The United States' Involvement in the Caribbean

Before July 4, 1776, Britain owned 13 colonies along the eastern seaboard of
North America. As sister colonies they traded directly with the British West
Indian colonies up to that point. The North American colonies received
molasses and tropical products such as ginger and pimento from the West
Indian colonies. In exchange they gave them plantation supplies: chiefly
horses and staves for the hogsheads and food items such as flour and
saltfish. This was used to feed the enslaved workers on the estates. They also
received corn, oil, rice and peas.

The 13 British colonies in North America

The cost of feeding the slaves was a daily expense that had to be borne.
There were hundreds of slaves to be fed. This trade or barter kept the cost of
production relatively low for the sugar producers.

On July 4, 1776 the North American colonies declared that they were
independent of Britain. Though they were not recognized as a free and new
nation by Britain until 1783, the trade relationship that they shared with the
British West Indies was immediately severed. Britain's attitude and response
was one of hostility.

Meanwhile her West Indian colonies were suffering. All over slaves were dying
of starvation. New foods such as breadfruit, ackee and mango were
introduced but the slaves refused to eat them.

July 2, 1783

On this date, Britain issues an Order- in -Council which allowed the newly
independent U.S.A. to trade the essential items. The trade could only be
conducted in British ships. The Order-in-Council was to be renewed every
year. She did this mainly because she was receiving less revenue from her
colonies.

The U.S. was not happy about these rules and Ordinances. They decided to
turn to the French West Indies who had an attractive trade offer similar to the
original one with the British West Indies. By the 1790's two thirds of the U.S.
trade with the West Indies came from French colonies.

In 1791 the Haitian Revolution occurred. The United States decided not to
trade with a country that was ruled by an ex-slave. She sent foodstuffs and
weapons to the colonial authorities to help them stop the revolution.

In 1793, the Assembly in France opened all ports to American shipping but
Cuban ports were also now opened to the Americans. They had a choice.
They chose Cuba. She was a little nearer and her slave society was more
stable. By November of 1787, all Spanish ports were opened to trade with the
U.S. by 1804 she did all of her trade in tropical products with the Spanish
colonies. This continued up to 1870.

Why was America Interested in the Caribbean?

  January 1, 1804, Haiti declared itself independent of France. The Black
Republic was then made an outcast by the international community.

 Cuba's sugar industry was still in its establishment stage. They had
fertile and virgin lands which presented ripe opportunities for
investment.

 Since the Cuban industry was relatively young the quality of their sugar
was better.

 Cuba was in closer proximity to the U.S. after she purchased Louisiana
(1803) and acquired Florida (1819).

 She was tired of the all the ‘ups and downs' with Britain and her
colonies. The trade was too restricted for America who believed in
freedom. By 1810 she was trading about one third of what she would
normally trade with the British West Indies. Besides from 1812 to1814
Britain blockaded American ports because she had supported the
French during the Napoleonic Wars.

 In 1822 Britain passed the West Indian and American Trade Act. This
meant that some of the restrictions were lifted. Direct trade in lumber,
livestock and provisions was again allowed between the U.S. and her
West Indian colonies. However the trade was subjected to a 10% value
added tax.

Why Was There So Much Illegal Trade With The United States?

1. The Mother Countries were unable to supply their colonies with the much
needed plantation goods that they normally bought from the U.S.

2. It was easier to acquire these goods from the U.S. due to the close
proximity of that country to the Caribbean, particularly after the U.S. acquired
Louisiana, New Orleans and Florida. These new states provided ports closer to
the Caribbean.
3. Dutch and Danish islands were used as trading centres or you could say
transshipment points for the goods. You already know from the topic
European Settlement and Rivalry that the Dutch colonies were mainly used as
warehouses and trading stations.

Caribbean map showing Dutch and Danish islands

4. The colonists were determined to continue this trade despite the protests
of their Mother Country. Why? Firstly, they had become accustomed to the
direct trading between themselves and the then North American colonies and
perhaps more importantly they were attracted by the lower price of direct
trade versus the alternative of buying through their Mother Country.

5. The devastation caused by natural disasters such as the hurricanes of

1784, 1785 and 1786 resulted in acute food shortages. The West Indian
Governments were forced to open their ports to the nearby U.S. or face
starvation. You would imagine that that was not an option for the planters,
many of who were already deep in debt, and could not afford the money to
replace dying slaves when the situation could be avoided.

It was impossible for the Mother Countries to effectively police the expansive
waters of the Caribbean. Imagine how expensive it would be to even try. In
addition at this time, the French and Spanish were no longer the naval power
that they once were. In other words, they did not have enough ship to spare
for such patrolling.

Apart From Trade, What Was the Nature of the U.S. Involvement
in the Caribbean up to 1870?

Ideological

She saw herself as the champion of democracy whose destiny it was to help
the uncivilized countries of the Western Hemisphere who were destined to
‘gravitate' towards her, the superior and civilized nation.

This became even more ‘prophetic' when in the 1820's the Latin American
territories began to claim their independence from Spain. For examples:
Colombia and Venezuela

Defense

The U.S. was interested in identifying suitable ports in the Caribbean to serve
as coaling stations for her steamships. This would also enable her to patrol
the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. Why? The Caribbean provided
three gateways to her backyard, thus rendering her ‘homeland' vulnerable:
The Mona Passage, The Windward Passage and the Anegada Passage.
The Mona Passage, The Windward Passage and the Anegada Passage

Investments

She was looking for new areas of investments. It would certainly be

convenient to find lucrative areas of investment in ‘her sphere of influence'.

United States and the Caribbean

This resource is authored by Debbion Hyman for the Gleaner's Youth Link

ECONOMIC, POLITICAL and ideological factors influenced the United States’ interest
in the Caribbean up to 1962.

The Caribbean has had a long relationship with the United States (US), its northern
neighbour. The American War of Independence altered the nature of that relationship,
however, as the United States was no longer governed by the laws of Britain and, thus,
could not legally trade with British territories.

While British territories suffered from a scarcity of food for slaves and higher prices for
all supplies, American investors turned their focus to non- British territories - chief
among these being Cuba. The US set its sights on Spain’s empire, as Spain became
increasingly weak and eventually lost its superpower status with the loss of its primary
colonies to its European rivals.

The Monroe Doctrine of 1823 primarily shaped US involvement in the Caribbean in the
19th century. This policy statement was issued by President James Monroe who issued
a stern warning to European countries that the Americas was closed to
further ownership/colonisation by European countries.

President Monroe went as far as to state that America would regard any attempt to re-
colonise any territory that had gained its independence as a direct threat to the US. This
was primarily directed at Spain who, at the time, was busy trying to recapture its
Latin American territories.

This ideological position was expanded throughout the 19th century, as the principle of
Manifest Destiny became entrenched in the American psyche. This was a belief that
the US was destined by God to dominate the Western hemisphere ‘from the Atlantic to
the Pacific’ - a belief which fuelled American dreams and actions.

This belief resulted in a very aggressive and domineering attitude on the part of the US.
It led to the Spanish- American War of 1898 between the US and Spain.

Cuba was, at that time, embroiled in armed struggle to gain its independence from
Spain.

The Americans seized this opportunity to further undermine Spain’s influence in the
region. Their participation in the war brought swift defeat to Spain and heralded the
emergence of the US as a world power. The end of the war also signalled greater US
political interest in the region as well as increased economic investments. The region
was important in helping the US to fulfil its manifest destiny for the following reasons:

1. Its proximity influenced defence issues. The security of the US depended on its
control of neighbouring territories to ensure the safety of its borders, its citizens and
its property.

2. The Caribbean possessed a variety of raw materials that the US wished to exploit in
its own economic interest. Agricultural enterprises such as sugar and banana attracted
US investors at first, but bauxite, oil and tourism as well as railroads became
increasingly important outlets for US investment up to 1962.

3. The Caribbean represented a large potential market for US manufactured goods.

This would further encourage the growth of industry, thus, the creation of wealth.

4. With large populations of mainly unskilled, unemployed labour, US capitalists saw the
Caribbean as potential source of cheap labour. Many Caribbean nationals were used in
the construction of the Panama Canal at the
turn of the century and, gradually, there was a steady stream of emigrants headed for
the US, especially after the Second World War.

US policy during the first decades of the 20th century was nationalistic, expansionist
and aggressive, and was based on feelings of racial and cultural superiority by the
American people. This ideology is often described as the Big Stick Policy and is often
illustrated by actions such as the taking of the Panama Canal from Colombia and the
issuing of the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine (1904).

The Roosevelt Corollary was issued by President Theodore Roosevelt and asserted
the right of the US to intervene in the affairs of the neighbouring states if there was
perceived to be any threat to American lives and investments. This document is
important as it marked yet another turning point in US-Caribbean relations. The
Corollary had, in effect, declared the US the ruler of the Caribbean basin and made
clear American intention to rule by force if necessary.

The Roosevelt Corollary paved the way for American intervention in the region as it
“accorded the US government the power of an international policeman and implicitly
and explicitly, it undermined the independence of the republics within the hemisphere”.

The Corollary stated clearly that America was not interested in acquiring colonies and
that it would not interfere in any country that was stable and prosperous.

The Big Stick polices of the US government caused great unease and resentment
throughout the Caribbean. The US found itself increasingly portrayed in a negative light.
Many of the smaller, poorer states resented the manner in which the US used
its increasing economic wealth to enforce its policies. Critics regarded many of these
policies as contrary to the best interest of these territories. This attitude was described
as Dollar Diplomacy.

In an attempt to repair its image, the US embarked on a new approach to

its neighbours. In the 1930s, the administration of President Franklin Roosevelt pledged
itself to pursue the policy of a “good neighbour”. This good-neighbour policy witnessed
the US withdrawing its claims to rights of interference in the governments of
other countries. Consequently, the Platt Amendment was annulled in 1934 and a 1936
treaty ended US right to intervene in Panama. There was also the creation of the Peace
Corps that was to foster better relations between the US and its neighbours.

These developments continued until the Second World War (1939-1945) which
signalled the start of the Cold War. American policy in the Caribbean underwent another
drastic change. The rise of communism resulted in the formation of two major political
power blocs - communist and anti-communist states. The Soviet Union was the
leader of the Communist bloc while the United States emerged as the leader of the
anticommunist group.
The United States was now determined to keep its ‘area’ free from the influence of
communism. To this end, it tightened control over the Caribbean basin. Countries in the
region were expected to sign agreements and were provided with money and
military assistance in order to prevent them succumbing to the temptation to enter into
any negotiation with communist interests.

The US also developed new and more powerful weapons, many utilising nuclear power.
The Panama Canal assumed greater importance due to its strategic location. The US
government began to view its security in terms of the canal’s safety and security.
The ‘communist threat’ became one of the most important factors in US-
Caribbean relations from the 1960s. The work of the Central Intelligence Agency
(CIA) became important in the region during this period and has continued to
the present. In 1962, the United States and the Soviet Union almost went to war
over the incident known as the Cuban Missile Crisis.

SUMMARY
The United States influence extended in most Caribbean territories. Additionally, US
relationship with the region was characterised by four objectives:

1. The formation of alliances to prevent interference by other powers.

2. Regional support for US policies on the international scene.

3. The encouragement of trade.

4. The protection of US interests. In order to ensure the achievement of these

objectives, the US maintained steady interest in the affairs of the region to guarantee
governments that are friendly towards US interests and to maintain peace and stability
in the region.

SOURCES
1. Caribbean Revision History for CXC - Ashdown & Humphreys

2. Lest You Forget, A Study and Revision guide for CXC Caribbean History : The United
States in the Caribbean - Doris Hamilton-Willie

3. Development and Decolonization - Hamber & Greenwood

The United States Steps into Cuba 1898

Before we look at the reasons for U.S. intervention in Cuba in 1898 let us
provide the necessary backdrop to this historical drama.
America tried at least four times to buy Cuba: 1848, 1852, 1854 and 1859.
Each offer was refused by the Mother Country, Spain. If Cuba became an
independent country she could have a deeper and profitable relation with her.

The Cuban War of Independence or the Spanish Cuban War began in 1895.
It was led by the great patriots Jose Marti, Antonio Maceo and Maximo
Gomez. Their main aim of course was to get Spain to grant them their
independence. The one lesson that they had learnt from their previous battle
for independence (Ten Years War (1868-1878) was that it would take much
"convincing" to do this. It seemed as if the nineteenth (19th) century was
going to end and they would still be ruled by Spain.

Jose Marti Antonio

Maceo Maximo Gomez

The then U.S. President maintained neutrality as the war progressed into its
second year although he was seriously pressured by both the American Public
and Congress to become involved. Why then was the decision taken to get
involved in 1898?

1. ECONOMIC INTERESTS

Investments

1. By 1898 the U.S. had invested some fifty million dollars ($50M) in Cuba.

2. American merchants, ship owners and bankers (financers) invested in the

production and marketing of Cuban sugar.

3. The U.S. invested also in: coffee, cocoa and tobacco plantations and
cattle ranches, railway construction and mining: for example Chrome
Mines in Santiago were controlled by the Pennsylvania Steel Company.

Trade

4. Eighty three per cent (83 %) of Cuba's exports went to the U.S. In return
they bought foodstuff, lumber and manufactured goods from the U.S. Annual
trade figures were estimated at one hundred million dollars ($100M) or thirty
eight per cent (38%) of total imports. This includes a half of Cuba's total
tobacco output.

Businesses

5. The United States not only invested in various industries and companies
but they actually bought and operated several economic enterprises. For
example, the American company Edwin and Atkins bought and operated the
Soledad sugar estates while New York investors began operating the
Tuinucua estate in 1893. There were of course a number of other commercial
activities that they owned and operated. You may want to take the time to
research and list some of them.

2. DEFENSE
She desired to annex Cuba for strategic reasons. Cuba commanded the
approaches to the Windward Passage while its proximity to Florida and the
Central American mainland would certainly be of use in the near future. It
would be theperfect site therefore for a naval or military base.

3. PUBLIC PRESSURE and CAMPAIGN

American Journalism or the "Yellow Press" played an integral part in ‘forcing'

America's hand. There was strong competition between the New York
Journal owned by Randolph Hearst and the New York World owned by
Joseph Pulitzer. Each sought to outdo the other in sensationalism, the
hallmark of U.S. mass media. They presented fantastic graphics: artist's
impression of what they had heard. Their shocking headlines of the war in
Cuba, took sensational journalism to its peak even though it meant ‘bending
or twisting' the truth at times. They went for headlines that caught one's
attention and stirred one's passion. They reported endless stories of Spanish'
excessive abuse of innocent Spanish peasants who were said to be feeding
and hiding rebels in the countryside.

On hearing this, the U.S. public began to put pressure on the Government to
stop the war. As the watchdog and consummate Humanitarian she felt it was
her ‘duty' and Manifest Destiny to intervene.

Joseph Pulitzer.

The Pulitzer Prize was established in 1917

4. POLICIES

The U.S. decided to apply the Manifest Destiny and Munroe Doctrine. How
dare Spain deny a member of the Western Hemisphere (which the U.S.
controlled) their independence? Rumour has it, that some Cuban
nationalists appealed to the US for help. They gravitated towards the
superior power and she ‘had to' intervene.

The U.S. Intervenes in Cuba

The blowing up of the U.S.S. Maine in Havana harbour provided an excellent

excuse for America to enter into the war. The ship was docked in the harbour
in February 1898 to protect American life and property in Cuba.

Wreckage of the U.S.S. Maine in Havana harbour

American Life

1. In 1897 American Red Cross members had entered Cuba to provide

essential supplies of food and clothing for the suffering Cubans.

2. As you would imagine due to their extensive investment in Cuba, there

were quite a number of U.S. businessmen residing on that island: foremen,
accountants, managers and so on.

American Property

1. They had $50Million worth of investments that was worth defending!

2. American Steamship involved in the lucrative trade with Cuba. According to

steamship owners the war was costing them some $100Million per year.

3. It was reported that as the war gathered momentum the rebels using
guerilla tactics burnt plantations and sugar mills throughout the island.
Remember that the U.S. owned quite a number of sugar plantations and mills
in Cuba.

Suddenly the ship was mysteriously blown up killing all 266 Americans
reported to be on board. The Yellow Press went into frenzy! Headlines after
headlines rang out, demanding U.S. intervention. Here is a nice example:

Remember the Maine to Hell With Spain

The U.S. pointed fingers at Spain who looked puzzled!! Could it have been the
Cuban nationals eager to force the U.S. involvement in the war so they could
be assured of victory against their Spanish masters? Or could it have been an
accident? The Americans interpreted it as an act of war and immediately took
offensive measures.

April 19, 1898

The U.S. demanded compensation for her damages. She presented an

ultimatum to Spain, which called for her (Spain) to withdraw from Cuba and
declare the island free. Of course Spain refused!

April 25, 1898

President W. McKinley with Congress permission of course, declared war on
Spain. The war now changed from the Cuban War of Independence to
The Spanish American War. The U.S. was assured of military victory.
Spain was now a weak power. She was defeated in three (3) months.

The ‘war' took place in three countries:

1. Philippines

An American squadron led by Commodore George Dewey seized the Spanish

naval base at Manila. Troops were sent to occupy the island.

2. Cuba- especially in Santiago province

3. Puerto Rico

Results

1. Cuba gained its independence from Spain

2. The U.S. paid Spain $20Million for the loss of her territories

3. A Peace Treaty was signed in Paris December 1898 to seal the above
decisions.

4. The U.S. immediately took full control of the new nation of Cuba. She
underwrote the cost of repairing much of the damage done during the war.
She also opened schools and started other social projects.

5. The people who had been in the reconcentrados (concentration camps)

were given food, seeds, cattle and equipment to start their lives over again

6. The United States got Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines. The last
two territories afforded them a foothold in the Pacific Ocean.

Cuba and the United States 1898- 1900

Cuba received the bulk of U.S.' attention. By the Teller Amendment U.S.
recognized Cuba's independence and promised not to interfere in their
domestic matters. This was followed by the military occupation of Cuba from
1898 to 1902.

General John Brooke - first military governor of Cuba 1898 to

1900

General Leonard Wood - second military governor of Cuba 1900 to

1902

General John Brooke General

Leonard Wood

Positive Effects of Military Occupation

Both governors gave Cuba what they thought of as the blessings of American
civilization which they felt that the new nation of Cuba was so privileged to
receive.
Sanitation

1. A refuse disposal system was instituted

2. A sewage system was put in place

3. The streets were cleaned

Health

1. Hospitals and asylums were built

2. A rigid health care program aimed at eradicating malaria and yellow fever

Education

1. Schools were built

2. The University of Havana was reopened

3. Textbooks were sent to various schools

Social Services

A relief program was instituted

Public Utilities and Works

1. The telegraph and phone system were repaired and extended

2. Roads and bridges were built

3. The Havana harbour was widened

4. Railways and docks were constructed

Development of the Economy through Trade and Investments

Cuban exports to the U.S. increased. In 1899 the total value of export was
$34.4M. This more than tripled by 1901 to the tune of $118M. Cuban
imports from the U.S. increased. In 1899 the total value of import was
$36.8M. This almost tripled by 1901($97.5M.)

Negative Effects of Military occupation

Criticisms against Military Occupation

1. The Cuban army was disbanded in order to prevent conflict between the
Cuban and American troops!

2. Cubans were relegated to few jobs and juniour positions in the Public
Service and Government as more and more Americans were imported to run
the government.

3. The haughty U.S. ignored Cuban tradition and culture and experience.
They refused to appreciate that the Cubans had a lifestyle and a culture
before they came. A lifestyle and a culture that they cherished. But the U.S.
did NOT understand this. It was hard for them to even conceive that anyone
would hesitate to give up their ‘backward uncivilized' culture in exchange for
the superior culture! So they doggedly forced their culture upon the people.

4. Much colour prejudice was evident in the dealings of the Americans with
the Cubans. As a result there was a colour ban in Cuban restaurants and
hotels that wanted to attract and cater exclusively to the United States and
the Cuban upper class that supported this type of behaviour.

5. The American soldiers practiced prostitution. Even young girls were

involved in this illegal activity.

6. The textbooks used in the schools were written, printed in and sent from
the U.S. in many instances, they were merely Spanish translations of
American publications, painful reminders of the displacement of Cuban culture
and its subsequent replacement.

7. In the road building programmes, only American equipment was used. And
of course, the contracts for the constructions of such roads and other public
works were reserved for American engineers.
8. The military government opened and operated the National Bank of Cuba.

The U.S. would not withdraw its troop or end the military occupation unless
the Cubans signed the Platt Amendment and include it as part of their
Constitution. This document gave the Americans complete control over Cuban
affairs. The Cubans were reluctant to sign it. It seemed as if they were just
changing one master (Spain) for another (America).

But they had no choice, it was sign or continue military rule of Cuba. They
signed.

Terms of the Platt Amendment

Cuba could NOT:

(a) conclude treaties with foreign powers

(b) borrow money in excess of what its normal revenues could repay

(c) completely control its internal affairs in such matters as sanitation and
health

(d) refuse the U.S. bases and coaling stations

(e) allow any other country to have a base in Cuba

(f) prevent the U.S. from intervening in Cuba for the ‘protection of life,
liberty and individual property'.

The Platt Amendment governed American relations with Cuba until it was
withdrawn in 1934. The economic control of Cuba's resources and wealth still
continued. Many of the Cuban Presidents that were elected were mere
puppets and ‘yes man' for the U.S. Military occupation was enforced at least
four times before 1959.

Castro, Cuba and the United States

Fulgencio Batista seized power in 1952. This was his second term of office.
He seized this second opportunity to squeeze all he could from the Cuban
coffers for his personal aggrandizement. That meant that he had to
encourage heavy American intervention in order to ensure their continued
support for his corrupt regime. The U.S. was willing to support him as long as
her backyard remained stable and the profits continued to pour in from their
investments on the island.

The U.S. not only recognized his dictatorship; they sold him arms and
continued to provide military training missions. It was this band of trained
soldiers that was used to silence Batista's opponents such as Castro and his
band of soldiers.

Fulgencio Batista

Explain clearly how Batista abused the Cuban people

1. The U.S. operated plush hotels, gambling casinos and tourist resorts,
nightclubs and racetracks all over Havana. Some argued that there was even
gangster capital involved.

2. The average Cuban could not enter these hotels or use the beaches. They
were exclusively for tourists, American tourists! The blacks- Afro-Cubans could
only work at these places.

3. The press was heavily censored

4. There was high unemployment and seasonal unemployment for those who
worked in the agricultural sector, especially sugar. In 1959 was 37.5%

5. Batista banned the meeting of any of his opponents. His rule became
gangster like. Court martial and pre-dawn firing squads were common.

6. The mortality rate was high, especially infant mortality. The children were
infected with parasites. Malaria and Tuberculosis ruled the countryside while
the urban areas received the benefits of American eradication.

7. There was an inadequate number of hospitals and clinics. The ratio of

doctors was woefully inadequate as well.

8. American imports totaled $577M seriously competing with similar Cuban

products.

9. Despite the presence of a number of millionaires the island was heavily in

debt. Wealth was unevenly distributed.

10. Not surprisingly therefore, in 1957 the sugar and bank workers went on
strike. This industry is traditionally the MAIN employment area. In 1957 a
there was a general all island strike.

11. A survey in 1956 showed that the Americans owned over 90% of the
telephone and electricity services, 50% of public transport and railways and
40% of raw sugar production. In addition she held a quarter of all Cuban
bank deposits. The staff in all these enterprises was largely American.

12. There was racial discrimination, victimization, prostitution, execution and

exile of opponents.

On January 1, 1959, Castro staged a successful revolutionary overthrow of

the corrupt regime. It was Castro's third attempt.

1. 1956 Fidel, Raul, Che and 81 fileditas from Mexico in the Granma but
only 12 survived the onslaught of Batista's soldiers. They escaped into the
Sierra Maestra mountains.
Che Guevara and Fidel Castro

2. 1953 attack on Monocado barracks. Castro spent 2 of the 15 years in jail

along with his brother Raul and more than 100 others in a failed attempt.

3. January 1, 1959. But this time, the ‘graft rotten' dictatorship toppled and
the deposed tyrant allegedly fled to Florida with over $200M. Guerilla warfare,
support from the peasants in the country side who provided him with
information and food along the way. Use of two way radios, continuous
supplies of arms from Mexico and supporters in the U.S. kept the struggle
alive. Some members of the middle class joined the rebels.

Castro wished to have a real revolution. He did not wish to be bound by U.S.
gifts and policies. He made that clear from the very beginning. He used the
radio and television to announce his programs.
 Castro's Plans for Development

1. The independence of Cuba from American influence and economic

domination.

2. No private property. All the factors of production would be owned and

controlled by the state.

3. Opposition press would be stifled

4. Courts would be purged of middle class judges

5. Health, Education and other social services would be free. Syllabus

reflecting the needs and culture of Cuba were written and implemented.

His policies in Action

a. 1959 Agrarian Reform Act: land owned by major American cattle

ranchers, sugar and tobacco estates companies were seized without
compensation and made the property of the government. Castro then
proceeded to redistribute it in smaller parcels to landless locals at the rate of
27 hectares per family.

b. He installed interveners in November 1959 to oversee the operations

of several large American companies. This he said to prevent them from being
tempted to falsify their accounts: tax returns, profits made and so on. The
utility companies were also asked to cut their rates and charges.

c. Most of the senior government officials who had served during the Batista
regime were dismissed and those loyal to Castro and the policies of the
revolution were hired in their place.

d. The police, army and navy were purged of corrupt officers. Some 483 of
them were found guilty of serious crimes against the Cuban people and were
consequently executed.

e. In order to show their disapproval of Castro's nationalization program the

U.S. enforces a trade embargo. They refused to sell him any weapons or
lend the country any money. The mighty one was buying approximately half a
billion tons of sugar from Cuba and paid a bonus of 2 cents above the market
price. She refused to buy any more of their sugar. Castro responded by
charging that the U.S. was practicing economic aggression and economic
slavery. He was right. They hoped that without oil and parts for the numerous
pieces of American machinery on the island Castro would ‘come to his senses'.

f. February 13, 1960: Russia signs a trade agreement with Cuba to

purchase 5M tons of sugar over a five year period and to supply her with
needed technicians as well as oil and arms. Kruschev declared that the
Munroe Doctrine was dead and suggested that it be buried so that it would
not poison the air. The U.S. was outraged at the violation of their Munroe
Doctrine and warns Russia.

Castro and Kruschev

g. The U.S. reacts by refusing to refine the crude oil bought from Russia at
her refineries still in Cuba: Texaco, Royal Dutch and Standard Oil or to allow
the Cuban government to take them over. Castro's contempt for U.S.
superiority and hegemony of the region (Western Hemisphere) was hard for
them to swallow.

h. March 1960: Castro questioned America's right to the naval base at

Guantanamo

i. May 1960 : Castro established formal diplomatic relations with Communist

Russia

j. July 1960 : He nationalized all remaining U.S. nickel plant, rice mills,
cinemas and stores.
k. August 1960: the government takes over all utilities- phone and light as
well as oil and sugar mills. The U.S. responded by placing a ban on all U.S.
exports to Cuba except foodstuff. They warned their citizens not to visit Cuba
thus stopping the island's income form tourism.

l. December 2, 1961: Fidel Castro declares himself to be a Marxist Leninist.

He begins to implement social programs designed to improve the standard of
living of the masses. For example: new affordable housing schemes for the
masses and road works were started as early as 1960.

Karl Marx Lenin

m. A number of Cuban middle class went into exile mainly in Florida.

n. January 1961: Castro ordered the U.S. Embassy to cut its staff from 300
to 11. President Eisenhower (1953-1961) reacted by severing ties with Cuba
on January 3, 1961. He left office 17 days later. It was up to the new
President J. F. Kennedy to determine what to do.
John F Kennedy

o. He inherited among other things a ‘plan' to overthrow Castro and put an

end to the revolution. He hoped that the CIA nicknamed the Cuba Invasion
Army would have the same success it had in Guatemala in 1954. Some 1500
Cuban refugees were secretly trained to help in the invasion. JKF had two
choices: adopt or abandon the plan. Public opinion was in favor of the former.
They were tired of Castro's insults.

p. April 11, 1961: Bay of Pigs Invasion was a failure and a fiasco. Castro
and his army of some 250,000 men and women were well armed and ready
to meet the small invading forces. The CIA bungled the job perfectly. They
arrogantly assumed that this would be a pushover.

q. 11,000 U.S. men were imprisoned. Castro exchanged them for a hefty
ransom price of $53M in much needed food and medicine.

r. Castro then felt the need to fortify Cuba. He thought that the U.S. would
never dare to attack the island if Cuba had nuclear missiles and the result
would be the annihilation of nearby U.S. cities

s. October 1962: aerial photos show hundreds of Russian technicians

installing 40 nuclear missiles with estimated range of 1000 to 2000 miles. This
was clear chronic wrongdoing in her backyard.

t. The U.S. acted quickly and decisively. Kruschev and Kennedy met and
negotiated a settlement. On October 28, 1962 the Russian President agreed
to pull his weapons out of Cuba while Kennedy agreed to lift the quarantine
on Cuba and promised not to invade the island.

How Was Castro Able to Retain Authoritarian Power and Dic

So Castro gained support in the initial stages from those who were tired of
Batista's cruel and oppressive regime. How was he able to retain authoritarian
power and dictatorship in a sea of democracy and in the face of external
hostility and opposition led by the mighty U.S.?

1. Ironically the aggressive response of the U.S. to the Cuban revolution

gained him crucial support in the first five years. The Bay of Pigs invasion and
the many attempts to assassinate Fidel not only failed but backfired. A
number of Cubans joined the fight, not to support Castro, BUT for their
country and their independence. Nationalism and national pride grew
stronger.

2. The support of Russia

3. Castro's socialist transformation of Cuba won the support of the peasants

and masses who experienced real meaningful changes in their standard of
living- better health, housing and medical facilities.

4. A strong army loyal to Castro and the revolution defended it from both
internal as well as external opposition.

5. Castro received crucial support from the island's women. Before this they
had largely been ignored. Castro's socialist revolutionary policies proclaimed
them as equals! They were drafted in the army, held top ranking government
posts that were once considered the exclusive rights and domain of the men.
New labor legislations were passed that benefited the women in particular: for
example security of jobs for pregnant women.

6. Mothers gave the revolution their support. Why? There was the creation of
schools for women. Their children were entitled to free education to include
lunch and educational material. By 1964, over 90% of children born in
hospitals were immunized as well as students in elementary schools.
7. The common man benefited from the Agrarian Reform of May, 17, 1959,
that facilitated the distribution of land to small peasants. They could also
access economic and technical aid through the various associations that were
created.

Castro signs the Agrarian Reform

8. We cannot forget the Afro-Cubans. They bore the brunt of the Americans'
racial discrimination and prejudice. The revolution destroyed that.

9. A number of businessmen supported Castro for removing their competitor

the U.S. and because of his progressive tax policies that favored Cuban over
foreign investments.

10. The support of Grenada, Guyana and Jamaica came at a crucial

juncture. The 1970's was the next decade after the first ten successful years.
(1959-1969 and 1970-1980). It gave the revolution not just the momentum
but the sort of legitimacy and affirmation that it lacked in the region. It was
no longer isolated.
11. Her intervention and involvement in World Affairs: Africa and the Middle
East. She showed herself as a force to be reckoned with.

Why Did The U.S. Keep Control of Puerto Rico?

1. Defense

Puerto Rico was strategically located. The island commanded the eastern
passage to enter the Caribbean. By this means any enemy of the U.S. could
enter the Gulf of Mexico- America's backyard. The island was close to the
American mainland. If the U.S. controlled it they would be better able to
prevent European countries from occupying it. The U.S. intended to build a
canal in the Central American mainland. The island was a perfect place to
build a naval base to protect the canal.

2. Investments

Millions of American dollars and capital were invested in agriculture, especially

sugar and tobacco. They also invested in banking, manufacturing and public
utilities.

3. Trade: Market Outlet

She would become one of the sure markets for American manufactured goods
while at the same time providing her with raw materials to feed her
industries.

4. Ideological

This would be another island where she could spread her superior ideology.

After the signing of the treaty Puerto Rico no longer belonged to Spain, she
was now a protectorate (a state) of the U.S. The island was subjected to
American military rule 1898 to 1900. Thereafter an American appointed
governor and a council whose members were nominated by Americans
formed the government. The island's political system and operations were
however governed by the Foraker or First Organic Act.

Why did Puerto Rico accept U.S. rule?

1. The U.S. promised them political development such as democracy. This

was viewed by many as a better alternative to the backward colonial rule that
they had known.

2. Many hoped that the progressive labor laws of the U.S. would be applied to
Puerto Rico.

3. The masses hoped to get jobs. The island soon became a reservoir of
cheap labour.

4. The merchant class hoped to profit from an expansion in business,

investments and free trade.

5. Many of them expected to become U.S. citizens. They felt that they could
migrate freely to the U.S. where they hoped to achieve a better standard of
living.

6. They expected to get much of the social services that the U.S. had already
begun to introduce in those towns and areas where she had interests. Chief
among these are: education, sanitation and health.

How did they benefit from being a U.S. state?

1. They gained religious freedom

2. Measures such as disinfecting slums and cleaning the streets were

introduced.

3. Mass vaccinations were done

4. Old schools were improved while new ones were built and equipped.

5. Employment increased.

6. The legal system was simplified.

7. A forest conservation program was started.

8. Labor laws were passed introducing a eight hour workday.

The Panama Canal

The U.S. was interested in building a canal from as early as the 1890's.
During the Spanish American War it took three times longer for the troops to
sail from California to Cuba. The Panama railroad which she constructed in
1851-1855, reinforced or highlighted the importance and urgent need for the
transoceanic route. It was the route for prospectors to the California Gold
Rush.

The Canal would connect the Pacific to the Atlantic Ocean

1. Provide easy access and communication between her territories in these

two areas.

2. Save time on commercial shipping between the two areas

3. It would prove to be a very profitable investment

4. She would once again prove her dominance and hegemony in the Western
World. She could more effectively carry out her role as international
policeman and watchdog for the Hemisphere.

5. It would give her some amount of power over the other super powers.
Panama Canal layout

Theodore Roosevelt acquired the right to build the Panama Canal in 1903.
How did he accomplish this?

Theodore Roosevelt
a. In 1850 the U.S. and Britain signed the Clayton Bulwer Treaty. They
agreed to the joint construction and use of a canal in Panama.

b. By the 1880's the French commissioned Ferdinand de Lesseps, the man

responsible for the construction of the Suez Canal to build a similar one in
Panama. Based on his track record of success, it was relatively easy for him to
get the necessary funding for such a mammoth project.

c. The venture failed however due to an epidemic of tropical diseases,

technological problems and financial mismanagement. This was the break that
the U.S. was waiting for.

d. She approached Britain and requested that the 1850 treaty be annulled.
Britain could not afford a ‘showdown' at this point. She needed the U.S. if not
as an ally at least to remain neutral in European affairs.

e. In 1901, Britain signed a new treaty- The Hay Paunceforte Treaty in which
she surrendered her rights to the construction and operation of a canal across
the Isthmus of Panama as long as the U.S. allowed ships of all other nations
to use it and be charged equal tolls.

f. She still had two problems: Panama still belonged to Colombia and
Colombia was asking a high price. The French still had the rights to construct
the canal. That problem was easily solved. Given the difficulties and obstacles
faced, the French company quickly sold the rights and equipment to the U.S.
for $40M. The deal was signed in the Hay Buneau-Varilla Treaty. Phillipe
Buneau-Varilla being the major shareholder in the French Company.

g. The Hay-Herran Treaty was signed in 1903. The U.S. offered to pay
Colombia $10M for the right to dig the canal on a ten kilometer corridor. It
would be leased for 99 years at $250,000 p.a.

h. On November 3, 1903 a revolutionary war broke out between Colombia

and Panama. It is said that the French company incited it because they were
afraid that the U.S. might change its mind and seek a route through
Nicaragua.

i. The U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt sends the USS Nashville "to protect
U.S. life, liberty and property". They seize the Panama railroad and this
prevents Columbian forces from landing within 80 kilometers (fighting
distance) of Panama which then declares its independence.

j. Three days later on November 6th the U.S. recognizes Panama's

independence and a new treaty was signed. The size of the zone increased to
17 km. and the life of the lease was ‘in perpetuity'. The U.S. promised to
protect and guarantee the independence of Panama under terms similar to
the Platt Amendment.

k. Construction lasted ten years. It started in 1904 and ended in 1914

l. Over 75,000 workers were recruited form all over to include Caribbean
territories such as Barbados and Jamaica.

m. It cost approximately $400M to construct

n. American doctors and scientists worked feverishly and developed a cure for
the malaria and yellow fever. They also sprayed the area eliminating the
mosquitoes and installing adequate drainage systems to prevent further
breeding of the insects.

o. American engineer John Stephenson designed the master plan for the
canal as well as the use of railroads to carry away the dirt.

Positive effects of Panama Canal

1. U.S. provides employment for locals

2. Defense- during WW2 U.S. had airfield and military bases in Panama

3. Financial aid totaling $40M in addition to annual rent which was raised
from 250,000 to 436,000 in 1934 (F. Roosevelt) and 1.930M in 1955

Negative Effects

1. It violated the sovereignty of the Panamanian people

2. It strained relations between U.S. and Panamanians. In 1931 there was an
overthrow of the Panamanian puppet President.

3. Panamanian laws did not apply within the zone.

4. Violence erupted in 1959 when Panamanians attempted to hoist their

national flag in canal zone and strongly resisted by U.S. troops

5. Locals were not allowed within several miles of the canal. An area of no
man's land was established.

6. There was an influx of American goods. These were available from shops in
the Zone. They offered stiff competition to locally produced goods.

U.S. and Haiti (1914)

The U.S. had fewer investments in Haiti than France and Germany. But by
1910 she controlled about 60% of Haiti's import trade and the National
Railway Company. This was enough for her to become concerned about any
possible European intervention in that country. French, German and American
investors were making huge profits from investments in banking, public
services and railways.

World War 1 began in 1914. The Haitians owed over $32M to Germany and
other European creditors. It was said that the Germans threatened to take
over Haiti if the debt was not paid. Germany the aggressor wanted a base
from which to attack Britain and U.S.'s possessions in the Western
Hemisphere.

Haiti had serious political problems as well. She had a history of unstable and
corrupt government. Between 1908 and 1915, there were seven Presidents!
Matters got worst when in July of 1915, a revolt broke out. The then
President, Vilbrun Guillame Sam was widely viewed by the Haitian people as a
cruel and unjust leader. It is rumored that he imprisoned, tortured and
massacred a number of his opponents. Sam was murdered during the revolt.
Vilbrun Guillaume Sam

The U.S. applied the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. This
basically gives them the right to intervene in any Caribbean or Latin American
country which acts in such a way as to invite European intervention in the
U.S. ‘backyard'.

She could not afford for Germany to capture Haiti and become a threat to her
precious canal or use the Windward Passage to attack her. Therefore in July
of 1915, she responded swiftly. American marines led by Admiral Caperton
landed at Port-au-Prince, Haiti's capital to ‘protect American life, liberty and
property' and to restore law and order.

A treaty was signed in November 1915. It allowed the Americans to control

Haiti's finances, sanitation, law and order and public works. They remained
there until 1934.

Negative effects of U.S. intervention in Haiti

1. The U.S. was in control of Haiti. They lost their sovereignty.

2. Martial law was declared in September 1915. The freedom of movement of

Haitians was restricted.

3. The revolt was brutally crushed. Hundreds of so called rebels were killed
without even a trial.

4. American military officers were in charge of government operations.

5. The U.S. made changes to Haiti's constitution which allowed the U.S. to
own huge acres of land.

6. Racial discrimination occurred

7. Many of the social programs were done in the towns where the Americans
occupied while the rural areas remained destitute.

8. Haiti's culture was severely affected.

9. The new Haitian council was chosen by the Americans

10. The U.S. censored Haiti's press.

Positive effects of U.S. intervention in Haiti

1. Law and order was restored

2. A new Haitian police force was created (gendarmerie). This force was
trained by the U.S. army.

3. The U.S. paid Haiti's debts and took control of their finances especially the
Customs house.

4. The health care system was improved. New hospitals, clinics and health
centres were constructed.

5. The sewages were drained and other sanitation measures were put
implemented.

6. A mosquito eradication program along with vaccination helped to decrease

the spread of diseases.

7. New roads, parks, wharves and light houses were built.

8. A number of new jobs were created

The U.S. and the Dominican Republic

The U.S. intervened in the Dominican Republic because political instability.
There were several presidents within a short period of time. In five years,
between 1906 and 1911, one president was assassinated. None of his
successors were able to rule for an entire term of four years. The U.S. saw
this as a case of ‘chronic wrong doing' in her backyard.

The country was also in deep financial crisis. It owed large sums of money to
European creditors. President Woodrow Wilson appointed a puppet president
Juan Jiminez but by 1915 several riots broke out in protest against his rule.

President Woodrow Wilson

World War 1 was already underway. It was said that the Germans threatened
to take over the Dominican Republic if the debt was not paid. Germany the
aggressor wanted a base from which to attack Britain and U.S.'s possessions
in the Western Hemisphere.

Once more, the U.S. applied the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine.
She intervened to prevent European intervention in her ‘backyard'. She could
not afford for Germany to capture the country and become a threat to her
precious canal or attack her from the position of the Mona Passage.

Positive effects of U.S. intervention in the Dominican Republic

1. Law and order was restored

2. The U.S. paid the debts and took control of their finances especially the
Customs house.

3. The health care system was improved. New hospitals, clinics and health
centres were constructed.

4. The sewages were drained and other sanitation measures were put
implemented.

5. A mosquito eradication program along with vaccination helped to decrease

the spread of diseases.

6. New roads and bridges were built.

7. A number of new jobs were created

8. U.S. investment in the sugar industry led to the increased use of

machinery and the modernization of this industry.

Negative effects of U.S. intervention in the Dominican Republic

1. The U.S. was in total control of the country from 1915 to 1924. They lost
their sovereignty.

2. Martial law was declared. The freedom of movement of Haitians was

restricted.

3. American military officers were in charge of government operations.

4. The rebels were tried by military court.

5. The U.S. disarmed the general public to reduce the chance of armed
revolts by guerilla groups.

6. Racial discrimination occurred

7. Many of the social programs were done in the towns where the Americans
occupied while the rural areas remained destitute.
8. The cattle industry was adversely affected due to the importation of cheap
American leather.

9. The financial system became dominated by American and Canadian banks.

10. The U.S. censored the press in order to quiet any opposition to their
occupation and rule.

U.S. Political Involvement in the British West Indies 1939-198

The United States became actively involved in the political affairs of three
main Caribbean countries during this period.

They are:

Jamaica

Guyana

Grenada

Why did she become involved in these three countries ?

1. The United States considered the Caribbean to be her sphere of influence.

She would only tolerate democracy NEVER Communism.

2. She was suspicious of the close relationship that the prime Ministers of
these three countries seemed to share with the rebel leader Fidel Castro.

3. She did not want to give them any encouragement. She felt that she had
to aggressively crush this sort of relationship before it spread to the other
territories.

4. As noted above in the economic involvement, she had invested in several

areas of the economy of these countries. She needed to protect American life,
liberty and property in these countries.
Guyana

In 1953 Constitutional Reforms are introduced to British Guiana. There is a

Ministerial government with an elected Assembly under Universal Adult
Suffrage. The People's Political Party wins the election with very little
opposition. Its chairman, Cheddi Jagan became the Premier of British Guiana
six years before Fidel Castro wrenched Cuba from the control of America.

Cheddi Jagan

Russia or the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR) became Communist

(1917). She was basically isolated after World War 2. The democratic nations
did not want a relationship with her. America was afraid that she would
infiltrate the Caribbean in search of markets and allies.

The government of the United States soon became unsatisfied with his
regime. They claimed that Jagan had developed close ties with the Soviet
Union. The Americans persuaded Britain, the Mother Country to reject the
Constitution of 1953. British military invasion followed.

The PPP was removed from power and a temporary government created in
the interim. The PPP had been shared by Jagan an Indian and Forbes
Burnham a Negro. Burnham had racial issues with Jagan and the two parted
company. The U.S. influenced invasion led to a division. In 1955 Burnham
forms his own party, the People's National Congress (PNC). The split became
official.
Forbes Burnham

The PPP won the next two elections in 1957 and 1961 respectively but each
time the PNC gained new grounds as their support got larger. The U.S.
became even more concerned with the 1961 victory by Jagan and the PPP.
Firstly, Cuba had already become communist. Secondly, Jagan declared that
he embraced socialism. She could not afford the two of them in her backyard
threatening her very existence!

Two years of racial violence followed. (1961-1963) In the midst of the riots,
Jagan announced proposed tax increases. Talk about bad timing! It is alleged
that the U.S. backed Burnham to stir up racial conflict between the Indians
and the Negroes hoping that in the end fresh elections would be called and
Burnham would win since the blacks had a slight majority. Further allegations
were made that the U.S. sent CIA agents to British Guiana. These agents
were responsible for the overnight appearance of posters, newsletter and
fliers all over the country. The American Yellow Press once more used
propaganda to help get rid of its opposition.

In 1963 there was a 78 day strike. Ten persons were killed, many more were
seriously wounded. Jagan and three of his colleagues were suspended from
the Assembly. By the following year, 1964 there was another strike. This
lasted from February to July. 176 persons were killed. This was definitely
‘chronic wrong doing' in U.S. backyard. She could not tolerate the political
instability any longer. Once again she encouraged Britain to take strong
action. Once again, a state of emergency was declared and British troops
landed in the country to maintain law and order. In all of this, support for the
PNC grew while support for Jagan and the PPP decreased.
On December 7, 1964, under the watchful supervision of British officials,
elections were held. It was close. PPP 24, PNC 22 and Peter D'Aguilar's new
party the United Force (UF formed in 1961) won 7 seats. Burnham smartly
forms a quick coalition with the UF. Burnham and the PNC were now in the
majority. The governor asked Burnham to form his new government.

In May 1966, Burnham declares British Guiana's independence and changed

its name to Guyana. Burnham later changed his political philosophy and also
adopted social reforms. In the 1970's he began trading with Cuba. Guyanese
rice was sold to Cuba in exchange for cars and lumber. Cuba helped to train
Guyanese pilots. The two countries shared ideas on sugar industry and
technology. It is during this time too that Burnham began to nationalize
foreign enterprises. Guyana provided landing rights to Cuban military aircrafts
ferrying troops to Angola in that country's struggle for liberation. It is no
wonder then that on one of his state visit to Cuba President Burnham was
presented with the Jose Marti National Award.

Reactions

The United States

1. She refused Guyana aid and support

2. She declared that the country was not safe for travel. A number of
Guyanese were refused visas to visit America with the excuse that they were
communist spies.

3. Trade restrictions and embargo were imposed on the country

4. In October of 1976, the United States bombed a Cuban airline killing its
crew and passengers which included 11 Guyanese. This was seen as part of
the penalty for Guyana's close connection with the ‘enemy'.

The Guyanese

A large number of Guyanese fled the country. Some of them went to

neighboring territories such as Jamaica and Trinidad. This includes a number
of professionals such as teachers and doctors. The country suffered a serious
brain drain as a result.

A small minority benefited from Burnham's alliance with Castro and Cuba.
Guyanese students were offered scholarships to Cuba and other communist
countries such as Russia and China.

Guyana's neighbors

1. Venezuela was an ally of the U.S. in the 1960's and 1970's. She feared that
with communism so close to her it might spread across the boundary lines
and infiltrate her people. In 1962, she presented a plea to the United Nations
with regards to boundary dispute with Guyana. It is alleged that she provoked
incidents of rebellion in the Rupununi region of Guyana in 1966.

2. In 1958, Jagan declined to enter the Federation. A number of West Indian

leaders were angry about this. They felt that the Federation would have had a
better chance of succeeding if the two largest colonies (in terms of size)
British Guiana and British Honduras had joined.

U.S. Political Involvement in the British West Indies 1939-1985

The United States became actively involved in the political affairs of three
main Caribbean countries during this period.

They are:

Jamaica

Guyana

Grenada

Jamaica

Michael Manley became Prime Minister of Jamaica in 1972. He reigned for

two terms (1972-1980). He was defeated in the General elections of October
1980. His social reforms and expressed ideologies made the United States
nervous.

1. He rejected the capitalist path to development and chose instead to adopt

Democratic Socialism. The U.S. considered this very dangerous given the
geographical fact that the island is only about 90 miles away from Florida.

2. He preached self-reliance and rejected a U.S. dominated economy. He

insisted that Jamaicans should eat what they grew and import less American
food items.

3. He openly admired Castro's social and economic programmes

4. He made several trips to Cuba and Castro also made a number of visits to
Jamaica. During his reign Jamaica enjoyed diplomatic relationship with Cuba
despite the Cold War that was declared by the great U.S.!

5. At various press conferences, Manley called for the lifting of the trade
embargo that the U.S. placed on Cuba.

6. He believed in Third World Unity. He angered the U.S. with is famous "we
are not for sale" speech at a public rally.

7. The U.S. was worried that their investments in Jamaica were threatened
especially after Manley began a program of nationalization. The script was too
familiar.

8. He sported a bush jacket and encouraged Jamaican men to do the same.

Reforms and Policies

1. Free secondary education. New schools were built including the Jose Marti
Technical High School near Spanish Town. This was a gift from the Cuban
government.

2. An adult literacy campaign was introduced

3. Improvement in medical care. Some (medical) students were given

scholarship to study in Cuba and Russia. Cuban doctors were assigned to
different health centres and hospitals.
4. New housing schemes and development for the poor and middle class.

5. Land Reform: lands were taken from foreign investors and leased to
Jamaican small farmers at reduced rates. Their produce was collected by the
AMC- Agricultural Marketing Corporation for sale at fair prices to both
consumers and wholesalers.

6. Equal pay for women as well as two months maternity leave with pay.

7. Trade with Cuba flourished. For example condensed milk was bought from
Cuba and sold to lower income Jamaicans at 50% of the cost of other
condensed milk.

Reactions

The United States

1. Refused to grant Manley the U.S. $100M line of credit that they had
promised him

2. In 1976 the C.I.A. entered the island secretly to support the opposition
party

3. Trade restrictions were applied to the island. Certain consumer goods were
no longer available from the U.S. The supermarket shelves were empty. This
strategy is better known as sabotage.

4. When Manley approached the U.S. dominated International Monetary Fund

(IMF) for loans they insisted on harsh adjustment programs.

5. The propaganda of the American Yellow Press was at its best. They
published various articles describing Jamaica as one of the most dangerous
place son earth. This had a negative impact on the tourist industry.

Jamaicans

1. A number of the women supported the policies and programs of Manley

especially the new labor and family laws.
2. Lower class support was evident as the masses experienced an
improvement in their standard of living. This was especially so during the first
term before the negative reaction of America in particular and the
international community in general to Manley's reforms.

3. Those of the Black Pride movement supported Manley. His wife during his
reign was a black woman who wore an Afro.

4. The middle and upper class felt very threatened by the ideals of democratic
socialism. They feared that their properties would be confiscated and given or
sold to the poor at cheap rates. There were five flights a day to Miami and
they were all full!

5. There was a massive brain drain and flight of capital as the middle class
and the rich took off!

The rest of the Caribbean

1. They were totally afraid of U.S. reprisals. They decided to increase their
economic ties with the U.S. they provided the shortfall in the goods and
services that the U.S. would normally buy from Jamaica. That included the
tourism market.

2. They decided that they would have nothing to do with Cuba or Jamaica.

3. A number of them cut off diplomatic relations with Jamaica or gave them
the ‘cold shoulder'.

4. Barbados denied left wing politicians from Jamaica entry to their island

The United States became actively involved in the political affairs of three
main Caribbean countries during this period.

They are:

Jamaica

Guyana

Grenada
Grenada

Eric Gairy became premier of Grenada in 1967. He was an eccentric ruler. He

claimed to believe in U.F.O.s and made public speeches about this on
international television. The Grenadian people were quite embarrassed by
this.

Eric Gairy

His regime was corrupt. He wasted public funds on personal items while the
one hospital on the island was poorly equipped and dilapidated. When the
nurses went on strike to protest the horrible working conditions, they were
tear -gassed at Gairy's orders. Twenty two of them were imprisoned and the
‘ringleaders' were transferred to neighboring islands. Gairy owned 30 estates
while the poor had very little land. There were 80 children in one class in the
primary schools.

He used underhand means to keep himself in power. He was suspected of

rigging the elections and using terrorists known as the Mongoose Gang to
exterminate those who dared to oppose him. In 1973, he ordered the beating
of six members of the opposition group, the New Jewel Movement. He treated
Parliament as if it was his own personal property and instrument. He favoured
those who supported him by granting them concessions and monopolies.

Gairy did not allow freedom of speech in Grenada. In 1975, he passed the
Newspaper Act. The deposit required for a place in the newspaper rose from
$900.00 to $20,000.00.

In March of 1979, Maurice Bishop, the leader of the opposition party: The
New Jewel Movement seized power while Gairy was off the island. The new
government was known as the People's Revolutionary government.

What changes did the People's Revolutionary Government bring to

Grenada?

1. Free secondary education. This resulted in a significant decrease in the

level of illiteracy.
2. Unemployment decreased from 30% to 15%.

3. There was a preventative medicine campaign.

4. More health clinics were built to take the strain off the island's hospital.

5. A housing scheme was established for the masses.

6. The international airport was constructed.

Why did the revolutionary government fail?

1. Some party members were very dishonest. They would attend to their
private businesses and charge the bill to the government.

2. A number of the citizens were discontented with the pace of reforms.

Several of the projects could not be sustained and others had to be cancelled
because of lack of international funding.

3. The government of Grenada received very little support from the other
Caribbean nations. The rest of the Caribbean was pro-American. Edward
Seaga and the capitalist Jamaica Labour Party won the elections in 1980, one
year after the Bishop revolution.

Edward Seaga

4. Grenada and the PRG were alienated in the international market. They had
to depend on themselves and Cuba for economic survival. This was never
going to be enough given the level of reconstruction work that they had to
do.

5. There was division within the party. Members of Bishop's party felt that he
was not radical enough.

On October 19, 1983, Bishop and some of his Cabinet ministers were brutally
murdered in a coup led by some of his former friends. They were Communists
called themselves the Revolutionary Military Council. On October 25, 1983
the United States decided to invade Grenada. They called the moveUrgent
Fury.

Why did the United States invade Grenada?

1. They were concerned about the safety of several hundreds of United States
citizens who were students at the St. George's Medical University in Grenada.

2. The October revolution in Grenada represented ‘chronic wrongdoing' in her

backyard. As the watchdog of the Western Hemisphere she was duty bound
to protect the region. She applied the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe
Doctrine.

3. As with Cuba, she was also concerned about the spread of Communism
in her backyard. The United States, the champion of democracy could NOT
tolerate Communism so close to her. She intervened to stop the extremists
and radicals who got rid of Gairy from taking over the country.

How did the Caribbean react to the revolution?

1. Caribbean leaders from the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States met

in Barbados. The meeting was chaired by Prime Minister Eugenia Charles of
Dominica. The leaders took the decision to join the United States armed
forces that would invade Grenada.

2. Other Caribbean countries such as Jamaica sent a contingent to Grenada to

help crush the revolution.

Effects of U.S. intervention in Grenada

1. Law and order was restored

2. Even though the bulk of the invasion force was withdrawn by December
1983, 800 soldiers stayed behind for one year to oversee the provisional
government and the elections held in December (1984)
3. Communism and social ideologies ceased on the island. The New National
Party led by Herbert Blaize was a democratic party that was in favor of
American influence.

4. America used the opportunity to capture and deport 800 Cuban workers
that were assigned to help in Grenada's development program.

5. The soldiers were involved in undesirable social activities such as gambling

and prostitution.

Cultural Impact of the United States

During this period also the U.S. greatly influenced the culture of the
Caribbean. This was especially evident in the areas of:

 Religion

George Lisle and Moses Baker, two Americans came to Jamaica and opened
Churches for the enslaved. Many of the hymnals came form America. The
songs were written by Americans.

The television carried religious programs such as Billy Graham's Back to the
Bible Broadcast and Oral Roberts Ministries. Missionaries came from America
in the 1930's to 1960's to serve in the Salvation Army and Holiness and
Pentecostal Churches.

Other areas of Cultural Influenc

 Clothing

 Education

 Food

 Entertainment

 Communication
Caribbean people were exposed to American culture even before the U.S.
established bases in the six Caribbean countries during World War 2. A
number of persons had migrated to America to look work and or to access a
better standard of living. They were the first ‘ambassadors' of American
culture to the region.

Through the radio and later the television the people of the region were
exposed to:

1. Music- country music became popular and could be heard in juke boxes all
over the Caribbean. Singers such as Marty Robbins come to mind. Radio and
television helped in the spread of American music. It was their music that was
played on the radio all day. Cowboys such as Gene Autry and others sang
during their movie. Then there were jazz, rock and roll, jive, bebop and
gospel. Artistes such as Elvis Presley, Sam Cooke, Duke Ellington and Mahalia
Jackson became popular. A number of persons bought their records.

2. Programs such as ‘The Voice of America', drama serials and news report
were heard over the airwaves throughout the Caribbean.

3. Dances were associated with each of the different type of music. There
were the twist, cha cha cha and the mash potato.

The Cha Cha Cha

 The Twist

4. Local cultural instruments such as the tambourine and maracas were being
replaced by the electric guitar that American music idols used.

5. Films and cinemas help to increase the American influence. The lifestyle of
the Americans was not only seen on television but at the theatres.

6. Recreational activities such as monopoly and checkers replaced ring games

and story telling. In sports, young boys wanted to play basket ball and girls
hankered after softball rather than cricket and dandy shandy. Children played
cowboy and Indians instead of listening to stories.

7. Even our diet and eating patterns were affected by the U.S. Beer and soda,
fast foods such as hamburgers, chips, hot dogs and pizzas replaced yam,
banana and flour dumplings.
8. Men and women began to wear Panama hats. Women began to sport
pedal pushers (pants). Everyone wanted to own a pair of jeans, Levis or
otherwise. The sneakers, t-shirts, nail polish and other cosmetics are on the
long list of clothing and accessories that were introduced and made popular
by the U.S.

Panama Hat Pedal pushers

9. Trends were also copied with regard to hairstyles. Men began to cut their
hair in the famous Tony ‘C. Hollywood began to determine the fashions for
the Caribbean.

10. Parents switched from English names such as John, Winston, Mary and
Elizabeth to American names such as Cliff and Laura (from Little House on the
Prairie)

11. American textbooks and novels were sold in stores everywhere. Some
were given as gifts to libraries and schools. Girls read the entire series of
Nancy Drew while the boys read Hardy Boys.

The U.S. and Naval Bases in the Caribbean

During World War 2 (1939-1945) Britain gave permission to the U.S. to lease
land on which to erect bases to protect her precious canal from possible
German attack. The lease was to be for 99 years. In return, Britain received
50 old destroyers (ships).

Six countries were selected;

1. Antigua
2. Bahamas

3. British Guiana

4. Jamaica

5. St. Lucia

6. Trinidad

Negative effects of U.S. Presence at the Bases

1. The Americans chose the best lands. In the case of Trinidad it took up a
lovely beach named Chaguaramas which was then closed to the public!

2. The people felt that the lease was far too long. The War was not expected
to last for 99 years. Why then did Britain agree to such a long lease? To make
matters worst the local leaders were not consulted about the matter.

3. Caribbean people argue that there was really no need for this long lease
since the ‘possibility of a German attack ended when the war was over.

4. Chaguaramas became an issue when the Premier of Trinidad, Eric Williams

wanted to use the area as the headquarters for the Federation.

Chaguaramas Eric Williams

5. The soldiers practiced undesirable activities such as prostitution, gambling

and drinking.
6. Racism and discrimination increased with their presence. The fact that they
could afford to pay ‘yankee dollars' that many persons craved for gave them
an air and attitude of superiority.

Positive effects of U.S. Presence at the Bases

1. Sanitation and Health programs were sponsored by the U.S.

2. The bases were military bases so airstrips were constructed. Antigua later
developed this airstrip into its national airport.

3. Highways and bridges were constructed while roads were paved.

4. The territories in particular and the region in general benefited from the
added security of the military at the bases as long as the war lasted.

5. In 1941 under the land lease Act the Caribbean received $15M of loans and
much needed material for the economic development of the countries.

Economic Impact

1. During World War 2 the influence of the Americans on the economies of

the British West Indies increased. The war had closed off many of the
Caribbean's European markets. The Caribbean looked to the U.S. to sell much
of its goods and in return they bought or imported goods from the U.S.

2. During and after the war there was a severe food shortage. In 1942, the
Anglo-American Commission introduced several measures to combat both the
food shortage and unemployment that plagued the region. The Emergency
Land-Water highway was created to overcome the inadequate food supplies
from Britain.

3. In 1950 the U.S. became interested in Jamaica's bauxite industry. Through

ALCAN exploited both Jamaica's and Guyana's bauxite. In 1956 they invested
heavily in Trinidad's oil industry.

4. She used the opportunity to increase her investments in shipping, banking

and insurance in the region.
5. Through the Agency for International Development and the Caribbean
Development Bank, bilateral and multilateral loans were offered to Caribbean
countries such as Jamaica and Trinidad.

6. The U.S. Peace Corps also aided in economic development. They assisted
in key areas such as agricultural training and development.

7. By 1962 U.S. dollars were pumped into the Tourism industry of the
Caribbean. This was especially so after the rift with Fidel Castro and Cuba.