some of the
major sources of cross talk are coupling between wire pairs in cable, inadequate filtering or
carrier offsets in older frequency division multiplexing (FDM) equipments and the effects of
non-linear components on FDM signals
NEXT AND FEXT.The basic forms of cross talk concern to telecommunication engineers
are near end cross talk (NEXT) and far end cross talk (FEXT). NEXT occurs near the transmitter
and creates distortions that affect the signal on adjacent receive pairs. This type of noise can
be generated when a transmission line carrying a strong signal is coupled with a transmission
line carrying a weak signal. NEXT is measured in dB, with higher values being better. NEXT
is measured for all frequencies between 0 and 100 MGz. NEXT is measured by injecting a
signal on a wire pair and measuring its cross talk on another wire pair. NEXT should be
measured at both ends. NEXT is more trouble some because of a large difference in power
levels between the transmitted and receive signals. Twisted wire pairs reduce this type of
cross talk.

3.4.4. Signal Attenuation

The attenuation of signal varies with frequencies over the transmission line. The attenuation of a typical cable
pair is approximately proportional to the square root of the frequency.Attenuation is also increases with
temperature.
Distortion
The disturbances received at the receiver due to internal characteristics of the channel itself are generally
referred as distortion. This distortion is deterministic. The sources of distortion are generally due to non-
linear characteristic of components and linear nature of the network.
Phase distortions. It is a serious form of distortion in data transmission. Phase delay is related to the deay
characteristics of the transmission medium. The signal is delayed more at some frequencies than at other.
This is referred to as phase frequency distortion or delay distortion. If there were no delay distortion, the
curve of phase of the received signal plotted against frequency would be a straighuy line. That is the phase
response is directly proportional to the frequency. This is referred as uniform envelop delay. The system with
uniform envelop delay is called linear phase system. Any deviation from linear characteristics is referred as
envelop delay defined as the slope of such curves and may be measured in microseconds.

5
 Switching systems

Manual Automatic

Electromechanical Electronic (stored

program control)
Strowger or step Crossbar

by step system system

Disadvantages of step by step switicing

.The step by step system has the advantage of being inexpensive for
small system and highly reliable due to the distributed nature of equipment. However, the
system has several draw backs. Some of them are
1. As this switching involves heavy mechanical displacements, regular maintenance by
the skilled technicians are necessary.
2. It is not feasible to select an alternate route for interoffice calls, if all the trunks are
busy as the switching is by step through various selectors.
3. Step by step switching is limited to dial pulses. For touchtone telephones, special
devices has to be introduced between line finder and first selector to convert the tones into dial
pulses.
4. If calling rate is high, heavy operation is performed by the system and the life time of
the system is less.
5. The last two digits of the called line numbers are specifically determined by their
location on the connector. Congestion could arise when the switching system is heavily loaded.
6. The capacity of switching system reduces if codes of different numbers are alloted to
various subscribers, such as fire service, police ambulance, fault regorts, directory enquiry,
operator assistance etc. In certain cases, the exchange capacity may be reduced from 10000 to
even 6000 customer lines.
7. The strowger system can accept only 7 to 9 pulses in 1 second. Hence if we dial fast,
the system can not give correct perfomance.
6
MULTIPLEXING
Multiplexing defined as any process of sending of a number of separate signals together, over
the same cable or bearer, simultaneously and without interference. Thus many speech channels
are transmitted togtether as a single channel occupying the bandwidth of the physical facility.
Space Division Multiplexing (SDM)
In space division multiplexing more than one physical transmission path are grouped together.
A very large number of separate telephone calls can be transmitted together down a
coaxial system. Single wire pair commonly carries 12 or 24 voice channels. But one single
coaxial tube commonly carries 3600 and the higher capacity one can carry 10800.

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

FDM is a broad band analog transmission technique in which multiple signals are transmitted
over a single cable simultaneously as shown in Fig. 3.21 (a). FDM systems divides the available
BW of the transmission medium into a number of narrow band or sub channels.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

TDM is the sharing of a common transmission medium in time. In TDM, the time available is divided into
small slots, and each of them occupied by a piece of one of the signals to be sent.
TDM is a base band technology in which individual channels of data or voice are interleaved into a stream of
framed bits across a communication channel.

Advantages TDM:

1. we can transmit more number of signals through a single channel.

2. it is immune to amplitude non-linearities

3. The user gets full bandwidth of the channel in a particuler time slot.
4. For bursty signals such as voice or speech TDMA gives maximum utilization of the channel
5. most suitable technique for digital transmission.

Disadvantages of TDMA

1. it is not much suitable for continues signals

2. extra guard time are necessary
3. synchronization is necessary.

Advatages of Statistical TDM:

the major difference between both is that the time slot is not same for each sending device.

the wastage of capacity of the multiplexed channel is solved by asynchronous or statistical time
division multiplexing

7.3.4. PCM Systems / Signalling

For T1 system
q. If t1 is asked

and calculation of numerical on lec 8

end

30 channel PCM system. It is based on 30 speech channels transmitted within a frame

of 32 time slots (0 to 31). The total bit rate is 32 × 8 × 8 kbits/sec = 2048 kbps. Channel 0 is used
for providing the framing signal and channel 16 is used for transmitting the signalling
information relating to speech channels 1 to 15 and 17 to 31.
The 8 bits of channel 16 are shared between the 30 channels by a process of multiframing. 16
successive appearances of channel 16 form a multiframe of 8 bit time slots. Frame 0 contains a
multiframe alignment signal. Frame 1 to 16 of Fig. 7.6 (b) contains four bits of signalling
infomation for each of 2 channels. This arrangement enables a much larger number of signals
to be exchanged.

and calculation of numerical on lec 7

e1 table in lec 7 jo sr ny bnwaea th

7

Pstn Network structures

Mesh network
If communication is required between n users ‘stations, it could be provided by a network
consisting of line from each station to every other. as shown in Figure l.2(a).
This is called a mesh network. Each station needs lines to n-1 others. Thus if the line from A to B
can also convey calls from B to A, the total number of lines(no of voice channels) required is N =
1/2n(n-1). lf n>> I, then N is approximately proportional to n2. This arrangement is practicable if
n is small and the lines are short.

Star network

As the area covered by a star network and the number of stations served by it grow, line costs
increase. It than becomes economic to divide the network into several smaller networks, each
served by its own exchange, as shown in Figure 1.3. The average length of a customer's line,
and thus the total line cost, decreases with the number of exchanges, but the cost of providing
the exchanges increases. Thus, as shown in Figure 1.4, there is an optimum number of
exchanges for which the total cost is a minimum.
A national public switched telecommunications network (PSTN), as shown in Figure 1.6, consists
of the following hierarchy:

1. Local networks which connect customers stations to their local exchanges. (These are
also called subscribers’ distribution networks, customer access networks or the
customer loop).
2. Junction networks, which interconnect a group of local exchanges serving an area and
a tandem or trunk exchange.
3. The trunk network or toll network, which provides long-distance circuits between local
areas throughout the country.
4. The totality of (2) and (3) is sometimes called the core network, the inner core
consisting of the trunk network and the outer one consisting of the junction networks.

Network Services:
The customers of a public telecommunication operator (PTO) require many different services,
which appear to require different networks. Examples include:

 The public switched telephone network (PSTN)

 The public switched telegraph network (telex)
 Private networks for voice and data (using circuits leased from the PTO)
 Cellular ration networks providing mobile communication
 Public data networks, introduced to meet specialized demands from customer

8
Single stage networks Multistage networks

Inlet to outlet comm. is through a Inlet outlet comm. is through multiple

single crosspoints crosspoints.

Use of a single crosspoints per Use of multiple crosspoints may degrade the
connection results in better quality quality of a connection
link

Each individual crosspoints can be used Same crosspoints can be used to establishment
for only one inlet/outlet pair connection between a number of inlet/outlet
 connection pairs.

Crosspoints are ineffectively used Crosspoints are efficiently used

If a crosspoints fails, there is no Alternative crosspoints and paths are available

redundancy

Time for establishing a call is less Time for establishing a call is more.

9
3.5.1. Fundamental Characteristics of subscriber loop design
The subscriber loop is the most common interface in the network. The fundamental
characteristic of this interface are.
Battery. To enable dc signalling and to provide bias current for carbon microphone, a
battery of about- 48 V is connected to subscriber loop at exchange.

Overvoltage protection. Protection of equipment and personal from lightning strikes

and power line induction or shots.
dharm
Ringing. Application of a 20 Hz signal at 86 V rms for ringer excitation.
Supervision. Supervise the network by detecting the off hook/on hook and flow/no-
flow dc current.
Coding. In the case of digital end office, analog to digital coding and digital to analog
decoding functions necessary.
Hybrid. For two wire to four wire conversion, hybrid in necessary.
Test. Line test toward the subscriber disconnection of the switch.
The first letter of the above characteristics are coined together which is commonly known
as BORSCHT.

And SLIC diagram on page 83

3.5.2. Limiting Factors of Subscriber Loop Design

There are two limiting factors we have to consider while designing a subscriber loop. First one
is the attenuation.
The attenuation limit of thesubscriber loop is normally 6 dB.
The second limiting factor is voltage drop.
Subscriber line signaling
 4

Switching System Components

 Switching matrix
 Controller
 Database
 Line circuits
 Trunk circuits
 Common equipment

Characteristics of Switching Systems

  Blocking networks
o Older networks with fewer paths than terminations so all users
cannot be served simultaneously
 Non-blocking networks
o Enable a connection independently of the amount of traffic
 Virtually non-blocking networks
o Compromise between blocking and non-blocking networks

Key Terms in Switching Systems

 Common control systems

o Translation of the telephone number, automatic call routing, digit
conversions, and trunk signaling
 Direct control systems
o Lack alternate routing and digit translation capabilities
 Virtually non-blocking
o Not totally non-blocking but provides enough paths so users are
rarely blocked
 Busy Hour Call Attempts (BHCA)
o The number of calls the system can handle during peak hour
 Concentration or line-to-trunk ratio
o Determines the probability that a call will be completed

1.1.1 Functions of a switching system:

Only one line each

The basic functions that all switching systems must perform are as follows,

1. Attending: The system must be continuously monitoring all lines to

detect call requests. The calling signal is sometimes known as a ‘seize’
signal because it obtains a resource from the exchange.
2. Information receiving: In addition to receiving calls and clearing
signals, the system must receive information from the caller as to the
called line (or other service) required. This is called the address signal.
3. Information processing: The system must process the information
received in order to determine the actions to be performed and to
control these actions. Since both originating and terminating calls are
handled differently for different customers, class of service
information must be processed in addition to the address information.
4. Busy testing: Having processed the received information to determine
the required outgoing circuit, the system must make a busy test to
determine whether it is free or already engaged on another call. If a
call is to a customer with a group of lines to PBX (private branch
exchanges), or to an outgoing junction route, each line in the group is
tested until a free one is found. In an automatic system, busy testing is
also required on trunks between switches in the exchange.
5. Interconnection: For a call between two customers, three connections
are made in the following sequence;
a. A connection to the calling terminal
b. A connection to the called terminal
c. A connection between the two terminals
In the manual system connections, a and b are made at the two
ends of the cord circuit and connection c merely joins them in the cord
circuit. Many automatic systems also complete connection c by joining
a and b at the transmission bridge. However, some modern systems
release the initial connections a and b and establish connection c over
a separate path through the switching network. This is known as call-
back or crank-back. The calling line is called back and the connection
to the called line is cranked back.

6. Alerting: Having made the connection, the system sends a signal to

alert the called subscriber. E.g. by sending ringing current to a
customer’s telephone.
7. Supervision: After the called terminal has answered, the system
continues to monitor the connection in order to be able to clear it
down when the call has ended. When a charge for the call is made by
metering, the supervising circuit sends pulses over the private wire to
operate a meter in the line circuit of the calling customer. When
 automatic ticketing is employed, the system must send the number of
the caller to the supervisory circuit when the connection is setup. This
process is called calling line identification (CLI) or automatic number
identification (ANI). In SPC system, the data for call charging can be
generated by a central processor as it sets up and clears down
connections.
8. Information sending: If the called customer’s line is located on another
exchange, the additional function of information sending is required.
The originating exchange must signal the required address to the
terminating exchange (and possibly to intermediate exchanges if the
call is to be routed through them).

Incoming Outgoing

Trunk
Trunk
interface
interface
J

Subscriber Subscriber u
Switching
line interface line
n
network interface
c
Service circuit Service circuit
interface interface
Trunk
circuit
scanning
Service and and
service line Control distributor
scanning and units
Operator console
distributor units
To incoming trunks

Fig 2. Elements of a switching system

Digital Switch Advantages

  Automatic test reduces staff costs significantly
o Predominant cost saving in many cases!!
 Feature-rich, increases income of public telephone company by
selling optional features (e.g. Call waiting, conference, etc.)
 Inter-works with digital trunks (T-1 etc.) without use of channel
banks
 Smaller size allows more CO capacity growth in same building
 Less electric power consumption, reduces operating costs
somewhat

________________________________

Ye nhi krna in red

1.1.2 Advantages/disadvantages of automatic switching systems compared

to manual telephony:
In automatic telephony, connections between two subscribers are
established without the help of human operator.

The following are the main advantages;

1. In a manual exchange, the subscriber needs to communicate with the

operator and a common language becomes an important factor. In
multilingual areas this aspect may pose problems. On the other hand,
the operation of an automatic exchange is language independent.
2. A greater degree of privacy is obtained in automatic exchanges as no
operator is normally involved in setting up and monitoring a call.
3. Establishment and release of calls are faster in automatic exchanges. In
a manual exchange, an operator takes few minutes to notice the end
of conversation and release the circuits. This could be very annoying
particularly to the business subscribers who may like to make a
number or calls in quick succession.
4. In an automatic exchange, the time required to establish and release a
call remains more or less the same irrespective of the load on the
system or the time of the day. In a manual system, this may not be
true.
5. Automatic exchanges can be updated.
The following are the main disadvantages;
 1. A manual exchange switchboard is less costly and hence cheaper to
install. An automatic exchange is much costlier.
2. A manual exchange is simpler to maintain and requires less skilled staff
for its maintenance. Automatic exchange is costlier to maintain as it
requires skilled staff.
There are three types of automatic exchanges now operating in various parts
of the world. They are,

1. Crossbar system
2. Strowger or Step by step system
3. Electronic exchange

10

Elements of communication switching systems.

Only telephon n comp
Only definitions of following
1.5. CRITERIA FOR THE DESIGN OF TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEM (only
names)
Grade of Service.

Blocking criteria.
Delay criteria.
.
Congestion.
.
1. Time congestion.
.
2. Call congestion.
Measure of GOS.

And table iza mentioned

11
Line coding explained by nida and previous semester 6
12
Pages sent
13 and 17

. The relation
betweenerlang and CCS is given by
1E = 36 CCS = 3600 CS = 60 CM
14
15 sent page
16
All numericals