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Charlotte Mew Homosexuality
Charlotte Mew Homosexuality
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"The strangest pain to bear":
Corporeality and Fear of Insanity
in Charlotte Mew's Poetry
JESSICA WALSH
217
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2181 VICTORIAN POETRY
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cate strong erotic desire for women.15 She embodies what Suzanne Pharr
describes as "a non-normative sexuality which transcends the binary dis-
tinction homosexual/heterosexual to include all who feel disenfranchised
by dominant sexual norms."16 Through her own eyes, however, she must
have seemed lost, adrift between categories. Second-wave lesbian femi-
nist theory, which has traditionally embraced the concept of choice - re-
ferring frequently to the "woman-identified woman"17 - seems similarly dis-
tant from Mew's situation. By all accounts, her difference was not a politi-
cal or social choice intended to advance awareness of alternative lifestyles,
nor was it a form of liberating transgression. While reading Mew's poetry
through recent queer and lesbian theory allows for a deeper understanding
of the subtext of her often complicated work, one cannot escape awareness
that lesbianism in Mew's time was considered by most medical profession-
als to be a mental illness, not a subversive lifestyle.
Mew's lesbianism only intensified her feelings of isolation and alien-
ation, and she did little to counteract a progressive sense of loneliness.
Women who were breaking free from the domestic tradition were forming
personal and professional networks throughout London; from association
with other single women, Mew could have located a sense of belonging,
had she chosen to do so. In the early years of the twentieth century, single
women could pursue one of several opening careers. Women with a desire
to work outside the home could find jobs more easily than their foremothers.
Single life was, for the first time, emerging as a real, if challenging, possi-
bility for women in search of an alternative to the domestic norm. This
lifestyle was embodied in the New Woman, an archetype perfected in nov-
els like those of Sarah Grand and subsequently imitated by young women
in need of role models. The New Woman, according to Laura Stempel
Mumford, was "middle class but worked for a living, often at a job newly
opened to women. She . . . eschewed marriage as imprisoning, engaged in
physical exercise, smoked and drank openly, advocated dress reform, and
even wore men's clothes."18 New Women often undertook some sort of
socially conscious work like nursing or education, and many who did so set
up settlement houses, which were cooperatives of single young women in
the city, close to the people they hoped to help. The New Woman was a
trope of possibilities for women in search of independence and, at the same
time, a supportive community.
Yet the single life was also a difficult and complicated one. Single
women risked being labeled "odd" or "redundant" women - they threw off
the allegedly natural equilibrium of society, according to which each woman
should pair off with a man to found a contented domestic unit. To some,
odd women were perceived as a social problem, since they represented an
anomaly that could negatively influence future generations. New Women
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]ESSICA WALSH 1 223
displacing sexual feelings onto religion. Others claimed that religion could
prevent lunacy. According to Fitzgerald, Mew's cousin believed she "would
have become a Roman Catholic if it hadn't been for the sacrament of
confession. She could not bring herself to that." Late in life, Mew at-
tended mass, but could never characterize herself as a believer (Fitzgerald,
pp. 79, 178). Indeed, she once referred to herself as a "poor infidel" (quoted
in Warner, p. xvi). One can see how she would have been both attracted
to and repelled by the tenets of Roman Catholicism. The strict structure of
Catholicism would have given her a set of rules for dealing with her de-
sires - but confession would have meant admitting those very desires. It
would have demanded an awareness of the body's weaknesses, and that is
something Mew could never allow herself to achieve. Her anxiety regard-
ing her body seemed to segregate her from others. But she also knew that
the potential for happiness lay in a physical relationship with another
woman. Tensions like this led her to remain in the margins, experiencing
her fears and anxieties almost entirely alone.
Just as Mew failed to immerse herself in any ideological community,
so did she shy away from the small cluster of powerful literati who encour-
aged her. She was first published in The Yellow Book in 1894. The short
story "Passed" had immediately caught the eye of publisher Henry Harland,
who described it as "highly remarkable" with "priceless bits of very subtle
observation, of very subtle imagining, and of very subtle wording" (quoted
in Davidow, p. 276). Even at this early, crucial time in her career, Mew was
characteristically contrary. A letter from Harland reveals her unexpected
and heated resistance to suggestions regarding revisions.23 Another letter
sidesteps her apparent request for advance payment. Although Mew did
continue to publish in various journals and periodicals - sometimes using
the almost laughable pen name Charles Catty - her first volume of poetry
did not appear until 1916, when she was forty-seven. Sources conflict as
to how many copies were printed of The Farmer's Bride, but the meager
number fell between 500 and 1000, of which 150 were sold.24 She refused
requests for portraits and biographical information, which could have aug-
mented sales. Despite the small circulation of The Farmers Bride, the book
won her the admiration of many major literary figures. For no known
reason, almost no work written after 1916 exists. It is possible, as Alida
Monro suggests, that she left off writing after that time; but it is also pos-
sible that she made good on her threats to burn writings with which she
was unhappy. Another edition of The Farmer's Bride appeared in 1921
with some additional - but not new - poems. The Rambling Sailor, pub-
lished posthumously in 1929, similarly included a number of previously
unpublished but not recent poems.
The pieces that do remain, however, consistently grapple with issues
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224 I VICTORIAN POETRY
of the body's desires and perceived weaknesses. The body, in Mew's eyes,
engenders flickering moments of hope, but more often, extreme despair
that approaches or results from mental instability. Some of her most intri-
cate work confronts the issue of institutionalization. Only two poems on
the subject were published, both in The Farmer's Bride. In "Ken," one of
Mew's better-known pieces, she explores both personal and social beliefs
regarding the corporeality of insanity. The first stanza's plodding and ir-
regular mixture of tetrameter and pentameter reinforces the images of a
bleak gothic landscape dominated by "a great Church above," an asylum,
and a castle (1. 6). The speaker's voice intensifies as she begins discussing
Ken, an awkward but gentle Wordsworthian "Idiot Boy" who loves the
very townspeople who reject and fear him. Uncomfortable with any form
of difference, the locals consider him mad. An "uncouth bird," he is an
alien presence in a society trained to classify and stratify, a monstrosity in
the eyes of the proverbial angry villagers (1. 23):
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JESSICA WALSH 1 225
any such thing / Was just 'a rose'" (11. 49-5 1 ). The insistent use of synecdo-
che reflects the magnitude of his fundamental abnormality. He is a differ-
ent sort of body, but he also sees bodies differently.
Ken's focus on physicality appears in his religious practices as well,
the only situation in which his anger surfaces. Although he is drawn to
the church to "see the lights," he disrespectfully "fidgets" too much, fre-
quently entering a trance-like state in which he fixates on the Christ fig-
ure and demands, "Take it away" (11. 38, 36, 48). Going so far as to chew
"his rosary to bits," he presents a challenge to the accepted faith (1. 46).
Ken is thus ungodly and godless in his corporeality and insanity; he nei-
ther looks like God nor likes the looks of Him. Christian doctrine has no
place for Ken, but his angry rejection of it sentences him to punishment in
its name. Ken's punishment becomes essential to the maintenance of or-
der and normative behaviors within the town. As a result, Ken is institu-
tionalized, his body comfortingly removed and contained.25
Nevertheless, Ken does not seem entirely inhuman to everyone. One
signal of his humanity lies in "his eyes, which looked at you / As two red,
wounded stars might do" (11. 20-21). For Mew, red is the most crucial of
colors, signifying lost honor, inappropriate desire, and sinful promiscuity.
Red is also the damaging flame and the visible, bloody proof of women's
fertility or fallenness; in "The Quiet House," "Red is the strangest pain to
bear" (1. 29). Read together in the context of post-Darwin psychological
thought, these ostensibly feminine associations acquire a profound mean-
ing when applied to the male figure of Ken. Simply through looking at his
eyes, the reader learns that his madness (a trait itself commonly associated
with the color red) stems from the womb of the mother, the site of original
virtue, sin, desire, fertility, blood, and mental weakness. From the redness
of the mother, Ken gains his only humanizing aspect - his eyes - but also
his horrifying inability to comprehend society as the majority of others do.
For the speaker, however, the conclusion seems less than tidy due to
her enigmatic bond with Ken. Formerly, he had attempted to befriend
her: "once, when I had said / He must not stand and knock outside there
any more, / He left a twig on the mat outside my door" (11. 52-54). But
what Ken sees as a tree full of life, she sees as an annoyance and an intru-
sion. Simple moments of rejection like this one pave the way for his incar-
ceration among the ill. No one will defend him or offer him a home.
Although silent, she is empathetic, and she endeavors to imagine life be-
hind bars, where darkness rules the body. Alluding to one of Ken's fits, the
speaker indicates her fear that he will be mistreated in that house on the
hill, implicitly acknowledging the threat of abuse:
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JESSICA WALSH 1 227
These patients are nothing less than "the incarnate wages of man's sin" (1.
8). All the weakness of humanity, passed on generation after generation
through the mothers, have concentrated in their bodies. The sin, in this
case, is dysgenic reproduction, without which the weaknesses would have
died out long ago. Significant in this image is the idea that a segment of
the population has been "chosen" to embody sinfulness and therefore spare
the remaining majority. Difference is a form of martyrdom; it is a curse
with a redemptive twist.
Despite the speaker's attempt to construct the insane as so entirely
foreign as to constitute another species (11. 10-14), they resist such catego-
rization. The patients have little to offer the townspeople, but "nor do we
to them / Make their life sweet" (11. 13-14). In the only stanza that fully
departs from a neat quatrain of iambic pentameter, the poetic voice crypti-
cally states that the patients' "pulses" may "beat / To fainter music," but
they still beat, indicating an undeniable link between the sane and the
insane. Again, the speaker goes so far as to imagine the self as seen by the
mad others:
The gayest crowd that they will ever pass
Are we to brother-shadows in the lane:
Our windows, too, are clouded glass
To them, yes, every pane! (11. 15-19)
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228 / VICTORIAN POETRY
ness and otherness. It plants the seed of doubt, begging the reader to ques-
tion her own physical and mental health. At the same time, it demon-
strates the speaker's seeming inability to separate herself from the possibly
unstable contents of her physical make-up. Despite her efforts, Mew's po-
etic voice remains perpetually in the "borderland."
The subject of forbidden desire and physical pleasure entrenches
Mew's poetry even further in the borderland. She unmistakably craves
pleasure - the yearning for it saturates her poetry. Yet the same ambiva-
lence regarding the body that causes her simultaneously to fear and iden-
tify with the insane results in the uneasy coexistence of a longing for sexual
pleasure and a belief that the pursuit of it can only cause pain. Critics,
including Val Warner, have argued that Mew fails to embrace her desire
because of homosexuality. However, since lesbianism was considered by
many to be a pathological condition, ambivalence toward passion can be
seen as directly related to Mew's fear of madness. This theme develops
over and over again in Mew's poetry: surrender to pleasure results in end-
less punishment. In "Pecheresse," for example, the female speaker describes
her ardent passion for a sailor who took her virginity - and her anguished
nights of waiting for his return. Standing among sailors' wives and prosti-
tutes, the speaker struggles to justify herself:
Aware that he probably has a woman at every port, she nevertheless views
this sailor as her one true love: "There is but one for such as I / To love, to
hate, to hunger for" (11. 36-37). She laments, "I shall die or perhaps grow
old / Before he comes" (11. 15-16). As the reader accustomed to fallen-
woman narratives knows, he will never come back. He was the worst
choice of lovers, one who leaves her to a life of loneliness and shame. In
this sense, "Pecheresse" parallels some of Mew's recurrent fears and regrets
regarding the choice of romantic pursuits. If she succumbs to her love for
other women, will she find herself outcast and alone? The sailor, once the
speaker's "Paradise," has now become her "Hell" (11. 24, 45). Her desire
has intensified to the point that she has lost track of her faith. The sailor
is her God, displacing her traditional need to confess to the Virgin Mary,
who now seems "as frozen snow" compared to her burning passion (1. 43).
Her inability to maintain her religious focus recalls "Ken," in which ab-
sence of faith functions as an indicator of madness. The pursuit of physical
pleasure has thus taken complete control of her mind, tragically ending in
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JESSICA WALSH I 229
She belongs, in short, to another world which lies beyond the boundaries
of accepted, civilized life. To enter it is a transgression, but she can no
longer resist. By embracing the physical and the erotic, she steps into the
sexually charged "wet, wild wood" (1. 65). In this land of androgynous
pleasure and ecstasy, no desire will be forbidden.
Consistent with Mew's battle with what she perceived to be a trou-
bling body, however, the wet, wild wood is not purely a chance at satisfac-
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230 I VICTORIAN POETRY
tion. Indeed, the speaker voices her ambivalence towards the surrender to
this other world: "Why did they bring me here to make me / Not quite bad
and not quite good, / Why, unless they're wicked, do They want, in spite,
to take me?" (11. 62-64). Here, the longings which have been constructed
as natural - even preferable to the world of turn-of-the-century society -
become more menacing. She recognizes that her desire is not only differ-
ent but also wrong according to social norms. With this, Mew's speaker
shifts to a tone of self-loathing combined with a fear of mental and physi-
cal weakness. The parallel to the process of recognizing and rejecting one's
homosexual desires emerges clearly. As sexual politics of the era dictate,
transgression must lead to punishment. The remarkable aspect of Mew's
poetic voice is that she simultaneously takes on the roles of transgressor
and enforcer. When the speaker saw the changelings' world from inside
the house, it appealed to her. From outside, however, she feels a nostalgia
for the norm: "Now, every night I shall see the windows shining, / The
gold lamp's glow, and the fire's red gleam" (11. 65-66). She begins to under-
stand that she belongs nowhere. The changelings reportedly "feel no pain,"
but the speaker predicts, "I shall always, always be very cold" (11. 70, 72).
In a motif reminiscent of "Pecheresse," once approached, the Heaven be-
comes a self-created Hell from which she "shall never come back again!"
(1. 73). The body, then, is home to desire, but this desire, in turn, is the
road to perpetual torment. As Fitzgerald states, "all passion [is] destruc-
tive" (p. 47).
The title poem of The Farmer's Bride can be seen as a recasting of the
themes of desire, insanity, and corporeality as they appear in "The Change-
ling." In this poem, however, the male speaker describes his naive, child-
like bride who is terrified - justifiably, according to Mew's other works - of
sexual contact:
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JESSICAWALSH/231
chat and play / With birds and rabbits such as they, / So long as men-folk
keep away" (11. 22-24)- During the day, she does her housework quietly
and well, unless a man approaches: '"Not near, not near!' her eyes beseech
/ When one of us comes within reach" (11. 25-26). She endures constant
fear and isolation, but cannot escape her situation. Her displays of distress
and desperation result from her fruitless battle against that reality. But to
others, her insistent denial and odd behaviors suggest mental instability -
after all, who but a madwoman would resist marriage? As a result, she
suffers the proverbial madwoman's fate and "sleeps in the attic there / Alone,
poor maid" (11. 42-43). An equally unpleasant punishment falls on the
farmer, who committed the sin of lusting after an innocent girl. His guilty
desire for his wife, whom he characterizes in vaguely animalistic terms,
overwhelms him to the point that he cannot speak clearly:
Tis but a stair
Betwixt us. Oh! my God! the down,
The soft young down of her, the brown,
The brown of her - her eyes, her hair, her hair! (11. 43-46)
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234 I VICTORIAN POETRY
blood, desire, madness, "[a]nd the crimson haunts you everywhere" (1. 35).
Shut in the house amid death and desire, the speaker simultaneously expe-
riences suffering and joy: "I am burned and stabbed half through, / And the
pain is deadly sweet" (11. 39-40). Indeed, she must cling to this pain, for
once it ends, so does life. Like a strange flower, her "red" soul blooms when
fed on pain and then dies, having "had [its] hour" (1. 36). The pain is
sweet because it is loud and alive, something to cling to amid the madden-
ing quiet of a house in which "nothing lives . . . but the fire" (1. 52). Her
imaginings of her own death, prompted by the tolling of a bell, center on
the complete loss of existence, the idea that the redness, with its slow
persistent burn, has destroyed her. She will have neither a quiet nor a
tortured afterlife, but simply absence, emptiness, an unequivocal loss of
self, which Mizejewski describes as Mew's greatest fear.27
The culmination of Mew's despairing representations of the body
occurs in "Madeleine at Church," an extraordinarily complex poem that
Mizejewski describes as formally illustrative of "Mew's virtuosity with tex-
ture and music" (p. 289). In "Madeleine," Mew confronts the corporeality
of insanity, forbidden desire, and death through a poetic voice at once
desperate and deliberate. Stretching over two hundred lines, Mew's cre-
ative masterpiece concerns a fallen woman who escapes the label "prosti-
tute" only because she has married several times. Eyeing the various icons
and statues crowded into a Catholic church, she weaves a non-linear nar-
rative of her fascinating life, a life of physical desire and incompatible spiri-
tual hunger. Madeleine's journey into the intersection of spirit and body
pushes at the limits of acceptable subject matter, introducing a perspective
on Christianity so unorthodox that one printer refused to set it because he
deemed it blasphemous (Fitzgerald, p. 157). Mew steps into the character
of a woman alienated from the mainstream due to her pursuit of pleasure, a
woman confronting the possibility of spiritual emptiness as well as social
alienation.
Reluctant to turn immediately to the imposing figure of the crucifix,
she kneels before a "plaster saint" - who, like herself, is "Not too divine"
(1. 8). Madeleine comforts herself by thinking that the figure must have
"fallen" before its ascent. As Marina Warner writes, "The Catholic reli-
gion does not admit sins or even faults in its God, nor even in his mother.
The image of human error is relegated to the lesser ranks of the fellowship
of saints . . . who committed sins and then did bitter penitence for them."28
Madeleine imagines the saint's "short stroll about the town," thereby es-
tablishing common ground from which to progress in this spiritual exchange.
Revealing something significant about herself as she expresses her belief in
the power of redemption, she declares to the saint that "anyone can wash
the paint / Off our poor faces, his and mine!" (11. 11, 13-14). A painted
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JESSICA WALSH 1 235
woman, she makes it clear early on in the poem that she has broken and
rejected the rules embraced by the idealized "True Woman," rules which
encouraged "faithfulness, temperance, and motherhood" (Mizejewski, p.
290). She thinks back on her unfaithful past, recalling her husband Monty's
face, "gone suddenly blank and old / The hateful day of the divorce: /
Stuart got his, hands down, of course" (11.18-20). Consistent with Victo-
rian fears of self-perpetuating, ever-worsening wantonness, Madeleine's
lechery early in her life marked the beginning of a long string of lovers,
some of whom she names while others she simply refers to as "boys" (1. 99).
She is not a prostitute, but she is a woman whose desires place her outside
the acceptable categories of wife or spinster. Just as marriage does not suit
her, she imagines that motherhood would be a wrong decision. The code
of True Womanhood speaks to her of a wasted life:
She responds bitterly to the myth of domestic bliss and tranquility, stating
forthrightly that she prefers to spend her earthly time pursuing fulfillment
of earthly desires. Madeleine has thus fallen from her socially prescribed
role into the netherworld of feminine disobedience.
Madeleine refuses to sacrifice herself and sublimate her cravings in
the name of faithfulness, temperance, and motherhood. However, this
refusal is not without ambivalence, and a sense of conflict has plagued her
for as long as she can remember:
We are what we are: when I was half a child I could not sit
Watching black shadows on green lawns and red carnations burning in the
sun,
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236 / VICTORIAN POETRY
Surely You knew when she so touched You with her hair,
Or by the wet cheek lying there,
And while her perfume clung to You from head to feet all through
the day
That You can change the things for which we care,
But even You, unless You kill us, not the way. (11. 181-185)
Affection, desire, and lust cannot be destroyed even by Christ; they can
only be properly channeled. Christ appears as a tolerant and understand-
ing lover who accepts that "She did not love You like the rest, / It was in
her own way, but at the worst, the best" (11. 176-177). He shows mercy to
Mary by giving her an ideal outlet for her passions, a way to live in the
throes of lust but be raised from the socially assigned status of the fallen
woman. The nature of her love does not change, but its object does.
Madeleine envies this method of achieving "peace . . . but passion too" (1.
186). Becoming Christ's lover, like Mary, would resolve her conflicts and
legitimize her desires. One can see the attraction such a concept must hold
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JESSICAWALSHI237
for Mew, who longed for a resolution to her fears regarding what seemed
like pathological, inappropriate desire.
Yet Madeleine knows that this path is closed to her, because Christ
does not appear in a physical form to her. Always grounded in the body,
Madeleine theorizes that physical contact alone enabled the redemption
of Mary: "She was a sinner, we are what we are: the spirit afterwards, but
first, the touch" (1. 199). Her repetition of "we are what we are" signals her
resignation but also her struggle to achieve self-acceptance. She wants
desperately to accept herself; to do this, she must reject Catholicism's tra-
dition of fear and ignore society's perception of her as one of its "scuttled
ships" (1. 26). But at the same time, she wants to be saved by Christ and
made acceptable to others. As Fitzgerald states, "She is willing to believe
and willing to disbelieve, but not able to do either" (Fitzgerald, p. 124).
Despite her yearning, she simply cannot convince herself to sublimate her
preoccupation with the physical and focus on the abstract spiritual rewards
promised to virtuous women by conventional Christianity. She doubts "1/
there were any Paradise beyond this earth" (1. 38, italics mine). She la-
ments the pain many people suffer and states boldly that "one cannot see /
How it shall be made up to them in some serene eternity" (11. 113-114)-
Chances for happiness on earth, Madeleine muses, should not be forgone
in hope of heaven, but neither can the hellish experiences on earth be
redeemed by death. Mew presents an ultimately bleak view of death:
Madeleine intends to rage against the dying of the light, but as she ap-
proaches it, she grows ever more despondent regarding the end of life. Her
years on earth have passed too quickly and without fulfillment. Her mis-
placed desires have ended in disillusionment and decreased social status.
She has aged quickly, seeing the "ghost" of her elderly mother in her mir-
ror, indicating that she fears losing her sense of self , her sanity (1. 96). She
is alone again, having lost all of her lovers. In this moment of desperation,
she has sought Christ's assurance regarding death, convinced the entire
time that he cannot give it to her: "Tell me there will be some one. Who?
/ If there were no one else, could it be You?" (11. 158-159). Recalling again
how Christ never "seemed to notice me," Madeleine absorbs the silence
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238 / VICTORIAN POETRY
with which her desperate plea is met (1. 221). Christ offers her neither
comfort nor an affirmation of faith. She leaves as she came - in doubt.
Doubt, ultimately, overshadows Mew's attempts at locating stability
and peace through her poetry's speakers. Steered by this doubt, the speak-
ers instead reveal Mew's doomed efforts to subdue her fears regarding her
body and its conflicting messages. But in her poetry, Mew creates a tool for
survival, a substitute Christ into which she can temporarily deposit her
frustrations and desires. She undoubtedly fears her own physicality and its
threatening power over her. Mew's gift to future poets and audiences is her
ability to voice her struggle over this fear in the form of intricate, innova-
tive verse.
Notes
1 Charlotte Mew, Charlotte Mew: Collected Poems and Prose, ed. Val Warner (Lon-
don: Carcanet Press with Virago Press, 1981 ). All poems cited are from this edition
and are cited as Warner. Parenthetical citations refer to line numbers according to
my count.
2 John Freeman, "Charlotte Mew," The Bookman 453, no. 76 (June 1929): 145-146.
3 Lorna Keeling Collard, "Charlotte Mew," Contemporary Review 137 (April 1930):
501-508.
4 Penelope Fitzgerald, Charlotte Mew and Her Friends: With a Selection of Her Poems
(Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1988), p. 44
5 Lucy Bland, Banishing the Beast: Sexuality and the Early Feminists (New York: The
New Press, 1995), p. 240.
6 Fitzgerald, p. 2 1 1 . Many Victorians feared premature burial; it was not uncommon
for survivors to ask that a vein or artery in the deceased be cut in order to ensure
that death had irrevocably occurred.
7 Stephen Jay Gould, The Mismeasure of Man (New York: W.W Norton, 1981), p.
75.
8 Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady (New York: Penguin, 1985), p. 112.
9 The notion of "race" in these discussions could refer to a number of things. Some-
times it did refer to skin color, but at other times it suggested Englishness or "civi-
lized" populations.
10 Quoted in Angela Y. Davis, Women, Race and Class (New York: Vintage Books,
1983), pp. 213-214.
1 1 Whether Mew's acceptance of eugenics indicates racist convictions cannot be de-
termined based on existing writings. No Mew scholars have approached this sub-
ject to date.
1 2 Mary C. Davidow, in her unpublished dissertation on Mew ("Charlotte Mew: Biog-
raphy and Criticism," Brown University, 1960), suggests that she had an affair with
Thomas Hardy. However, this speculation has absolutely no support and any at-
tempt to read their friendly, even-toned correspondence as impassioned seems mis-
guided at best. Davidow's later work on Mew attempts to diffuse arguments of
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JESSICA WALSH 1 239
14 Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York:
Routledge, 1990).
15 See, for example, "The Farmer's Bride," which is discussed below.
16 Suzanne Pharr, Homophobia, a Weapon of Sexism (Inverness, California: Charon
Press, 1988), p. 50.
1 7 Discussion of this term seems to originate with Radicalesbians, "The Woman-Iden-
tified Woman," in Radical Lesbians, ed. Anne Koedt and others (New York: Quad-
rangle Books, 1973).
18 Laura Stempel Mumford, "New Woman," in Victorian Britain, ed. Sally Mitchell
(New York: Garland, 1988), p. 539.
19 For example, Mina Murray pokes fun at the New Woman in chapter 8 of Dracula,
describing herself and Lucy as gluttons that day at tea: "I believe we should have
shocked the 'New Woman' with our appetites! Men are more tolerant, bless them!"
20 Eleanor Marx-Aveling and Edward Aveling, Thoughts on Women and Society (1887;
New York: International Publishers, 1987), p. 23.
21 Bland, pp. xviii, 17-18. A good example of this situation was the Men's and Women's
Club, a group of intellectuals who met regularly to discuss sexuality, socialism, and
other issues. But in spite of the repeated urgings of Henrietta Muller, the group
refused to discuss explicitly how women experience and respond to desire. Karl
Pearson, the leader of the group, was also a major figure in eugenics.
22 Alida Monro, Introduction to Collected Poems of Charlotte Mew (London: Gerald
Duckworth, 1953).
23 Her letter does not survive, but Harland responds to it in a pleading tone, as tran-
scribed in Davidow's "Biography and Criticism": "I don't mean in the least that you
should change the substance of the part in question. On the contrary, I think that
is wholly admirable, and I should be sorry to see it touched. . . . No doubt I weary
you: but I should not do so if it weren't for the very great admiration your story as a
whole has compelled in me. . . . All that I say, I beg you to understand, is said only
by way of suggestion. . . . You see, I regard 'Passed' as a very important literary
achievement; so I am anxious that you should make it as nearly perfect as possible,
before we fling it to the critics. They will be sure to abuse it, in any case: but we
don't want to let a single word stand in it which they could abuse with justice."
24 "Charlotte Mew," British Women Writers (New York: Continuum Publishing Co.,
1989), p. 462.
25 Desire for segregation of the mentally disturbed was so great that one of the editors
who reviewed "Ken" refused to publish it because he believed it was contrary to the
public good. See Fitzgerald, p. 47.
26 Suzanne Raitt, "Charlotte Mew and May Sinclair: A Love-Song," CritQ 37, no. 3
(1995): 12.
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240 I VICTORIAN POETRY
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