Early Childhood Educ J (2012) 40:79–86
DOI 10.1007/s10643-011-0496-3
Teaching Practices that Promote Motor Skills in Early Childhood
Settings
Leah E. Robinson • E. Kipling Webster •
S. Wood Logan • W. Amarie Lucas •
Laura T. Barber
Published online: 1 December 2011
 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011
Abstract Early childhood educators, especially those in
preschool centers, are often expected to design and
implement movement programs. However, these individ-
uals may not have been taught these skills during their
education. The purpose of this study was to determine if
early childhood majors could successfully be taught to
implement a mastery climate instructional approach to
promote motor skill development to preschool-age chil-
dren. Twenty undergraduate Early Childhood Education
majors, who completed a Motor Development Across the
School Years course, designed and implemented a move-
ment program to develop preschoolers’ locomotor and
object control skills. Fourteen preschoolers participated in
an 11-week movement program. Preschoolers’ motor per-
formance was assessed with the Test of Gross Motor
Development—2nd Edition prior to and following the
intervention. Results indicate significant improvements in
total performance (p \ .05) and locomotor skills
(p = .037). Findings indicate that with guidance and
training, early childhood majors can effectively design and
implement a mastery-based movement program that
enhances motor skill competence. The findings also dem-
onstrate the need and value for early childhood majors to
receive training in the design and implementation of
movement programs. This paper provides a conceptual
framework and practical recommendations to assist teach-
ers and educators with implementing a mastery climate
movement programs.
L. E. Robinson (&)
E. K. Webster
S. W. Logan

W. A. Lucas
L. T. Barber
Department of Kinesiology, Auburn University,
2050 Memorial Coliseum, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
e-mail: lerobinson@auburn.edu
Keywords Movement program
Motor development

Mastery motivation
Early childhood
Motor skills
Introduction
Movement and physical activity contribute to a child’s
quality of life (Piek et al. 2008), enhance intellectual
development and academic achievement (Dwyer et al.
2001; Tremblay et al. 2000), and are associated with a
healthy body weight (Logan and Getchell 2010; Logan
et al. 2011b). Children learn by exploring their environ-
ment through movement (Clark 2007). Movement is the
catalyst that supports their interaction with others and their
surroundings. In early childhood, movement is based on the
performance of motor skills (i.e., fundamental motor skills)
such as running, jumping, throwing, and catching. Motor
skills are the building blocks for more advanced movement
(Clark and Metcalfe 2002) and are critical toward a child’s
current and future participation in movement-related
experiences (i.e., physical activity and sports; Clark 1994).
Due to the critical importance of movement in a child’s
life, several educational agencies support the inclusion of
movement and play programs in early education settings.
The National Association for the Education of Young
Children (NAEYC) is one of those agencies concerned
with upholding the highest level of standards with regard to
early childhood education programs. Accreditation by
NAEYC requires that programs provide quality care in a
number of different areas including the facilitation of
physical development through structured movement expe-
riences (NAEYC 2008). Furthermore, the Council on
Physical Education for Children (COPEC 1992) encour-
ages teachers to provide instruction that is developmentally
and instructionally appropriate to the learner. Teachers
123
80
need to provide young children with learning experiences
that recognize individual differences while providing
accommodations for the developmental level of all the
students. It is important that early childhood educators
implement the most effective teaching practices that pro-
vide learning opportunities and promote success for all
students.
Additionally, it is imperative that educators be mindful
that children in a given classroom will demonstrate a range
of motor skill abilities and will learn at different rates. For
instance, not every child in a class will be able to strike a
pitched ball with a bat. This task might be too advanced or
below one’s developmental skill level. This task requires
modification for success and learning to occur. To modify
this task, a teacher can incorporate a larger ball, a ball that
is placed on a batting tee, or a wider bat to decrease the
level of difficulty. Also, the instructional approach can be
manipulated to provide all children the opportunity to work
and learn at their own pace of skill development.
Early childhood movement programs provide children
the opportunity to develop basic movement patterns that
lead to the acquisition of more advanced and sport-specific
skills. Evidence suggests that early childhood teachers may
not be prepared to implement high-quality movement
programs (Breslin et al. 2008). It is unclear if early child-
hood educators receive the necessary amount of training
and experience during undergraduate studies or profes-
sional development courses to effectively implement
movement programs. Therefore, it is imperative to provide
evidence-based research so training programs can suc-
cessfully prepare future classroom teachers with the nec-
essary knowledge and skills needed to design and
implement high-quality movement programs.
What is Mastery Climate?
Mastery climate is an instructional approach that has been
used within various classroom, sport, and physical educa-
tion settings and provides developmentally appropriate
instruction in a success-oriented environment. The
instructional approach supports that learning is driven by
and through a child’s motivation (Ames 1992a, b; Nicholls
1984). Children either take a performance goal orientation
or a mastery goal orientation approach toward learning
(Ames 1992a, b). A performance goal orientation is asso-
ciated with the desire to demonstrate competence to others
and views ability level as the contributing factor to the
development of competence. Also, performance is based
on comparison to normative standards (i.e. others; Ames
and Archer 1988). If performance goals are emphasized,
individuals tend to exhibit maladaptive motivational strat-
egies such as attributing failure to ability, negative affect,
and a decrease in task persistence (Ames 1992b; Ames and
123
Early Childhood Educ J (2012) 40:79–86
Archer 1988; Elliot and Dweck 1988). A mastery goal
orientation is associated with the desire to increase com-
petence through learning for the purpose of mastering tasks
and supports that effort and hard work lead to positive
outcomes. Performance goal orientation is based on com-
parison to self-referenced standards (Ames 1992a, b;
Dweck and Leggett 1988). If mastery goals are salient,
children tend to use adaptive motivational strategies, seek
out challenges, and display positive outcomes of cognition
and affect such as enjoyment (Ames and Archer 1988).
Mastery learners are characterized by the desire to develop
and acquire new skills. The individuals are intrinsically
motivated, which leads to progress and eventual mastery of
the skill.
Mastery climate is a child-centered and high autonomy
(e.g., independence) instructional approach and believes
that children should not have learning situations imposed
on them (Ames 1992a, b). This learning approach
encourages children to navigate their own learning expe-
rience. Mastery climate supports that children in this
environment become knowledgeable of their own devel-
opmental status, and that learners will select tasks that meet
their developmental needs (Maehr 1983). Various devel-
opmentally appropriate tasks, which range in difficulty
level, are provided and children choose their desired path
of engagement and learning. Mastery climate uses a scaf-
folding approach where the teacher models the desired
learning strategy or task, then gradually shifts responsi-
bility to the child.
The approach centers around six key structures; task,
authority, recognition, grouping, evaluation, and time;
better known as TARGET (Epstein 1988, 1989). In gen-
eral, the TARGET structure provides children with:
• High variety of challenging and novel tasks
• High participation in instructional decisions
• Option to establish and modify rules
• Self and private recognition
• Choice of grouping
• Flexible choice of activity station
• No time restriction per station
A step-by-step guide of how to implement the TARGET
structure in a classroom is located in the section titled:
‘‘Getting Started … How to Implement ‘Mastery’ in your
Learning Environment.’’
Does Mastery Motivational Climate Work?
Research indicates that a mastery climate is an effective
instructional approach that promotes positive attitudes and
self-perception towards movement, social interaction,
problem-solving skills, and higher participation in physical
activity (Robinson 2011; Robinson and Goodway 2009;
Early Childhood Educ J (2012) 40:79–86
Robinson et al. 2010). With regard to motor skill devel-
opment, participation in a mastery climate improves fun-
damental motor skills in young children (Martin et al.
2009; Robinson and Goodway 2009; Valentini and Rudisill
2004). This approach also leads to higher retention of
motor skill learning (Robinson and Goodway 2009;
Valentini and Rudisill 2004). The literature suggests that
mastery climates result in developmental changes in pre-
schoolers’ motor skills (Martin et al. 2009; Robinson and
Goodway 2009; Valentini and Rudisill 2004). However, all
of these interventions have been conducted and imple-
mented by trained researchers and not by practitioners or
practitioners-in-training. From a practical standpoint, a
mastery climate is effective and facilitates many benefits to
children. Thus, it is important to determine the feasibility
of training future early childhood teachers to implement a
mastery climates movement programs. Therefore, the
purpose of this study was to determine if Early Childhood
Education majors could be trained to successfully imple-
ment a mastery climate movement program that promotes
motor skill development in preschool-age children.
Methods
Participants and Setting
Fourteen children (8 boys; 6 girls) between the ages of
3–5 years old (M = 4.61 ± 0.46 years) from a university-
based early learning center in the southeast region of the
United States participated in the study. In this sample, 6
children were Caucasian (42.9%), 6 were Asian (42.9%), 1
was African American (7.1%), and 1 was of mixed decent
(7.1%).
Movement Program
An 11-week movement program was implemented to
improve fundamental motor skills. The program specifi-
cally focused on the following motor skills: running,
jumping, sliding, galloping, leaping, hopping, striking,
dribbling, kicking, throwing, catching, and underhand
rolling. The movement program consisted of 22 sessions
(two per week) each lasting for 30 min. Each session
included a 3-min warm-up, 24-min of movement instruc-
tion, and a 3-min cool down. The movement program
lasted a total of 660 with 528 min dedicated to motor skill
instruction. Motor skill instruction included time for
teaching the critical elements of the motor skills, intro-
duction of the motor skills, and skill practice. For each
session, two motor skill activities (i.e., stations) were
available to the preschoolers. Each station provided three
levels of difficulty (i.e., low, moderate, and high) for each
81
motor skill activity. For example, for a striking station,
children could strike a stationary large ball off of a tee
(low), strike a stationary small to mid-sized ball off of a tee
(moderate), or strike a tossed or pitched ball (high). Thus,
learners had six activities (i.e., two skills at three levels of
difficulty) available to them on each intervention day.
Following the theoretical approach of a mastery climate,
the teacher was a facilitator of learning and children were
provided with optimal control of their engagement in the
movement program. They were allowed to choose which
activity to engage in, the amount of time spent within an
activity, the level of difficulty within that activity, and
choice of whom to engage with (alone, with a partner, or in
small groups).
Motor Skill Instruction
The intervention was supervised by two trained Ph.D.
students in Kinesiology. Twenty Early Childhood
Education majors who completed a course titled ‘‘Motor
Development during the School Years’’ served as the
instructors of the movement program. The semester-long,
15-week course focused on the design and implementation
of developmentally appropriate motor skill activities and
experiences for preschool-age children. During this time,
the Early Childhood Education majors were trained in the
implementation of a mastery climate and observed the
execution of this instructional approach. The student
majors were placed into groups under the guidance of two
doctoral students and a professor and implemented a
mastery climate preschool movement program.
Instrumentation
All children completed the Test of Gross Motor Develop-
ment-2nd edition (TGMD-2; Ulrich 2000) pre- and post-
movement program to assess the improvement of motor
skill development. The TGMD-2 is a qualitative assess-
ment and includes two subscales: locomotor and object
control skills. The locomotor subscale assesses the ability
to run, gallop, hop, leap, horizontal jump, and slide. The
object control subscale assesses the ability to throw, catch,
dribble, kick, strike, and underhand roll a ball. Children
completed one practice trial and two formal trials. For each
formal trial, a child received a zero if a performance cri-
terion was not met and a one if a criterion was met. Scores
were summed and converted to age and gender specific
percentile scores according to the TGMD-2 manual (Ulrich
2000). Children were videotaped during data collection and
the primary investigator scored each child through video
analyses. Intra-rater reliability ([90%) was established by
an independent rater.
123
82
Procedures
Institutional review board approval, parental consent, and
child assent were obtained for this research project prior to
data collection. Overall, children were included for data
analyses if they had no physical, intellectual, or develop-
mental disability, which would inhibit the understanding of
instructions and completion of the motor skill assessment.
On the day of assessment, children entered the motor
development laboratory and were provided with an over-
view of the TGMD-2. Data collection occurred on two
separate days and each child completed one subscale of the
TGMD-2 per day. Immediately following the movement
program, the same procedure was followed to administer a
post-assessment of the TGMD-2.
Data Analysis
Three paired sample t tests were conducted to determine
pre- and post-intervention changes of motor skill devel-
opment. Changes on total performance of the TGMD-2 and
each subscale (object control and locomotor skills) were
examined. Due to the small sample size and exploratory
nature of the study, no adjustment for alpha level was
calculated. Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
version 17.0.1 for Windows was used for data analyses.
Results
Children’s mean percentile values at pre-intervention were
as follows: object control skills (M = 30.7; SD = 21.9);
locomotor skills (M = 28.7; SD = 23.7); and total
TGMD-2 performance (M = 26.8; SD = 23.7). At post-
intervention, mean percentile values were as follows:
object control skills (M = 41.7; SD = 26.2); locomotor
skills (M = 36.5; SD = 23.7); and total TGMD-2 perfor-
mance (M = 37; SD = 27.7). A paired samples t test
revealed a significant improvement in mean percentile on
total performance of the TGMD-2 from pre- to post-
intervention (t(13) = 3.0, p \ .05). Two additional paired
samples t tests indicated a significant improvement in
locomotor skills (t(13) = 1.9, p = .037), and a non-sig-
nificant improvement in object control skills (t(13) = 2.3,
p = .079). See Fig. 1 for a visual representation of
improvement from pre- to post-intervention on total per-
formance of the TGMD-2.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to determine if Early
Childhood Education early childhood majors could be
123
Early Childhood Educ J (2012) 40:79–86
Fig. 1 Results indicate improvement in TGMD-2 scores at pre- and
post-intervention for boys, and girls separately
trained to successfully implement a mastery climate
movement program that promotes motor skill development
in preschool-age children. Our results suggest that with
instruction, guidance, and direction, Early Childhood
Education majors are effective in understanding the con-
cepts to teach a mastery climate movement program.
Specifically, the majors were able to design and implement
a mastery climate movement program that improved pre-
schoolers’ motor skills. Our findings support that training
required to implement a mastery climate in a movement
program setting can be provided within a short time frame.
Early childhood educators are expected to have knowledge
concerning children’s growth and maturational patterns
and processes. Thus, it seems feasible that only a few hours
is sufficient for educators to learn the theoretical principles
of a mastery climate and how to implement this climate in
early childhood populations.
A central component of Piaget’s developmental theory
of learning (i.e. adaptation) is the importance of partici-
pation of the learner. Piaget asserted that learners must be
active in the environment and not treated as if they were
empty vessels (London 1988). Adaptation occurs through
assimilation, the incorporation of new events into preex-
isting knowledge; and accommodation, changing existing
knowledge to integrate new information (Shaffer and Kipp
2010). Participation in a mastery-based movement program
provides the opportunity for young learners to learn new
skills through assimilation and accommodation. For
example, a novice mover may not understand how to throw
an object using a mature form of movement due to limited
previous experiences. However, participation in a devel-
opmentally appropriate movement program that provides
task variations and several situations to practice a motor
skill allows a child to build a repertoire (i.e. assimilation)
of experiences. As a result of practice, new knowledge is
Early Childhood Educ J (2012) 40:79–86 83

integrated into past experiences and children are able to these principles for the implementation of physical activity
apply the skill of throwing to novel situations (i.e. and motor skill development programs (Robinson and
accommodation). Piaget also emphasized the importance of Goodway 2009; Valentini and Rudisill 2004). The TAR-
active learning environments and a learner-centered GET structure provides a conceptual framework for cre-
approach (London 1988). A mastery motivational climate ating a mastery climate in the learning environment. 1.
encourages children to make engagement related decisions
1. The TASK dimension refers to the design of the
while teachers serve as a guide to stimulate children’s
learning activities/environment, task structure, and
interest. Specifically, mastery climates encourages children
lesson (Epstein 1989). This structure specifically
to explore and learn on their own. Furthermore, a mastery
relates to how the tasks are presented to the learner
climate endorses success for children of all skill levels. In a
(Ames 1992a, b). Epstein (1989) insists that a mastery
mastery-based movement program children are encouraged
climate only emerges when the activity involves a
to explore, question, experiment, search, and discover their
variety of tasks for the learning experience. Addition-
own solutions to become a skilled mover.
ally, the learner must find the task challenging,
There were limitations to the present study. The precise
interesting, and be able to make his/her own decisions
number of hours required for training was not recorded.
as it relates to task engagement. The task component in
This would have provided critical information with regard
a mastery climate challenges all learners through the
to specific recommendations of the amount of time
implementation of motivating tasks and offering a
required for early childhood educators to learn how to
variety of tasks at various levels of difficulty to meet
implement a mastery climate. Additionally, there was no
the needs and interests of the learning.
assessment on student learning or outcome behaviors of the
2. AUTHORITY relates to the interaction of the children
Early Childhood Education majors; only motor skill per-
and teacher in decision making within the learning
formance of the preschool children was assessed as an
environment (Epstein 1989). Often in a learning envi-
outcome measure. Future studies should emphasize the
ronment, authority or the ‘‘decision-making process’’ is
teacher training aspect, but first it was imperative to test the
made by the teacher with little input from the child. In a
feasibility of training individuals to effectively implement
mastery climate, authority is fostered by allowing
a preschool movement program. The next phase of research
children to actively participate in choices and decisions
needs to focus more on the teacher training aspect and
that relate to learning. Providing children with authority
provide more specific details to support replication of the
increases engagement within the learning environment
training program. Another limitation is the small sample
(Grolnick and Ryan 1987). The children’s authority
size. Generalizations regarding the effectiveness of a stu-
makes the learner responsible for her/his own learning
dent-led mastery climate movement programs to large
and shifts the locus of control from the teacher to the
groups of children should not be made. Finally, there was
student, which encourages autonomy.
no control group to allow comparison of the benefits of a
3. The RECOGNITION structure focuses on informal
mastery climate to another teaching approach or to no
and formal rewards, incentives, and praise that are
participation in a movement program. However, a recent
used and distributed by teachers to facilitate motiva-
meta-analysis suggests little to no improvement in motor
tion (Ames 1992a, b). Within a mastery climate, the
skill performance in children assigned to a control group of
teacher must be aware of providing individual incen-
a motor skill intervention study (Logan et al. 2011a).
tives for students and not to the class as a whole. The
Despite the limitations, we provide initial evidence that
teacher must avoid social comparison of children,
supports the effectiveness of a student-led mastery climate
which is prevalent in many reward systems (e.g.,
intervention to promote motor skills of preschool-age
public posting) in physical education settings. Recog-
children and that this approach could be implemented
nition of accomplishments and efforts take place in a
successfully by early childhood majors.
private forum between the teacher and child. When
recognition is private, the child’s sense of pride and
Getting Started … How to Implement ‘‘Mastery’’ satisfaction is derived from doing his/her best and not
in Your Movement Program from outperforming others. It is also important to
provide opportunities for all students to receive
The key to implementing a mastery climate within your recognition and rewards (Ames 1992a, b).
classroom centers on the six dimensions of TARGET 4. GROUPING as a structure centers around the class-
(Epstein 1988, 1989). These TARGET structures were room environment being an extension of society where
initially developed and designed for classroom environ- individual differences in ability, experience, gender,
ments, but researchers in motor behavior have adapted and background are often used to structure grouping

123
84
patterns. A goal of a mastery climate is to establish an
environment where individual differences are accepted
and all children develop a sense of belonging. Thus,
grouping is child-centered and based on the learner’s
preference. This will allow the formation of heteroge-
neous cooperative groups that foster peer interaction
and use individual and group activity to encourage
children to work effectively with others during an
intervention (Epstein 1989). In a mastery climate, the
formation and disbanding of a group is a free flowing
event. Children are not assigned to a group and groups
form and break up based on the individual desires of
the child.
5. The EVAULATION structure focuses on methods that
are used to assess, monitor, judge, and measure
children’s behavior and learning. Learners are more
likely to adopt a mastery goal orientation when the
evaluation structure is based on improvement, personal
progress, participation, and effort (Ames 1992a, b).
Evaluation must focus on the process of acquiring
knowledge and skills and should help students focus
on the process of learning, not the product of learning.
One means of achieving this form of evaluation is with
portfolio assessments. These types of assessments
document the students’ individual strengths, weak-
nesses, abilities, and skill level (Whorthen 1993).
Thus, to create a mastery climate, it is essential to
implement an evaluation structure that emphasizes the
individual child’s progress and mastery of learning.
6. The TIME structure embodies the appropriateness of
the workload, the pace of instruction, and time
allotment for children to complete learning activities
and assignments (Epstein 1989). From a developmen-
tal perspective, children are motivated for different
reasons and learn at individual rates (Payne and Isaacs
2007). Thus, teachers must create learning experiences
that are tailored to the individual need of the child.
This occurs by allowing children to self-direct their
own pace and is not determined by the teacher or the
progress of other students (Epstein 1989). In a mastery
climate, there is no set time allocated to a specific skill,
rather, each child spends different amounts of time
engaged in skills based on his/her individual
preferences.
Conclusion
The development of fundamental motor skills is associated
with psychological, physiological, and behavioral benefits
(see Lubans et al. 2010 for a review). Evidence suggests
that preschoolers that participate in physical activity and
are competent in fundamental motor skills are more likely
123
Early Childhood Educ J (2012) 40:79–86
to have a healthy body weight (Logan and Getchell 2010;
Logan et al. 2011b; Trost et al. 2003). The weight status of
children is a concern for not only the United States, but
also for countries around the world. Data from the World
Health Organization suggest that about 42 million children
under the age of five are overweight worldwide (WHO
2010). Although the exact etiology of childhood obesity is
complex, physical inactivity is a component. For children
to engage in physical activity they need to possess basic
competence in fundamental motor skills, and children learn
fundamental motor skills through well-designed and plan-
ned movement programs. Research indicates that mastery
climates are an effective approach (Martin et al. 2009;
Robinson 2011; Robinson and Goodway 2009; Valentini
and Rudisill 2004).
Furthermore, researchers have provided consistent evi-
dence that participation in a mastery-based movement
program results in positive changes in children’s self-per-
ceptions (Robinson et al. 2009; Valentini and Rudisill
2004), fundamental motor skill development (Amui 2006;
Martin et al. 2009; Robinson and Goodway 2009), and
greater engagement of physical activity (Parish et al. 2007;
Wadsworth et al. 2010. It is important to note that the
literature indicates that boys tend to display higher motor
competence compared to girls (Barnett et al. 2009; Graf
et al. 2004). For these findings, boys did demonstrate more
proficient motor skills, but the differences were not sig-
nificant. Thus, early childhood education teachers should
be aware of this difference and be mindful of encouraging
girls to participate and learn during a planned movement
program. Given the concern of childhood obesity, it is
important for research to provide recommendations of the
best teaching practices that promote positive health-related
outcomes.
Mastery motivational climate is an effective instruc-
tional method that fosters a child-centered achievement
environment. This instructional approach provides children
with a variety of tasks and freedom of choice with
emphasis on learning at an individual level. A recent meta-
analysis provides evidence that the ability to make choices
increases intrinsic motivation, effort, task persistence, and
perceived competence of children (Patall et al. 2008).
Providing choice to children is at the core of promoting a
mastery climate in early childhood educational settings.
While it is acknowledged that teachers must have class-
room structure, especially when providing children the
opportunity to engage in physical activity and develop
motor skills, children should be provided as many oppor-
tunities within that structure to make choices related to
engagement. A major limitation of previous research is that
only researchers have implemented mastery-based move-
ment programs. Findings of the present study suggest that
not only researchers but Early Childhood Education majors
Early Childhood Educ J (2012) 40:79–86
can also promote motor skill development through devel-
opmentally and instructionally appropriate movement
programs. Overall, a mastery climate is an innovative and
exceptional pedagogy for teaching children motor skills
and encouraging physical activity. Early childhood edu-
cators can rejuvenate a movement program based on
principles of mastery learning. Such programs not only
give young children the greatest opportunity to discover the
benefits of movement and physical activity for themselves
but also hold promise for shaping an enduring commitment
to more healthy, active ways of living.
References
Ames, C. (1992a). Achievement goals, motivational climate, and
motivational processes. In G. C. Roberts (Ed.), Motivation in
sport and exercise (pp. 161–176). Champaign, IL: Human
Kinetics.
Ames, C. (1992b). Classroom: Goals, structures, and student moti-
vation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 261–271.
Ames, C., & Archer, J. (1988). Achievement goals in the classroom:
Students’ learning strategies and motivation processes. Journal
of Educational Psychology, 80, 260–267.
Amui, H. N. (2006). The effects of two instructional approaches on
the object control skill of children considered disadvantaged.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University,
Columbus, OH.
Barnett, L. M., van Beurden, E., Morgan, P. J., Brooks, L. O., &
Beard, J. R. (2009). Childhood motor skill proficiency as a
predictor of adolescent physical activity. Journal of Adolescent
Health, 44, 252–259.
Breslin, C. M., Morton, J. R., & Rudisill, M. E. (2008). Implementing
a physical activity curriculum into the school day: Helping early
childhood teachers meet the challenge. Early Childhood Educa-
tion Journal, 35, 429–437.
Clark, J. E. (1994). Motor development. In V. S. Ramachandran (Ed.),
Encyclopedia of human behavior (Vol. 3, pp. 163–190). San
Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Clark, J. E. (2007). On the problem of motor skill development.
Journal of Physical Education Recreation & Dance, 78(5),
39–44.
Clark, J. E., & Metcalfe, J. S. (2002). The mountain of motor
development: A metaphor. In J. E. Clark & J. H. Humphrey
(Eds.), Motor development: Research and review (Vol. 2,
pp. 62–95). Reston, VA: National Association for Sport and
Physical Education.
Council on Physical Education for Children. (1992). Retrieved April
15, 2006, from http://www.aahperd.org/copec.
Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to
motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95(2),
256–273.
Dwyer, T., Sallis, J. F., Blizzard, L., Lazarus, R., & Dean, K. (2001).
Relation of academic performance to physical activity and
fitness in children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 13, 225–238.
Elliot, E. S., & Dweck, C. S. (1988). Goals: An approach to
motivation and achievement. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 54(1), 5–12.
Epstein, J. L. (1988). Effective schools or effective students? Dealing
with diversity. In R. Hawkins & B. MacRae (Eds.), Policies for
America’s public schools (pp. 89–126). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
85
Epstein, J. L. (1989). Family structures and student motivation: A
developmental perspective. In C. Ames & R. Ames (Eds.),
Research on motivation in education (Vol. 3, pp. 259–295). San
Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Graf, C., Koch, B., Kretschmann-Kandel, E., Falkowski, G., Christ,
H., & Coburger, S. (2004). Correlation between BMI, leisure
habits and motor abilities in childhood (CHILT-Project). Inter-
national Journal of Obesity, 28, 22–26.
Grolnick, W. S., & Ryan, R. M. (1987). Autonomy in children’s
learning: An experimental and individual difference investiga-
tion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 890–898.
Logan, S. W., & Getchell, N. (2010). The relationship between motor
proficiency and body composition in children with and without
dyslexia. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 81(4),
518–523.
Logan, S. W., Robinson, L. E., Wilson, A. E., & Lucas, W. A.
(2011a). Getting the fundamentals of movement: A meta-
analysis of the effectiveness of motor skill interventions in
young children as assessed by the Test of Gross Motor
Development. Child: Care, Health and Development. doi:
10.1111/j.1365-2214.2011.01307.x.
Logan, S. W., Scrabis-Fletcher, K., Modlesky, C., & Getchell, N.
(2011b). The relationship between motor skill proficiency and
body mass index in preschool children. Research Quarterly for
Exercise and Sport, 82(3), 442–448.
London, C. (1988). A Piagetian constructivist perspective on curric-
ulum development. Reading Improvement, 27, 82–95.
Lubans, D. R., Morgan, P. J., Cliff, D. P., Barnett, L. M., & Okely, A.
D. (2010). Fundamental movement skills in children and
adolescents. Sports Medicine, 40(12), 1019–1035.
Maehr, M. L. (1983). On doing well on science. Why Johnny no
longer excels, why Sarah never did. In S. G. Paris, G. M. Olson,
& H. W. Stevenson (Eds.), Learning and motivation in the
classroom (pp. 179–210). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Martin, E. H., Rudisill, M. E., & Hastie, P. A. (2009). Motivational
climate and fundamental motor skills performance in a natural-
istic physical education setting. Physical Education and Sport
Pedagogy, 14, 227–240.
National Association for the Education of Young Children. (2008).
Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood pro-
gram serving children from birth through age 8: A position
statement of the National Association for the Education of Young
Children. Washington, D.C: National Association for the
Education of Young Children.
Nicholls, J. G. (1984). Achievement motivation: Conceptions of
ability, subjective experience, task choice, and performance.
Psychological Review, 91, 328–346.
Parish, L. E., Rudisill, M. E., & St Onge, P. M. (2007). Mastery
motivational climate: Influence on physical play heart rate and
intensity in African American toddlers. Research Quarterly for
Exercise and Sport, 78, 171–178.
Patall, E. A., Cooper, H., & Robinson, J. C. (2008). The effects of
choice on intrinsic motivation and related outcomes: A meta-
analysis of research findings. Psychological Bulletin, 134(2),
270–300.
Payne, V. G., & Isaacs, L. D. (2007). Human motor development: A
lifespan approach (7th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Piek, J. P., Dawson, L., Smith, L. M., & Gasson, N. (2008). The role
of early fine and gross motor development on later motor and
cognitive ability. Human Movement Science, 27, 668–681.
Robinson, L. E. (2011). Effect of a mastery climate motor program on
object control skills and perceived physical competence in
preschoolers. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 82,
355–359.
Robinson, L. E., & Goodway, J. D. (2009). Instructional climates in
preschool children who are at-risk. Part I: Object-control skill
123
86
development. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 80,
533–542.
Robinson, L. E., Reynolds, J., Wadsworth, D. D., & Logan, S. W.
(2010). The effects of physical play instructional climates on
physical activity in preschool-age children [Abstract]. Science
and Sports, 25, 4–13.
Robinson, L. E., Rudisill, M. E., & Goodway, J. D. (2009).
Instructional climates in preschool children who are at-risk. Part
II: Perceived physical competence. Research Quarterly for
Exercise and Sport, 80, 543–551.
Shaffer, D. R., & Kipp, K. (2010). Developmental psychology:
Childhood and adolescence (8th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA:
Brooks/Cole.
Tremblay, M. S., Inman, J. W., & Willms, J. D. (2000). The
relationship between physical activity, self-esteem, and aca-
demic achievement in 12-year-old children. Pediatric Exercise
Science, 12, 312–324.
Trost, S. G., Sirard, J. R., Dowda, M., Pfeiffer, K. A., & Pate, R. R.
(2003). Physical activity in overweight and nonoverweight
123
Early Childhood Educ J (2012) 40:79–86
preschool children. International Journal of Obesity, 27,
834–839.
Ulrich, D. A. (2000). The test of gross motor development (2nd ed.).
Austin, TX: Pro-ed.
Valentini, N. C., & Rudisill, M. E. (2004). Motivational climate,
motor-skill development, and perceived competence: Two
studies of developmentally delayed kindergarten children. Jour-
nal of Teaching in Physical Education, 23, 216–234.
Wadsworth, D., Robinson, L. E., Rudisill, M., Logan, S. W., Morera,
M., & Daly, C. (2010). The influence of motivational climates on
the physical activity in rural, African American school-age
children [Abstract]. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology,
32(suppl), S52.
Whorthen, B. R. (1993). Critical issues that will determine the future
of alternative assessments. Phi Kappan Delta, 74(6), 444–454.
World Health Organization. (2010). Childhood overweight and
obesity on the rise. Retrieved November 7, 2011, from http://
www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/childhood/en/index.html.