(Engin 1

ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY FOR DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF
COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES

ENGINEERING APPLICATION OF FRACTURE MECHANICS
Editor-in-Chief: George C. Sih
VOLUME 14
The titles published in this series are listed at the end of this volume.
Advanced Technology
for Design and
Fabrication of Composite
Materials and Structures
Applications to the Automotive, Marine, Aerospace
and Construction Industry
Edited by
G. C. Sih
Institute of Fracture and Solid Mechanics,
Lehigh University,
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
A. Carpinteri
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Strutturale,
Politecnico di Torino,
Torino, Italy
and
G. Surace
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Aeronautica e Spaziale,
Politecnico di Torino,
Torino, Italy
SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Advanced technology for design and fabrication of composite materials
and structures ; applications to the automotive, marine, aerospace,
and construction industry I edited by G.C. Sih, A. Carpinteri, and
G. Surace.
p. cm.
Papers presented at an International Symposium on Advanced
Technology for Design and Fabrication of Composite Materials and
Structures, organized by Consorzio per la ricerca e l'educazione
permanente, held at the Pol itecnico di Torino, Italy, May 24-28,
1993.
Inc 1udes index.
ISBN 978-90-481-4507-2 ISBN 978-94-015-8563-7 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-94-015-8563-7
1. Composite materials--Congresses. 2. Composite construction-
-Congresses. 1. Sih, G. C. (George C.) II. Carpinteri, A.
III. Surace, G. IV. International Symposium on Advanced Technology
for Design and Fabrication of Composite Materials and Structures
(1993 ; Pol itecnico di Torino) V. Concorzio per la ricerca e
l' educaz i one permanente (Ita 1y)
TA418.9.C6A2833 1995
620.1' 18--dc20 94-46549
ISBN 978-90-481-4507-2
Printed on acid-free paper
AH Rights Reserved
© 1995 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 1995
Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover 1st edition 1995
No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or

utilized in any form or by any means, electronic Of mechanical,
including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and
retrieval system, without written permis sion from the copyright owner.
Contents
Series on engineering application of fracture mechanics ix

Foreword xi
Opening remarks xiii
Contributing authors xv
Photographs xix
SESSION I: Curing, Bonding and Modelling

Towards decision making in knowledge-based systems for composite cure 1
- G. C. Sih
Adhesive bonding in construction technology 15
- R. N. Swamy
Nonlinear fracture mechanics models for fibre reinforced materials 31
- A. Carpinteri and R. MassabO
SESSION II: Composite Fabrication Technology
Modelling three-dimensional composites 49

- B. N. Cox
Design-fabrication-performance relationship of advanced textile 63
structural composites
- T. D. Kostar, J.-H. Byun and T. W. Chou
Modelling of filament winding technology 77
- G. Di Vita, M. Farioli, F. Ferraro and P. Perugini
SESSION III: Structural Behavior of Composites
Material anisotropy and work strain characterized by stationary 85

values of strain energy density function
- G. Sacchi-Landriani. M. Rovati and A. Taliercio
vi
Constitutive laws for fibre reinforced ceramics 101

- B. Kroplin, D. DinkIer and A. Fink
On the fiber-governed bimodular constitutive models 113

- P. Bisegna, F. Maceri and E. Sacco
Genetic algorithms for the design of composite panels 129

- S. Nagendra, R. T. Haftka and Z. Gurdal
SESSION IV: Composite Beams and Plates
On computational strategies for composite laminates 145

- J. N. Reddy and D. H. Robbins, Jr.
Some aspects in the structural modelling of composite 171

laminates
- D. Bruno and R. Zinno
Transverse cracking in laminated composites 191

- L. A. Berglund and J. Varna
Some global aspects of fibre reinforcement efficiency in concrete 203

- P. Stroeven
Failure behavior and structural design of concrete members reinforced 221

with continuous fiber reinforcing materials
- K. Rokugo, H. Iwase, Y. Uchida and W. Koyanagi
SESSION V: Interfaces and Fracture
Interface structure analysis and fracture behaviour of inorganic 231

composites
- M. Ferraris, C. Badini and P. Appendino
Advanced fibre composites with engineered interfaces 241

- Y.-W. Mai
Interface property tailoring for pseudo strain-hardening 261

cementitious composites
- V. C. Li, H. C. Wu and Y. W. Chan
SESSION VI: Damage and Fracture
Experimental determination of the fractal dimension of disordered 269

fracture surfaces
- A. Carpinteri, B. Chiaia and F. Maradei
Damage characterization, damage growth validation and repair 293

consideration of advanced aircraft composite structures
- C. Campolo and F. Cipri
Near tip measurement of environmental effects on opening and 311

growth of cracks in particulate composites
- C. T. Liu and C. W. Smith
vii
Fracture mechanics parameters influencing the mechanical 319

properties of concrete composites
- O. Buyukozturk
SESSION VII: Thermoplastic Composites

Fundamental aspects in manufacturing of thermoplastic 333
composite materials
- K. Friedrich, F. Haupert, M. Hou and V. Klinkmiiller
Economic manufacturing techniques for continuous 349
fibre-reinforced thermoplastics in aircraft and automotive
applications
- G. Kempe and N. Biirkle
Forming techniques of advanced thermoplastic composite 365

materials
- Sp. G. Pantelakis, Th. B. Kermanidis, Th. B. Spathopoulos
and E. A. Baxevani
SESSION VIII: Joint, Airframe and Engine

Bolted joint strength of graphite/epoxy laminates 377
subjected to biaxial loading conditions
- S. V. Hoa
A parametric study of structural adhesive joints for aerospace 393

applications
- G. Surace and E. Brusa
Impact damage and residual strength of forward fuselage 409

composite panel
- A. Borgato and S. Pievani
Application of metal matrix composites for supersonic 427

aeroplane engines
- T. Ishihara
Series on engineering application of
fracture mechanics
Fracture mechanics technology has received considerable attention in recent years and
has advanced to the stage where it can be employed in engineering design to prevent
against the brittle fracture of high-strength materials and highly constrained structures.
While research continued in an attempt to extend the basic concept to the lower
strength and higher toughness materials, the technology advanced rapidly to establish
material specifications, design rules, quality control and inspection standards, code
requirements, and regulations of safe operation. Among these are the fracture toughness
testing procedures of the American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM), the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Codes for the
design of nuclear reactor components, etc. Step-by-step fracture detection and
prevention procedures are also being developed by the industry, government and
university to guide and regulate the design of engineering products. This involves the
interaction of individuals from the different sectors of the society that often presents a
problem in communication. The transfer of new research findings to the users is now
becoming a slow, tedious and costly process.
One of the practical objectives of this series on Engineering Application of Fracture
Mechanics is to provide a vehicle for presenting the experience of real situations by
those who have been involved in applying the basic knowledge of fracture mechanics in
practice. It is time that the subject should be presented in a systematic way to the
practicing engineers as well as to the students in universities at least to all those who
are likely to bear a responsibility for safe and economic design. Even though the
current theory of linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) is limited to brittle fracture
behavior, it has already provided a remarkable improvement over the conventional
methods not accounting for initial defects that are inevitably present in all materials
and structures. The potential of the fracture mechanics technology, however, has not
been fully recognized. There remains much to be done in constructing a quantitative
theory of material damage that can reliably translate small specimen data to the design
of large size structural components. The work of the physical metallurgists and the
fracture mechanicians should also be brought together by reconciling the details of the
material microstructure with the assumed continua of the computational methods. It is
with the aim of developing a wider appreciation of the fracture mechanics technology
applied to the design of engineering structures such as aircrafts, ships, bridges,
pavements, pressure vessels, off-shore structures, pipelines, etc., that this series is being
developed.
Undoubtedly, the successful application of any technology must rely on the
soundness of the underlying basic concepts and mathematical models and how they
ix
x
reconcile with each other. This goal has been accomplished to a large extent by the
book series on Mechanics of Fracture started in 1972. The seven published volumes
offer a wealth of information on the effects of defects or cracks in cylindrical bars, thin
and thick plates, shells, composites and solids in three dimensions. Both static and
dynamic loads are considered. Each volume contains an introductory chapter that
illustrates how the strain energy criterion can be used to analyze the combined influence
of defect size, component geometry and size, loading, material properties, etc. The
criterion is particularly effective for treating mixed mode fracture where the crack
propagates in a nonself similar fashion. One of the major difficulties that continuously
perplex the practitioners in fracture mechanics is the selection of an appropriate
fracture criterion without which no reliable prediction of failure could be made. This
requires much discernment, judgement and experience. General conclusion based on
the agreement of theory and experiment for a limited number of physical phenomena
should be avoided.
Looking into the future the rapid advancement of modern technology will require
more sophisticated concepts in design. The micro-chips used widely in electronics and
advanced composites developed for aerospace applications are just some of the more
well-known examples. The more efficient use of materials in previously unexperienced
environments is no doubt needed. Fracture mechanics should be extended beyond the
range of LEFM. To be better understood is the entire process of material damage that
includes crack initiation, slow growth and eventual termination by fast crack
propagation. Material behavior characterized from the uniaxial tensile tests must be
related to more complicated stress states. These difficulties should be overcome by
unifying metallurgical and fracture mechanics studies, particularly in assessing the
results with consistency.
This series is therefore offered to emphasize the applications of fracture mechanics
technology that could be employed to assure the safe behavior of engineering products
and structures. Unexpected failures mayor may not be critical in themselves but they
can often be annoying, time-wasting and discrediting of the technical community.
Bethlehem, G. C. SIH
Pennsylvania Editor-in-Chief
Foreword
Contained in the volume are the papers presented at an International Symposium on

Advanced Technology for Design and Fabrication of Composite Materials and
Structures. The Symposium was organized by Consorzio per la Ricerca e l'Educazione
Permanente; Institute of Fracture and Solid Mechanics, Lehigh University,
Pennsylvania USA; Dipartimento di Ingegneria Strutturale del Politecnico di Torino;
and Dipartimento di Ingegneria Aeronautica e Spaziale del Politecnico di Torino. It
was held at the Politecnico di Torino in Italy, May 24-28, 1993. The support from the
various organizations is acknowledged as follows:
• Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche • ALENIA SP AZIO
• AGUST A • CIRA
• AERMACCHI • Centro Ricerche FIAT
• ALENIA (formerly AERITALIA) • Collegio Costruttori Edili della
Provincia di Torino
As new knowledge is being accumulated on the design and fabrication of advanced
composite systems in different sectors of the world, there is the need not only to
exchange new ideas but also to disseminate the information from the researchers to the
users. The theme of this Symposium is particularly relevant to the automobile, marine,
aerospace and construction industry where the competitive edge lies on improved
processing and/or manufacturing of the products.
Technological advances have been and will continue to depend strongly on the
development of new materials and their effective use in design. Empirical trial-and-
error methods could no longer be considered economically feasible when applied to
usage-specific materials such as composites. Better ways are needed for quantifying
inhomogeneities due to the microstructure and those caused by damage in service.
Emphasized will be the topics:
• Optimization of constituents to control the mechanical and/or thermal properties
of composites.
• Assessment of how processing techniques affect failure behavior of heterogeneous
materials.
• Implementation of damage tolerant concept into the design of composite
materials and structures.
• Degradation of composite material as a result of aging and/or attack by
aggressi ve en vironmen ts.
• Detection of defects and microstructure changes in composite systems.
• Demonstration of how criteria could be applied to select composites for specific
applications.
xi
xii
A special note of thanks is due to the staff of the Dipartimento di Ingegneria

Strutturale del Politecnico di Torino for assisting the authors in their presentations and
organizing the social events. Mrs. Barbara DeLazaro typed the manuscripts in this
volume and she deserves a hand of applause from the contributors.
May 1993 G. C. Sih

Torino, Italy A. Carpinteri
G. Surace
Opening remarks
Advances in materials science and engineering have made it possible to start with a
need and then develop a material to meet it at the microstructure or even the atomic
level. The development of high performance composites will play a key role in
aerospace systems for the year 2000; they involve carbon-carbon composites for high
temperature applications, glass composites for propulsion systems and others. Although
much progress has been made toward fabricating structural parts, much remains to be
done in processing technology. That is, to better control the product quality and time
of production so that cost of fabrication can be reduced. Over the past decade,
manufacturers have come to the realization that seemingly straightforward techniques
are not providing the answers that were originally anticipated. The applications control
system has evolved through several technological stages. A variety of procedures can be
found today with varying degree of sophistication in adaptive regulation and intelligent
control. Despite the ease with which real time data can be generated, the decision-
making process depends on accurate assessment of the system behavior from which
corrective measures in processing could be implemented. It is with these objectives in
mind that this international symposium has been organized. Economic considerations
have and will continue to exert pressure on the engineers to improve on quality
assurance, particularly in the manufacturing of composites.
Only in recent times that we have started to put more emphases on processing and
identifying tradeoffs between conflicting material properties or goals. Increase in
resistance to temperature often tends to be achieved at the expense of instability of
mechanical properties. With the group of experts gathered in this Symposium, there
prevails many opportunities in the next few days to share and propose new ideas on how
to better gather our resources in optimizing the design and processing of composite
materials and structures. On behalf of the organizers of the Symposium, I may be bold
enough to ask three major questions as follows:
• How to trade off the fundamental variables such as pressure and temperature for
producing the desired final product characterized by its physical properties and shape?
• How to assess the change in material microstructure in terms of the processing
variables monitored by sensors?
• How to establish the necessary methodology for validating the proposed models?
Obviously, this Symposium would not provide all the answers. However, any
attempts made to identify and/or better understand the problem will put us a step
closer to the answer. This Symposium should serve such a purpose.
Torino, Italy G. C. Sih

May 1993
xiii
Contributing authors
P. Appendino
Politecnico di Torino, Torino, Italy
C. Badini
E. A. Baxevani
University of Patras, Patras, Greece
L. A. Berglund
Lulea University of Technology, Lulea, Sweden
P. Bisegna
University of Rome "Tor Vergata", Rome, Italy
A. Borgato
Aermacchi, Varese, Italy
D. Bruno
University of Calabria, Cosenza, Italy
N. Burkle
Institute of Structures and Design, Stuttgart, Germany
O. Buyukozturk
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts
J.-H. Byun
University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware
C. Campolo
Alenia Aeronautica, Torino, Italy
A. Carpinteri
Y. W. Chan
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
xv
xvi
B. Chiaia
T. W. Chou
F. Cipri
Alenia Aeronautica, Torino, Italy
B. Cox
Rockwell International Science Center, Thousand Oaks, California
D. DinkIer
University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
G. DiVita
C.I.R.A., Capua, Italy
M. Farioli
M. Ferraris
F. Ferraro
A. Fink
K. Friedrich
University of Kaiserslautern, Kaiserslautern, Germany
Z. Giirdal
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
R. T. Haftka
F. Haupert
S. V. Hoa
Concordia University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
M. Hou
T. Ishihara
Tokai University, Hiratsuka, Japan
H.Iwase
Gifu University, Yanagido, Japan
xvii
G. Kempe
Institute of Structures and Design, Stuttgart, Germany
Th. B. Kermanidis
V. Klinkmiiller
T. D. Kostar
W. Koyanagi
B. Kroplin
V. C. Li
C. T. Liu
Phillips Laboratory (AFMC), Edwards AFB, California
F. Maceri
University of Rome "Tor Vergata", Rome, Italy
Y. W. Mai
University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
F. Maradei
R. Massabo
Universita di Genova, Genova, Italy
S. Nagendra
Sp. G. Pantelakis
P. Perugini
S. Pievani
J. N. Reddy
Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
D. H. Robbins, Jr.
Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
xviii
K. Rokugo
M. Rovati
University of Trento, Trento, Italy
G. Sacchi Landriani
Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
E. Sacco
University of Cassino, Cassino, Italy
G. C. Sih
Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania
C. W. Smith
Th. B. Spathopoulos
P. Stroeven
Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
R. M. Swamy
University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
A. Taliercio
University of Parma, Parma, Italy
Y. Uchida
J. Varna
Lulea University of Technology, Lulea, Sweden
H.C. Wu
R. Zinno
University of Calabria, Cosenza, Italy
A group picture of the authors.
Technical session at the Politecnico di Torino.

Laboratory testing of concrete specimen in tension.
At the Symposium banquet.

TOWARDS DECISION MAKING IN KNOWLEDGE-BASED SYSTEMS FOR
COMPOSITE CURE
G. C. Sih
Institute of Fracture and Solid Mechanics, Lehigh University,

Bethlehem, Pennsylvania 18015 USA
Current emphases on effective process control are targeted to achieve the desired
product-property in a consistent and verifiable manner. The paradigm focuses on
implementing knowledge derived from pre-and-after processing material properties,
thermomechanical history,~tu sensor data, and predictive process models. A series
of pre-determined set points wou.ld be established to control the on-line process schedules.
Since material properties are not directly measurable, the effectiveness of those
schedules depends on knowing the evolution of property goal states as a function of the
process variable set points.
Addressed in this work are the knowledge requirements for a system that controls
the evolution of composite curing and the needs to exercise deterministic corrective
measures rather than heuristic-based. Four basic elements are considered necessary in
establishing set points for control loop parameters. They are local phase transformation
to identify exothermic and endothermic reactions; synchronization and calibration of
nonequilibrium pressure and temperature data; size/time response in relation to domain
irreversibility; and methodology for validating product-property specifications to
performance requirements.
Specific reference is made to existing autoclave curing systems and recent concerns
on how the dielectric property data for the resin are related to viscosity and degree of
cure. Methods are offered for analytical determination of resin viscosity, heat generated
by chemical reaction, degree of cure, and the activation energy for viscosity, if needed.
Deterministic set points can be developed and implemented in current systems to tailor-
control the process of composite curing.
1. Introduction
Improvements on composite cure cycle can enhance fabrication time, operational

cost and quality of the end product. The empirical approach requires much effort in
adjusting the different parameters to arrive at the desired cure cycle. It is a tedious,
time-consuming, if not costly, procedure for the fabrication of advanced composites
whose performance requirements are more stringent. Analytic models could provide
information on the "optimum" processing conditions; they have been developed for
autoclave curing [1] and processing of thermoplastic composites [2]. Their application
requires extensive material data which are difficult to measure and is limited to simple
geometries. Batch to batch variations in material properties cannot be accounted for.
Control of the manufacturing process, therefore, becomes lacking. An "expert" system
[3,4] focuses attention on selecting and controlling the processing conditions in real time.
System variables such as temperature, pressure, ionic conductivity and specimen
dimensions are monitored inside the material [5,6]. Pre-established rules are developed
to adjust the controlling parameters. However, there are recent concerns that the
dielectric data [71 cannot "provide either the viscosity, the degree of cure, or the rate of
cure as a function of time throughout the cure process". Interpretation of real time data
is suspect.
G. C. Sih et al. (eds.), Advanced Technology for Design and Fabrication of Composite Materials and Structures, 1-14.
© 1995 Kluwer Academic Publishers.
2
Acoustic emission also provides an indirect reading of cure monitoring [8,9] as the
critical material parameters are not measured directly. It relies on the interruption of
the transmitted acoustic waves by the medium. The data picked up from the receiver
reflect the amplitude and energy of acoustic emission and are correlated to the resin
viscosity. Deviations from the physical conditions of curing depend on the dissipated
energy that did not transform into acoustic signal. Too much emphases cannot be
placed on energy dissipation for characterizing composite behavior [10,11]. Recent
experiments carried out at the Naval Research Laboratory [12] validate the need to
identify the actual change of energy state, not just the excess energy.
Much has been published on wanting to develop a self-cure control system such
that the pressure/temperature cycle could be adjusted via automation. Development of
the closed loop system requires a fundamental understanding of the physical transitions
that occur in curing. Predetermined set points in the cure process schedule can thus be
established to dictate the specific product properties. Acceptable limits would then
follow for making decisions.
2. Transitional Character of Composite Cure
Construction of high performance composites makes use of continuous fiber

prep regs that are laminated in multiple plies. The assembly is then cured in an
autoclave by simultaneous application of heat and pressure. As the temperature is
raised, physical and chemical changes occur in the matrix resin while the applied
pressure compacts and consolidates the composite structure. A typical
temperature/pressure cure cycle is illustrated in Figure 1. The trade-off between
Heatup
cure -----111-.-- down
Cool
600
f-'
QJ
li 400 '"I:
~ 60~
QJ
C.
E 1- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -I ~
'"
t- 200 1 I "
30 ~
I I 0:
: I
--------1 L ____ _
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Time (minutes)
Figure 1 - Typical temperature and pressure cure cycle for laminated composite.
temperature and pressure and time duration control the final physical and mechanical
properties of the composite. They should be optimized to render a void free product
that is uniformly cured with the desired configuration and resin content.
2.1 Exothermic and Endothermic Heat Reactions
Heating of the prep regs causes a decrease in the resin viscosity in each ply; this is
continued until the resin starts to flow. Pressure is then applied, Figure 1, to
consolidate the composite structure. Additional temperature rise leads to an increase in
the resin viscosity due to polymerization and cross-linking. Nonuniform thermal
variations would prevail. Sudden rise and drop in temperature change are referred to as
3
exothermic and endothermic heat reactions, respectively. These features are exhibited
in Figure 2 and are manifestation of local phase transformations.
u
'E...
.....
QJ
..c
<l "0
x
W
QJ
~
C
'"u
..c
...
QJ
...." u
~
QJ
'§
Co
....
QJ
E ..c
QJ
..... 0
oe
c
w
o Time t
Figure 2 - Characteristics of local temperature change during cure of resin.
For a one-dimensional composite system depicted in Figure 3, the rate of heat

generation due to exothermic chemical reactions Q can be included in the energy
balance equation [13] as applied to the composite:
:t (pCT) = :z (k ~I) + pQ (1)

Negative Q would correspond to endothermic chemical reactions or heat degeneration.
In equation (1), z is the space coordinate and t time variable. The mass density is p
while C and k are, respectively, the specific heat and thermal conductivity of the
composite.
Figure 3 - Schematic of prepreg lay-up assembly of the composite.
Let Q( t) be the heat evolved from t=O to some time t. The total heat of reaction
for curing, say at t = to becomes
4
to
Qo = JQ(t)dt (2)
o
The ratio
Q(t)
a= Qo (3)
can serve as the degree of cure of the resin. It follows that a=O and a=1 correspond,
respectively, to an uncured and a completely cured resin. An exponential relation
between a and the shear viscosity I-ls can be used [14]
I-ls = I-lo exp[IiT + Ka] (4)

in which K is a constant and R the universal gas constant. The activation energy for
viscosity is C) with Po being the average viscosity. Here, T is the absolute temperature.
Even though the unknowns a, da/dt, C), etc., in equations (3) and (4) can be
evaluated by empirical means [14], a more direct approach will be taken.
2.2 Inhomogeneity of Physical Properties
A physical system is said to be in a state of nonequilibrium when its constituents
change continuously with time in a nonhomogeneous manner. That is, the
thermal/mechanical properties cannot be described by parameters representin~ the
system as a whole. More specifically, the parameters p, C, k, etc., in equation (1) and
those in equation (4) depend on z and t; their values alter with the transitions and
reactions during cure. It is not surprising that existing curing schemes [7] tend to
deviate from expectation because they fail to account for the nonequilibrium
thermal/mechanical behavior of the resin.
Classical thermodynamics and mechanics as generally used to develop the expert or
intelligent curing systems are strictly not applicable because the effects of heat
generation on physical properties are not formulated into the theory. Physical
parameters are preassumed or obtained indirectly in practice; they correspond to some
average over space and/or time often not defined. The equilibrium space average of a
function F(z,t), for example, can be interpreted as
hc
F* = ~c JF(z,t )I t
o
-+ t * dz (5)
in which t* is the time required for the system to reach a thermal/mechanical

equilibrium state. The bar is used to denote space average with hc being the composite
thickness. Since the physical parameters p, C, k, etc., in equation (1) are not known as
functions of z and t, their prescription would necessarily be restricted to space/time
limits.
3. Nonequilibrium Thermomechanics of Curing
Any system that undergoes phase transformation is known to be intrinsically

nonequilibrium. In the language of nonequilibrium thermodynamics, entropy would be
generated in a local region in addition to that exchanged between its surrounding. The
synchronization of thermal and mechanical effects becomes an issue where element size
5
and time response are mutually interactive. Nonequilibrium temperature 9 must be

distinguished from the equilibrium temperature T in equation (1) as defined in classical
thermodynamics. It is interrelated to the isostress T, isostrain e and dissipation energy
density GJ) [15]:
~9 _ ~T~e
""8 - - ~GJ) (6)
The negative sign denotes work done on the system. The pair (T,e) stands for anyone
of the nine pairs (T .. ,e .. ) with i,j = 1,2,3 where e·· are the displacement gradients
au· ~ ~ ~
eij = ae\ i,j = 1,2,3 (7)

J
with ui being the displacements. The isoenergy density plane possesses the unique
property that the same energy is transmitted across the orthogonal planes directed
along the axes
as J
e·.
The isostress T·· are to be distinguished from the ordinary stress (T ••
~ ~
T··
1J
= (T ••
1J
+ p(ii.1 - f.)'r.
1 J
(8)
in which piii and pf. are the inertia and body force, respectively. The rate change of
volume witli surfacl area 'rj = (dV/dA)j is finite in the isoenergy density theory [15],
i.e., the isoenergy element no longer shrinks to zero in the limit.
3.1 Nonequilibrium Heat Reaction
Assuming that equation (1) remams valid under nonequilibrium conditions and
hence
gt (pCe) = gz (k ~~) + pQ (9)

such that
p = p(z,t), C = C(z,t), k = k(z,t) (10)

Heat reaction would likewise be z and t dependent, i.e.,
Q(z,t) = C(z,t)~e(z,t) (11)

According to the isoenergy density theory [15], C and k are given by
C -- ~GJ)
~9
(12)
and
k = C(~V)~z (13)
~A ~t
For the one-dimensional model, ~ V / ~A or 'r refer to the z-direction.
3.2 Isoenergy Density State
An isoenergy density state is defined by ('r,e) or (T,e) since

6
T = J .x(e) 'f(e) de (14)
The relation between 'f and e is determined everywhere in the system for each time
step based only on a knowledge of ('f,e) for the reference state, Figure 4. That is, only
'"
§~
"0
> u'"
...
o .!!!
...
::l
'" U>
cC"I..c:
....
'" .-
..c: :;:
U
o~--------------~-
Isostrain e
Figure 4 - Variations of change of volume with surface with isostrain for the reference
state.
one set of experimental data would be needed. The change of states for each local
element are determined in increments according to the external disturbance. No a
priori assumptions are made on the physical properties which are evaluated from the
rate change of kinematic quantities 'f and e with time and space. An iteration scheme
is used to obtain oX in equation (14) whose initial value is known from the initial
isoenergy density state:
'W = J J oX(e) 'f(e) dede (15)
3.3 Classical Interpretation
Once 'f and e are known from the isoenergy density theory [15], the dissipation
energy density G1J is determined by a scheme that involves the relaxation of the local
disturbance. Equations (6) and (14) yield e and hence C follows from equation (12) and
k from equation (13). In addition Q can be computed from equation (11).
Uniformity of Cure. All quantities in equation (9) are known for all values of z
and t except the mass density p(z,t) which can now be solved numerically. Uniformity
on the cured mass density of the resin can thus be checked.
Degree of Cure. The degree of cure a in equation (3) can vary with space and time
variable as Q(z,t)
a(z,t) = Qo(z) (16)
in which
7
to
Qo(z) = JQ(z,t)dt (17)
o
A space average of a follows:
hc
a(t) = h lQ_
coo
J
Q(z,t)dz (18)
while Qo is given by
hc to
Qo = ~
coo
JJ Q(z,t)dt dz (19)
Viscosity. The inhomogeneous character of the shear viscosity can be extracted

from the classical stress and displacement relations for a viscous and compressible fluid:
8uk 8u. 8uj
u .. = -p6 .. + AV -8 6.. + JJS(-81 + -8 ) (20)
1J 1J xk 1J Xj xi
The scalar p stands for
P_ 1u (21)
- 3 kk
and the displacements u· are derived from the isoenergy density theory. Computed
from equation (8) are the1 0rdinary stresses. Extraction of the coefficients AV and JJs can
thus be made from equation (20). The quantity AV is the dilatational viscosity.
Application of equation (5) renders JJo for the space averaged equilibrium state:
hc
Ji~ = ~c J JJs(z,t)l t
o
--+ t * dz (22)
Activation Energy. Rearrangement of equation (4) yields an explicit expression for

the activation energy for viscosity, i.e.,
<I> = Re[log(~~) - /Ca] (23)

The constant /C is evaluated under the condition that equation (23) must hold for all
values of z and t.
4. Electromagnetic Sensing Technique
A so-called intelligent curing system has the capability of monitoring the in-situ
data and controlling set points and/or envelopes to attain target properties of the resin.
The dielectric measurement technique [5-7] has been applied to characterize
polymerization reaction in thermoset polymers. Frequency dependence of the complex
permittivity is used to separate the dipolar and ionic component. The former is
associated with signals at high frequencies in hi&hly viscous media and the latter with
low frequencies in media with low viscosities and/or higher temperatures.
8
4.1 Dielectric Measurement Scheme

As the resin is being cured, the dielectric permittivity d and conductance G are
recorded by sensors placed in the resin. A flow chart of the test procedure can be found
in Figure 5. The sensors must be isolated from the conducting fibers while be contacted
Composite T
Sensor
I Signal
I Processor
h
~
>.
~
."!:!
Data for
- permittivity ...'"
.';:
::I
d and loss "CI
c
factor G 0
...
·2~
o Time t
Figure 5 - Flow chart of dielectric measurement scheme.
with the resin. In general, d is identified with the dielectric permittivity components
d·. as
IJ
U·1 = d··E·
IJ J
(24)
The electron displacements are U i associated with the electric field Ej" The
conductance G is also a tensorial quantity with components Gij :
J.1 = G··E·
1J J
(25)
where J. are components of the current density vector. If Co stands for the capacitance
of the xriedium with permittivity fO' then the relation
G
Co -
~
fO
(26)
has been proposed [16]. Variations of the ionic conductivity ~ with time are measurable
as shown in Figure 5.
The ways with which the dielectric measurements are related to the physical
properties of resin cure are based on two assumptions:
• The ionic conductivity is inversely proportional to the shear viscosity, or
(27)
• The rate of ionic conductivity d~/dt is directly related to the actual rate of cure
da/dt, or
~
~-~
~ (~ )
9
The degree of cure a is calculated as the normalized area under the 0 versus time curve,
i.e.,
t
Jo(t)dt
a - .,,0'--_ _
(29)
- to
Jo(t)dt
o
The denominator represents the total area at time t = to'
4.2 Experimental Observation
Ionic conductivity data were collected for two resins [7); namely, Hercules 3501-6
and Fiberite 976. The disturbing conclusions were that dielectric measurements do not
provide the viscosity or degree of cure histories during cure. This is in contrast to the
assumptions made by equations (27) and (28). Direct quotations from [7) are stated as
follows:
• "The ionic inverse conductivity E is not directly related to the viscosity".
• "The ionic conductivity E does indicate the time at which the viscosity reaches
its minimum value, inasmuch as E is a maximum at approximately the same time at
which the viscosity is minimum".
• "The rate of ionic conductivity dE/dt is not directly related to the actual rate of
cure da/dt".
• "The rate of ionic conductivity dE/dt does indicate the time at which cure
reaches completion (da/dt--O) inasmuch as dE/dt approaches zero at about the same
time as the rate of cure.
Further recognized in [7) was that the dielectric cure monitoring scheme required a
prior knowledge of the ionic conductivity as a function of time. Empirical calibration
provides no assurance that the predetermined values of E will prevail during the test.
Correlations between the dielectric measurements and resin properties are affected by
the frequency. Each test must be performed at different frequencies to be adjusted by
trial and error. These inadequacies are invariably traced to the oversimplifying
assumptions stated in equations (27) and (28) that could not reflect the nonequilibrium
behavior of resin cure.
4.3 Calibration of Thermoelectromagnetic Data
Calibration of the dielectric cure data requires a priori knowledge of the dielectric
permittivity d ij and/or conductance Gij . This would require an application of the
nonequilibrium thermoelectromagnetic theory [17) whose formulation is based on the
isoenergy density concept [15]. The displacements u· in the prepreg lay-up during cure
as shown in Figure 3 can be solved by including tlie effects of electromagnetic waves
emitted by the sensor electrodes. The corresponding volume energy density is
'W = I ~ dCU (30)
in which ~ and CU are, respectively, the electric field and electron displacement referred
to the isoenergy density plane. Their values on the physical plane would be E and U or
10
Ei and Ui ·
Sensor Disturbance. The current flow through the sensor's electrodes embedded in
the resin generates an electromagnetic field in the surrounding region. This would
affect the local temperature as [17]
~e = _ 6.~tnCU (31)
The difference between equations (6) and (31) renders the correction for the local resin
temperature due to the disturbance of the sensor. Similar adjustments can be made for
the local displacements ui.
Ionic Conductivity. The isoenergy density theory [17] solves directly for U i and Ei
from which d ij can be extracted using equation (24). The classical electromagnetic field
theory provides the known relations
aBo
- = i··k
iijkEj,k - - at' (32)
I
J.I H
IJ J,. k
where iijk are the components of the alternating tensor. The flux density Bi and
intensity HI· are connected by the magnetic permeability coefficients J-I .. :
IJ
Bi = J-lijHj (33)
Under these considerations, Gij can be found from equation (25). This gives G or the
ionic conductivity 1: in equation (26).
The validity of equations (27) and (28) could thus be checked from basic principles
now that 1:( t), J-Is( t) and a( t) can be computed individually at every point in the resin.
Domain Irreversibility. Size of the sensor and its time response determine the
accuracy of measurements and hence the domain size of irreversibility. Each value of p
in equation (21) and temperature 0 are associated with a corresponding value of dV / dA
or 'Y which is indicative of the local length scale. A phase transformation associated
with some critical values of 0 c and (6.GJJ/6.e)c would signify an irreversible chan~e of
state over some region of size 'Y. The strain rate of energy dissipation (6. GJJ / 6.e Jc is
analogous to the latent heat in classical thermodynamics. Acceptable limits of domain
irreversibility must be made compatible with the allowable inhomogeneity of the resin.
5. Knowledge-Based Intelligent Control Loop System
Made available are two of the basic ingredients for developing a knowledge-based
intelligent control loop system. Direct predictions can be made to describe the response
of the composite cure system to its imposed temperature/pressure cycle. In-situ
dielectric sensor data can be corrected and correlated to the desired product properties.
Cure process cycles could thus be scheduled to specific final product goals such that the
measured behavior could compare with the predicted behavior.
A flow chart of a knowledge-based intelligent system for composite cure is shown in

Figure 6. It focuses on identifying and controlling the variables that dictate specific
product properties via the sensor data. Product performance determines the material
properties and configuration constraints. The evolution of temperature and pressure
must be monitored outside and inside the composite for the implementation of
11
Product Desig!!
• Material properties
• Configuration constraints
• Residual strains
• Inhomogeneity
Process Simulations
Global J.gg!
P.T p.9
P.t P.(j
Processed Data
Recommend
corrections if
needed
Knowledge-Based
Control Loop
Figure 6 - Flow chart of knowledge-based intelligent system for composite cure.
predetermined set points in the process schedule. They are referred to as global and
local quantities. In Figure 6, P and T are, respectively, the pressure and temperature in
the autoclave while p and B are the local pressure and temperature in the resin. The
dot represents time differentiation. A knowledge-based control loop makes the decision
for on-line control, the details of which are displayed in Figure 7. Set points for the
1
1
Command input
from main loop
I
,- -- -- -- ---- ---f.----------- -------
I I 1
Process Regulation :
1
1
Set Points
(A-v. /Is)
Figure 7 - Knowledge-based control loop.
control loop parameters can be adjusted on-line according to the preset schedules. This
would involve setting threshold values for P, T, p and 8 based on the target values of
AV and Ps' Onset of phase transformation of the resin would depend on the critical
temperature Bc and strain rate of energy dissipation density (!1 GJJ/ !1e )c' Excess residual
12
strain er can also be one of the quality criteria. The sensored data d, G, etc., are
processed through the control loop until the desired product goals are met.
6. Concluding Remarks
The thermal/mechanical behavior of thermoset composites exhibits complex

dependence not only on the physical properties and component shape and size but also
on the thermodynamic variables controlling the curing process. Commercial material
supplier has limited information on how the end product would be affected if anyone of
the physical and thermodynamics variables is altered. Although many analytical
models have been developed to assess the interacting parameters for optimizing the cure
cycle, they are still not conducive to industrial application. Lacking in particular is the
ability to model the in-situ conditions of the composite while being cured in the
autoclave. Real time data need to be monitored with sufficient accuracy for capturing
the nonequilibrium character of the curing process. This could not be accomplished
without a knowledge of how the controlling variables would interact. For instance, the
trade-off between the curing pressure and temperature depends on the constituents of
the composite and geometric configuration.
Knowledge-based systems provide the competitive edge for shortening the time
span in tailoring the performance of use-specific materials such as composites. This
necessitates a radical change in the hierarchy of needed knowledge to accomplish the
goal. Empirical, trial and error methods are of the past although mass mobilization of
sophisticated electronic sensors still leaves uncertainties and doubts on product quality
control. Existing autoclave curing systems tend to be heuristic in character that may
hold in special circumstances but, in general, they could lead to deviations from
expectation that are large, persistent and serious in their implications of differing from
design requirements. By and large, undue confidence is being placed on feedback
information without a single rational criterion in the decision-making process.
The dielectric measurement technique has been advocated as promising in the
development of expert systems for curing of thermoset polymers. There are, however,
questions raised with regard to the correlation between the sensored data and the actual
material properties. There are strong indications that the in-situ pressure and
temperature data should be interpreted in terms of a nonequilibrium
thermoelectrodynamic theory. Identified are improvements needed to enhance the
expert and/or intelligent autoclave composite cure system. Some of them are:
• Definition of phase transformation is needed from the uncured to the cured state;
variations of the viscosity parameter alone is not sufficient.
• Sensors should be calibrated according to the time and size requirement derived
from the physical process of curing.
• Determine time constant of the feedback system such that sensor data could be
analyzed to readjust the controlling processing parameter.
• Autoclave must have sufficient heat capacity in relation to the composite system
inertia for complete curing. Response time should be sufficiently small in comparison
with that for the full cycle of curing. Inertia of composite system depends on size,
material type as well as geometry change such as sharpness of bend.
The theoretical or empirical results are arrived from a human expert whose reasoning
and knowledge deserve the utmost attention.
13
References
[1] F. C. Campbell, A. R. Mallow, F. R. Muncaster, B. 1. Boman and G. L. Blase,

"Computer Aided Curing of Composites", Air Force Materials Laboratory Report,
AFW AL-TR-86-4060, Dayton, Ohio, 1986.
[2] W. I. Lee, M. F. Talbott, G. S. Springer and L. A. Berglund, "Effect of Cooling

Rate on the Crystallinity and Mechanical Properties of Thermoplastic
Composites", J. of Reinforced Plastics and Composites, Vol. 6, pp. 2-12, 1987.
[3] F. Abrams, P. Garrett, T. Lagnese, S. LeClair, C. W. Lee and J. Park,

"Qualitative Process Automation of Autoclave Curing of Composites", Air Force
Materials Laboratory Report, AFWAL-TR-87-4083, Dayton, Ohio, 1987.
[4] R. A. Servais, C. W. Lee and C. E. Browning, "Intelligent Processing of Composite

Materials", in Materials for the Future, Society for the Advancement of Material
and Process Engineering, Vol. 31, pp. 764-775, 1986.
[5] L. Leonard, "Microdielectrometry: Tiny Sensors Close the Cure Control Loop",
Advanced Composites, pp. 49-52, 1987.
[6] L. Chiao and P. W. Borris, "On the Use of Cure Modeling in Honeycomb
Processing", 34th International SAMPE Symposium, pp. 995-1009, 1989.
[7] P. R. Ciriscioli and G. S. Springer, "Dielectric Cure Monitoring - A Critical
Review", SAMPE Journal, Vol. 25, No.3, pp. 35-42, 1989.
[8] S. C. Brown and P. K. Jarrett, "In-situ Cure Monitoring of 2D Carbon Fiber
Reinforced Phenolic Composites", Technical Report TR-103-60A-9186, Acoustic
Corporation, New Jersey, 1986.
[9] J. R. Mitchell, "Cure Monitoring of Composite Materials using Acoustic

Transmission and Acoustic Emission", Technical Report TR-103-60D-7/87,
Acoustic Corporation, New Jersey, 1987.
[10] G. C. Sih, "Microstructure and Damage Dependence of Advanced Composite

Material Behavior", Composite Material Response, edited by G. C. Sih, G. F.
Smith, I. M. Marshall and J. J. Wu, Elsevier Applied Science, London, pp. 1-23,
1987.
[11] G. C. Sih, "Structural and Damage Dependence of Composite System Response",

Phase Interaction in Composite Materials, edited by S. A. Paipetis and G. C.
Papanicolaou, Omega Scientific, England, pp. 1-19, 1992.
[12] P. W. Mast, G. E. Nash, J. Michopoulos, R. W. Thomas, R. Badaliance and I.
Wolock, "Experimental Determination of Dissipated Energy Density as a Measure
of Strain-Induced Damage in Composites", Technical Report NRL/FR/6383-92-
9369, Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C., 1992.
[13] A. C. Loos and G. S. Springer, "Curing of Epoxy Matrix Composites", J. of
Composite Materials, Vol. 17, pp. 135-169, 1983.
14
[14] P. R. Ciriscioli and G. C. Springer, Smart Autoclave Cure of Composites,

Technomic Publishing Co., Lancaster, Pa., 1990.
[15] G. C. Sih, "Thermomechanics of Solids: Nonequilibrium and Irreversibility", J. of

Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics, Vol. 9, No.3, pp. 175-198, 1988.
[16] D. E. Kranbuehl, P. Haverty, M. Hoff, R. D. Hoffman and J. J. Godfrey,
"Dynamic Dielectric Analysis for Nondestructive Cure Monitoring and Process
Control", 42nd Annual Conference, Composites Institute, The Society of the
Plastic Industry, Session 22-D, pp. 1-5, 1987.
[17] G. C. Sih and Y. D. Lee, "A Theory of Thermoelectromagnetics", Institute of
Fracture and Solid Mechanics Technical Report, Lehigh University, 1992.
ADHESIVE BONDING IN CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY
R. N. Swamy
Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering,

University of Sheffield, Sheffield Sl 4DU, United Kingdom
Designing structures with adhesive bonded components is a relatively new concept to

the construction industry. The technology is, however, a simple, cost-effective, and yet,
technically sound and reliable method which can enhance the performance of structures
and extend the quality of their service life. The technique is so versatile that it can be
applied to concrete, steel or timber members, either in new construction or to repair and
retrofit damaged/deteriorating structures, or indeed to develop, new composite-concrete
structural systems without steel which is prone to corrosion. This paper describes the
structural behaviour of plated beams with emphasis on the effects of bonding plates on
serviceability and ultimate limit states. Problems of premature bond failure are
discussed, and methods of overcoming such failures are reported. Resistance to fire
hazards, and other relevant design considerations are discussed.
1. Introduction
Adhesive bonding is used in a wide variety of engineering applications, from every

day domestic use to high performance applications in aerospace and automotive
industries. There are today many examples where a main load-carrying component
transfers its load through an adhesive layer as an alternative to conventional techniques
such as welding, brazing, bolting and riveting. Structural adhesives can provide major
strength and stiffness when the load required to cause separation is large.
The most extensive use of adhesives to date has been in the aircraft industry for
bonding dissimilar and vitally stressed components as an alternative to riveting. The
use of an adhesive gives a more even stress distribution with fewer concentrations than
could be achieved with rivets. They also provide smoother, streamlined and clean
joints, and great savings can be made in payload and, hence, in fuel costs.
The potential for light weight construction and the advantage of being able to
easily join dissimilar materials have been strong inducements for the use of adhesives in
other industries, and particularly, in the automotive industry. Minimising the amount
of steel in car bodies by bonding light weight aluminium or glass fibre reinforced plastic
panels to a strong steel framework can conserve fuel. Joints can be structurally
connected and sealed. The combination of tough, corrosion-free materials and tough,
moisture resistant and high service temperature adhesives can result in greater
structural efficiency, saving in dead loads, efficiency in production and fabrication and
cost effectiveness during service life.
Adhesives can also be used for bonding, strengthening and stiffening members to
existing components. Where large areas of sheet metal or fibre reinforced plastics are
involved, welding could cause distortion, whereas bonding deep sections of non-metallic
materials can impart stiffness with greater dimensional stability.
1.1 Relevance to Construction Technology
Given the many successful uses of adhesives in engineering, it is sometimes difficult

15
C. C. Sih et al. (eds.), Advanced Technology for Design and Fabrication o/Composite Materials and Structures, 15-30.
16
to understand why they are not used in the construction industry. The main reason
appears to be that engineers, designers and clients display a lack of trust in their
performance, particularly in the long term. A structural engineer, for example, would
have little faith in the structural integrity of his structure if parts or components were
only "glued" together! Also, although data exist for adhesives subject to simple loading
conditions, little practical engineering data are available on the performance of
adhesives for specific applications in the short and long term. Further, real life joints
often occur with complicated geometry and can include varying loading conditions, the
effects of which are not clearly established.
There are also disadvantages associated with adhesive bonding itself. The surfaces
to be bonded require careful preparation for good performance, and need to be
considered at the design stage. Preparation is time-consuming but can be easily
structured and/or automated. Adhesives are sensitive to temperature and humidity,
and hence service life and long term durability are not always easy to predict. The
adhesive material is weak compared with engineering materials, and hence the
maximum local stress that can be applied to a joint will be less than the equivalent
mechanical joint. Another main disadvantage could be that once bonded, the joint is
difficult to disassemble without causing damage and inconvenience, but in practice,
such disruptions can easily be rectified.
Designing adhesive bonded joints requires a new approach and should be done with
adhesives in mind, and not arise from a substitution for some other method of joining,
repair or rehabilitation. Suitable design methods and numerical methods of analysis
need to be developed to determine stresses, particularly at the ends and interfaces of the
composite system, and factors which influence heavily the stress distribution such as
material properties, geometry of the composite system, loading conditions and
environment need to be considered.
1.2 Applications in Structural Engineering
In reality, the use of resins and adhesives in the construction industry is not new.
However, some unhappy experiences in the past of bridge expansion joints and bearings
have left some scepticism in the use of such high technology materials in the
construction industry. Nevertheless, with proper bonding procedures on site, control of
curing temperature, and adequate protective measures, a high quality result is possible.
The designer must work in close liaison with the adhesive manufacturer and the main
contractor to ensure that high quality control is achieved. There are many examples in
the world to show that good site control can in practice be achieved with such
techniques.
There are three possible major areas of application of adhesive bonding in

construction:
New Construction. As a corrosion protection measure with advanced composites.
Repair and Retrofitting. Strengthening and rehabilitation of damaged and

deteriorating structures, and renovation and preservation of national/historical
structures.
New Structural Systems. Development of new structural systems, for bridges, for
example, made entirely of non-corrosive materials.
The technique of adhesive bonding consists of bonding structural elements, largely

17
in the iorm of thin plates, to the surfaces of the structure through epoxy resins. Plates
can be bonded to the underside (tension face) of simply supported beams and slabs.
Plates can also be added to the top face of continuous members to enhance the
structural response in regions of negative bending moment. They can also be applied to
the webs of beams to increase their shear resistance. The overall benefit of such bonded
composite structures is a visible enhancement of stiffness and ultimate strength - the
former is an effective and convenient method of improving the performance of
structures under service loads.
In simply supported spans, the addition of a strong, stiff plate to the underside of
the section will lower the neutral axis, and hence reduce the extreme fibre stresses from
any subsequently applied load. Even when a structural member is heavily overstressed,
and in concrete structures, significantly cracked and possibly damaged, bonding of
external plates can be structurally efficient, and the plate bonded composite member
can be restored to stiffness and strength values superior to those of the unplated beams.
In practice, the entire plate bonded composite system can be so designed that visible
cracking and deflection will occur long before critical stresses are reached in the bonded
plates or adhesive.
The technique of adhesive bonding of structural plates has many unique

advantages. The technology itself can be applied to concrete, steel or timber structures.
It is particularly appropriate to upgrade structurally inadequate members, to remedy
deficiencies in design or construction or to allow for increases in the design loading. It is
also highly relevant to apply to concrete structures that are damaged or deteriorating
either due to unstable or unsuitable materials, or due to environmental aggressive
elements such as chlorides and sulphates.
1.3 Practical Advantages
In many respects, bonding of structural plates using epoxy resins to the surfaces of
structural members is a relatively new technique but with considerable future potential.
Although the structural behaviour of plate-bonded structural elements has become clear
only more recently, the technique has been used to strengthen both buildings and
bridges, particularly of concrete, in many countries [1-13]. Even though adhesives and
epoxy resins are relatively expensive compared to concrete and steel, in many situations
economic solutions are possible to rectify inadequate and poor structural performance,
and sometimes to avoid demolition.
From a technical point of view, the plate bonding technology offers a sound and
effective method to improve performance under service loads, to increase ultimate
strength, to provide protection against aggressive elements leading to steel corrosion,
and to design new structural systems devoid of steel. From a practical point of view,
the main attraction of the technique is its cost effectiveness because of the comparative
ease and economy with which the operations can be carried out. The technique is
particularly favourable when heavily trafficked roads are involved, where restrictions or
diversions could seriously affect local and national traffic patterns. The operations for
plate bonding are relatively quick and simple, and can be performed when the structure
is still in use and loaded. The technique does not involve in relocations of underground
services. The method does not cause any major redistribution of existing stresses, and
above all, when completed, the changes in the overall structural sizes are very small,
and are only of the order of a few millimetres.
Adhesive bonding technology is thus versatile, and can be adapted to most building
materials and a wide range of structural elements. It is not confined to bridge and
18
building elements; the strengthening and extending of the Port Talbot Harbour Jetty
Deck in the UK is a typical example of this kind. Although plates can be bonded to
concrete, steel or timber, much of the available research is on concrete, and the rest of
this paper is therefore related to reinforced concrete structural elements with steel
plates bonded to them [14-24].
2. Structural Behaviour
2.1 Plates for Shear Resistance
Although plates have been added to the sides of beams to supposedly enhance their
shear capacity, the present state of our knowledge warrants careful attention to this
type of application because of the lack of adequate information. Bending shear creates
resultant diagonal tensile and compressive stresses, and the behaviour of the plate in the
compression zone is not well established. Buckling in the compression zone would set
up tensile/peeling stresses in the adhesive, and this could lead to premature failure.
One method of reinforcing for shear is to use external strips or channels rather than
long plates. Research at Sheffield on reinforced concrete beams with steel strips and
channels glued in the shear spans of the beams as web reinforcement (but without
additional plates on the tension face) shows that this did not delay the appearance of
the first flexural cracks. The strips and channels however delayed the first diagonal
cracks, reduced their propagation and increased the shear capacity by up to 40%.
However, externally bonded steel strips caused premature failures and without further
research, to investigate the desirable geometry of the strip, their optimum thickness and
spacings, this method of strengthening in shear should only be carried out with great
caution.
2.2 Flexural Members
Extensive research carried out at Sheffield and elsewhere has highlighted a number
of features of the technique, the major points of which are summarised below.
• Full composite action can be achieved right up to failure between a concrete

member and a steel plate by using suitable epoxy adhesives and following correct
bonding procedures.
• Plating has a significant effect on reducing both deflections and flexural crack
widths, Figure 1. The reductions are greater than would be achieved by introducing
additional internal reinforcement equivalent to that of the external plate.
• In structural terms, the stiffening effect is far more influential in reducing the
reinforcing bar and steel plate strains than in reducing deflection. Thus the bonded
plates contribute more to control of cracking than to control of deflection, Figure 2 [25].
• The net effect of the reduced structural deformations is that the serviceability
loads are in effect substantially increased by the stiffening action of the bonded plates,
Figure 3. Table 1 summarises the percentage increase in loads for the plated beams
compared to that of the control beam for various serviceability limitations. The data
shown in Table 1 also apply to beams with larped plates, variable adhesive thickness,
and stress concentrations in the adhesive [26,27 .
• Plating cracked beams, loaded up to 50% of the ultimate prior to plating, can
also lead to substantial control of cracking, rotation and crack width at serviceability
19
loads. The following table summarises the effect of precracking on increases in

serviceability loads. Members that are already cracked in service can thus benefit from
the plating technique, Table 2.
260
240
206
~
204
203
260
240
206
-
204
-
203
z
~ 220 ~ 220
~ 200 o 200
0
«
0
--' 180 --' 180
0
UJ 160 fi:l 160
::::i ::::i
a.. 140 a.. 140
a.. a..
« «
120 Beam Adhesive Plate 120 Beam Adhesive Plate
mm mm mm mm
o 201 100
I!. 202 3·0 • 203 1·5 '·5
80 .203 1·5 '·5 80 .204 1·5 3·0
• 204 1·5 3·0 A 205 1·5 6·0
.. 205 1·5 6·0 60 y 206 '·5 2 x1·5
y 206 1·5 2x1·5 Comparison
40 1st crack load
60 kN
20
00 5 10 15 20 25 30 00 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

CENTRAL DEFLECTION;mm STEEL PLATE STRAIN xH)6
Figure 1 - Effect of bonded plates on Figure 2 - Effect of bonded plates on

mid-span deflection. steel plate strain.
Table 1 - Increase in serviceability loads of plated beams
Plate thickness
1.5 mm 3.0mm 6.0mm

Adhesive thickness 1.5-6.0 mm 1.5-6.0 mm 1.5-6.0 mm
Deflection 4-11% 10-26% 30-36%
Rotation 6-17% 23-37% 38-56%
Maximum crack width 37-53% 38-60% 70-99%
Steel bar strain 16-43% 50-72% 70-110%
• Where failure of a strengthened reinforced concrete member occurs by yielding of

the bonded plates, the ductility and energy absorption properties of the beam would be
preserved, Figure 4. The ultimate strength of such beams can be accurately predicted
by using conventional reinforced concrete theory, Figure 5 .
• When relatively thick plates are used (bit < 40 for mild steel) failure can occur
by interface shear cracking and plate separation, which starts at the ends of the plates.
20
In this case, the plates do not reach their yield stress and failure is sudden and occurs
with little warning, Figures 3 and 6.
Plate
mm
z x 1-5
..x !J. 3'0
~o~
~ 170
o
....J
~ 160
:;:
ffi 150
VI No plate
....J
~ 11.0
z
~ 130
0:
UJ
a. 120
x
UJ
11 00'---I.,-....
2-...J.3--I.'----L5-....J6~
ADHESIVE THICKNESS, mm
Figure 3 - Influence of bonded plates on service loads.
Table 2 - Effect of precracking on increase in serviceability loads of plated beams
Plate thickness
1.5 mm 3.0mm
Adhesive 3.0mm 3.0mm

Deflection 0% 20%
Rotation 8-20% 33%
Maximum crack width 23% 60%
Steel bar strain 40-43% 72%
• Strengthening severely damaged beams, which had been loaded to 70% of their
ultimate strength and plated under unloaded conditions, had no adverse effect on the
flexural behaviour of the strengthened composite beams. The restraining effect of the
plates on the existing cracks was, however, more pronounced when the load was
increased beyond the original preloading value [28,29].
• Damaged beams, strengthened while under very high loads, would show the
effects of creep during the epoxy curing. But despite the increases in creep
deformations during the epoxy curing, these deformations and crack widths would be
less than those of unplated control beams.
• Bonding plates to severely damaged beams is structurally efficient and can

restore a structural member to stiffness and strength conditions better than those of the
original undamaged beam [29].
• Plates in the compression zone tend to buckle at failure before yielding. With
the correct choice of adhesive and bonding techniques, plate separation can be designed
21
1.5 mm PLATE THICKNESS
2 x 1.5 mm PLATES
Figure 4 - Effect of bonded plates on cracking and failure modes.

22
1·50 Plate
c c mm
« «
0
x 1-5
0
..J ..J A 3·0
1-25
UJ UJ
I-
o 6-0
~ « ~~M~---------«K
~ ~
1'00 -6
5 !:i
~ ~
..J
~ « 0-75
..J
z u -0
UJ I-
~ UJ
a: a: 0·50
UJ 0
a. UJ
x :t:
UJ I- 0'25
00 2 3 4 5 6
Figure 5 - Theoretical prediction of failure loads.
Plate
mm
~ 290 x 1-5
o A 3'0
..J Mode of
UJ ~0 6-0 failure 1
~ 270 ~Flexure
~
!:i
~ 250
Flexure/
shear bond
..J
~ No plate
z 230
UJ
~
~Shearbond
a:
UJ 210
a.
x
UJ
2 3 4 5 6
Figure 6 - Effect of bonded plates on ultimate loads.
to occur through the concrete adjacent to the adhesive layer and is accompanied by low
angle cracks up to the level of the reinforcement.
• Simple elastic analyses indicate that plate separation and premature failure
occur due to high local interface bond stresses and peeling forces at the ends of the thick
plates, Figure 7. Plate separation is still likely to occur even if thick plates are tapered
or multi plates with curtailment are used, Figure 8_
23
• The anchorage detail has a considerable effect on the ultimate strength and
mode of failure [30]. Tapered or multiplate systems offer little benefit compared to
constant plate thickness (see Tables 3 and 4). The use of bolts does not prevent
debonding, but complete plate separation can be avoided, and accidents due to plates
falling off can be totally prevented.
7·0 Experiment
N - - - Theory
E 5·0
~ Load 0 180 kN
z~ 5.0 + 11.0 kN
V!
V! " 50 kN
~ 1.·0 Failure 182 kN
l-
V!
3{)
2·0
1·0
800 900
t
5mm
DISTANCE ALONG PLATE,mm
Figure 7 - Interface shear stresses in beams with thick bonded plates.
5·0 - - - Experiment
N
E Possible peak - - - Theory
E 5·0 ('stress at ult.load
~ Load 0180 kN
l/)'"
V!
4'0 Ii + 11.0 kN
IJ. 50 kN
w
:= 3·0 \ Failure 191kN
lfl
\
2·0 _---o----0
.'9:c)-o--O==O--~o~ _ _ + -
- -+
1.0~~~~---,--
00 100 200 300 1.00 500 500 700 800 900 1000
2mt DISTANCE FROM THE SUPPORT I mm

~5mm
Figure 8 - Interface bond stresses in beams with tapered plates.
• Bonded anchor plates are the most effective, producing yielding of the tensile
plates and achieving full theoretical strengths, of up to 40% above that of the unplated
beams, Figure 9, Tables 3 and 4.
• The ductilities near the ultimate load of beams bonded with thick plates are
24
affected by the anchorage details. All unanchored plates failed suddenly with little or
no ductility but still failed by debonding. Bonded anchor plates produced both
ductility and plate yielding, and showed the best performance with thick plates.
Table 3 - Beams with different anchorages
Beam no. Strengthening

F31 1 no. 6 mm plate
F32 2 no. 3 mm plates, curtailed
F33 1 no. 6 mm plate tapered to 2 mm
F34 As F31 + bolts at end
F35 As F32 + bolts at end and at curtailment
F36 As F31 + one short and one long anchor plate
F37 As F31 + short end anchor plates
Table 4 - Effect of anchorages on failure loads
Beam Failure load % over % over Mode of failure

no. (kN) F31 unplated
F31 182 -13.3 Plate separation
F32 208 14.3 1.0 Plate separation inner plate
F33 191 4.9 9.1 Plate separation
F34 221 21.4 + 5.2 Debonding followed by
F35 227 24.7 + 8.1 Concrete crushing
F36 285 56.6 + 35.8 Plate yield and concrete
F37 283 55.5 + 34.8 Crushin
Apart from the predictable increase in stiffness and strength, one of the great
structural benefits of externally bonded plate5ts their ability to restrain the initiation
and propagation of tensile cracks in concrete. This restraining effect in turn controls
the free widening of these tensile cracks and allows a high stress transfer across the
cracks resulting in a very much enhanced contribution of the concrete in the tension
zone to the overall stability and integrity of the structural member. The yield strain
and the inelastic behaviour of the plates are very important in enhancing the structural
performance of the composite structure, and the type of plate, whether metallic or non-
metallic, has to be carefully chosen to enable the full exploitation of the bonded plates.
Stresses in the anchorage zones of the bonded plates can be critical to the stability
and integrity of the composite structure, and these stresses need to be realistically
assessed, bearing in mind the cracking in concrete and the structural response of the
plate and adhesive.
3. Theory and Design Aspects
For a beam with bonded plates that fails in flexure by yielding of the steel plate,
the ultimate strength can be accurately predicted by using conventional reinforced
concrete theory.
There is an optimum amount of plate reinforcement that can be added to a beam.

There is thus a limitation of plate thickness or plate area beyond which there will be no
appreciable increase in the moment of resistance. Beams reinforced in this way or with
25
relatively thick plates may suffer premature shear/bond failure without achieving the
full flexural strength and ensuring ductility. However, as pointed out earlier, bonded
anchor plates at the ends can eliminate plate separation, achieve full flexural strength
and excellent ductility.
t t
BEAM F36
adhesive
).,
hi I ;/
~I~ 770 -)~ 6mm plate I. 385 -='~
F37
adhesive
:;..<'
6 mm plate
),.
0. 1
A
~~D ~[}1.5
~
~ 0 0 0 ~
0
0 0 0
mm
anchor
plate
I-J 50 1--1 60
BEAM F 36 BEAM F 37
Figure 9 - Typical anchorages for bonded plates.
Vl
Vl
lJJ
c::
I-
Vl
DISTANCE ALONG JOINT

_________________________ ~~ Adherend
---r--------------------~~dhesive
Figure 10 - Theoretical shear and normal stresses in adhesive joints.

In the absence of design codes, beams with plates bonded by adhesives can be
analysed by elastic theory for service load conditions and conventional reinforced
concrete theory for ultimate loads. The elastic analysis will be based on the usual
transformed section. If the plates are applied without relieving the dead load, the
bonded plates carry only the live load stresses. Structural elements can be propped
before strengthening to enable the added plates to carry both dead and live loads.
Current research indicates that long term creep of the adhesive is unlikely to cause any
major stress transfer from the plates to the original reinforcement. The resin adhesive
exists in a concrete-steel composite system, and tests show that its creep behaviour will
26
be within acceptable levels.
The plate width to thickness ratio is an important parameter since the force in the
plate has to be transmitted through shear and bond stresses, and this could cause
premature failures. The author recommends that the plate width to thickness ratio
should not be less than 50. Further, the neutral axis depth should not be greater than
0.4 times the effective depth.
Sophisticated two-dimensional elasticity and finite element solutions are available

to quantify the interface shear and normal or peeling stresses in adhesive joints at the
ends of the plates. These solutions indicate that shear stress reaches a peak near the
ends of the plates and reduces to zero at the free end. Significant normal stresses are
also confined to a short length of the joint, depending on the relative stiffnesses of the
adherands and adhesive layer, Figure 10. These idealised elastic stress distributions are
only approximate, since near failure, the bars in the anchorage zone will be subjected to
high bond stresses, and there is clearly non-linear behaviour due to microcracking.
Complex elastic solutions should therefore be treated with caution.
Tests carried out by the author confirm that high stress concentrations and peeling
forces exist at the ends of the plates when the composite beam is loaded in flexure.
These results show that the interface stresses have limiting peak values in the region of
{2 x tensile splitting strength of the concrete. A simplified elastic method, using the
maximum unreduced plate thickness, can be used to obtain a reasonable assessment of
the peak stress [30].
Fire hazards should not present a problem since if the building conforms to the fire
regulations before the technique is used, the strengthening technique should not affect
the fire resistance of the original structure. There are also various preventive measures
that could be taken to increase the fire resistance of the plate-adhesive composite
system.
The use of the bolts at the ends of the plates is considered to be of paramount
importance to prevent the plates from falling if they become detached. This has also
the added advantage that the bolts can reduce the peeling stresses.
4. Durability of Adhesive Bonded Systems
Extensive and detailed long term exposure [31] have demonstrated that there are
no serious durability problems associated with the resin bonding system, provided that
proper care is taken in the bonding procedure. Similarly, long term structural
deformations are not adversely affected by the presence of the polymeric bonding
material in the composite structural system.
When steel plates are used for bonding, deterioration problems may arise if there is
no regular inspection, and the steel is not adequately protected. Overall, the adhesive
bonding system is very tolerant to fairly significant areas of corrosion, but negligence
can lead to structurally significant deterioration in bond. The rate of deterioration of
the bonded plate system is critically dependent upon local details. Interfaces, whether
between concrete and steel or steel and steel, corners and ends of plates are particularly
susceptible to penetration of aggressive agents and water. Great care need therefore be
taken in the fabrication of the composite system, and subsequently, in the application
and maintenance of protective systems against external corrosion.
When non-metallic plates are used, problems may arise due to cracking in concrete,
27
and the brittle behaviour of the plate, and may create stress concentrations at the
cracked sections. Careful analysis of these local deformations and stresses is essential to
control the stress transfer through the adhesive system. Problems may also arise due to
the brittle nature of the composite plate.
5. Conclusions
The technique of adhesive bonding of external plate reinforcement to structural

members is a powerful, and yet, simple, convenient, cost-effective and technically sound
method of designing structures to enhance their structural performance and long term
durability. The technology can also be extended to non-metallic composite plates or
even thin high strength concrete plates. With the proper selection of adhesives, and of
the plate, the member-adhesive-plate system can be designed to ensure full composite
action at all stages of loading and achieve full flexural strength with attendant ductility
and energy absorption capability for the composite system.
Several areas of application exist for this adhesion bonded composite structures.
New structures can be designed .vith bonded non-corrosive non-metallic composites to
give long, repair-free, service life. Damaged and deteriorating structures and,
particularly, national and historic structures, can be given extended life and be
protected from further deterioration. On the other hand, a little imaginative approach
to structural design can enable composite-concrete structures without steel to be
developed as a future structural system for buildings and bridges.
The adhesive plate bonding system will always remain specialised for each
structure, and close supervision, high quality control and good workmanship on site are
required. Subsequent regular inspection, and maintenance of protective systems where
necessary are also essential. When steel plates are used, problems have been caused
with chlorides leaking through joints leading to rusting at the steel-resin interface.
Penetration of moisture may also occur through the resin via microcracks. Local
debonding is then possible along the rusted steel-resin interface, but this generally has
minimal effect on overall strength. Priming of steel plates is always recommended, and
can show a significant reduction in corrosion.
Probably one of the unique advantages of the plate bonding technique is that even
if a plate gets corroded or debonded, it is easy to remove it and a new plate installed.
Stainless steel plates are not recommended. A proven bonding technique should be
followed to ensure a good interface bonding and avoid entrapped air bubbles.
If all necessary precautions are taken, the adhesive bonding of plates to structures
can prove to be an economic, convenient and effective method for new construction and
in-situ strengthening of damaged and deteriorating structures.
References
[1] C. J. Fleming and G. E. M. King, "The Development of Structural Adhesives for

Three Original Uses in South Africa", RILEM International Symposium, Synthetic
Resins in Building Construction, Paris, pp. 75-92, 1967.
[2] J. Bresson, "Realisation Pratique d'un Reinforcement par Collage D'armatures",

Annales de L'ITBTP, Suppl. 278, pp. 50-52, 1971.
28
[3J J. Bresson, "Reinforcement par Collage D'armatures du Passage Inferieur du CD

126 Sous L'autoroute du Sud", Annales de L'ITBTP, Serie Beton, Beton Arme,
Suppl. 297, pp. 3-24, 1972.
[4J H. Hugenschmidt, "Epoxy Adhesive for Concrete and Steel", Proc. First Internat.
Congress on Polymers in Concrete, London, May 1975, The Construction Press
Ltd., Hornby, pp. 195-209, 1976.
[5J T. Iino and K. Otokawa, "Application of Epoxy Resins in Strengthening of

Concrete Structures", Proc. Third Internat. Congress on Polymers in Concrete,
Koriyama, Japan, Vol. II, pp. 997-1011, 1981.
[6J M. Ryback, "Reinforcement of Bridges by Gluing of Reinforcing Steel", RILEM

Materials and Structures, Vol. 16, No. 91, pp. 13-17, 1981.
[7J D. A. Van Gemert, "Repairing of Concrete Structures by Externally Bonded Steel

Plates", Proc. ICP /RILEM/IBK Internat. Symposium on Plastics in Material and
Structural Engineering, Prague, June 1981, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., pp.
519-526, 1982.
[8J T. Sommerard, "Swanley's Steel Plate Patch-Up", New Civil Engineer, No. 247,
pp. 18-19, 1971.
[9J K. Brown, "Japanese Style Strengthening for M5 Bridges", Construction News, p.
21, 1973.
[10J R. F. Mander, "Bonded External Reinforcement, a Method of Strengthening
Structures", Department of the Environment Report on Quinton Interchange for
the M% Motorway, 1974.
[l1J J. Parkinson, "Glue Solves a Sticky Problem for Gestetner", New Civil Engineer,
pp. 26-27, 1978.
[12] B. L. Davies and J. Powell, "Strengthening of Brinsworth Road Bridge,
Rotherham", IABSE, 12th Congress, Vancouver, BC, pp. 401-407,1984.
[13J N. Barrett, "Plates Steel Leeds Floor", New Civil Engineer, p. 18, 1985.
[14J R. 1. L'hermite and J. Bresson, "Beton Arme par Collage des Armatures", RILEM
International Symposium, Resins in Building Construction, Part 2, pp. 175-203,
1967.
[15J H. Lerchental, "Bonded Sheet Metal Reinforcement for Concrete Slabs", RILEM
International Symposium, Resins in Building Construction, pp. 165-173, 1967.
[16J S. Kajfasz, "Concrete Beams with External Reinforcement Bonded by Glueing",

RILEM International Symposium, Synthetic Resins in Building Constructions, Part
2, pp. 142-151, 1967.
[17] C. A. K. Irwin, "The Strengthening of Concrete Beams by Bonded Steel Plates",
TRRL Supp. Report 160 UC, Transport and Road Research Laboratory,
Department of the Environment, Crowthorne, p. 8, 1975.
29
[18] M. D. McDonald, "The Flexural Behaviour of Concrete Beams with Bonded

External Reinforcement", TRRL Supp. Report 415, Transport and Road Research
Laboratory, Department of the Environment, Crowthorne, 1978.
[19] K. D. Raithby, "External Strengthening of Concrete Bridges with Bonded Steel
Plates", TRRL Supp. Report 612, Transport and Road Research Laboratory,
Department of the Environment, Crowthorne, 1980.
[20] R. Jones, R. N. Swamy, J. Bloxham and A. Bouderbalah, "Composite Behaviour of

Concrete Beams with Epoxy Bonded External Reinforcement", The International
Journal of Cement Composites, Vol. 12, No.2, pp. 91-107, 1980.
[21] R. N. Swamy and R. Jones, "Behaviour of Plated Reinforced Concrete Beams
Subjected to Cyclic Loading during Glue Hardening", The International Journal of
Cement Composites, Vol. 2, No.4, pp. 233-234, 1980.
[22] R. N. Swamy, R. Jones and T. H. Ang, "Under- and Over-Reinforced Concrete
Beams with Glued Steel Plates", The International Journal of Cement Composites
and Lightweight Concrete, Vol. 4, No.1, pp. 19-32, 1982.
[23] R. Jones and R. N. Swamy, "In-Situ Strengthening of Concrete Structural
Members Using Epoxy Bonded Steel Plates", Proc. 4th Int. Congress on Polymers
in Concrete, Darmstadt, pp. 251-255, 1984.
[24] R. Jones, R. N. Swamy and F. A. R. Salman, "Structural Implications of Repairing

by Epoxy Bonded Steel Plates", Proc. Second International Conference on
Structural Faults and Repair, London, Engineering Technics Press, pp. 75-80, 1985.
[25] R. Jones, R. N. Swamy and J. Bloxham, "Crack Control of Reinforced Concrete

Beams through Epoxy Bonded Steel Plates", Proc. International Conference on
Adhesion between Polymers and Concrete, Aix-en-Provence, Chapman and Hall,
pp. 542-555, 1986.
[26] R. N. Swamy, R. Jones and A. Charif, "Shear Adhesion Properties of Epoxy Resin
Adhesives", Proc. International Conference on Adhesion between Polymers and
Concrete, Aix-en-Provence, Chapman and Hall, pp. 741-755, 1986.
[27] R. N. Swamy, R. Jones and J. W. Bloxham, "Structural Behaviour of Reinforced

Concrete Beams Strengthened by Epoxy-Bonded Steel Plates", The Structural
Engineer, Vol. 65A, No.2, pp. 59-68, 1987.
[28] R. N. Swamy and R. Jones, "Bridge Strengthening by Epoxy Bonding of Steel
Plates - Structural Behaviour and Design Aspects" , Proc. Symposium on
Strengthening and Repair of Bridges, Leamington Spa, England, pp. 5/1-5/6, 1988.
[29] R. N. Swamy, R. Jones and A. Charif, "The Effect of External Plate
Reinforcement on the Strengthening of Structurally Damaged R.C. Beams", The
Structural Engineer, Vol. 67, No.3, pp. 45-56, 1989.
[30] R. Jones, R. N. Swamy and A. Charif, "Plate Separation and Anchorage of
Reinforced Concrete Beams Stren~thened by Epoxy Bonded Steel Plates", The
Structural Engineer, Vol. 66, No. 5/1, pp. 85-94, 1988.
30
[31] B. Hobbs, M. Roberts, R. Jones and R. N. Swamy, "Beams Strengthened by Epoxy

Bonded Steel Plates", IABSE Symposium, Lisbon, Vol. 2, pp. 773-778, 1989.
NONLINEAR FRACTURE MECHANICS MODELS FOR FmRE REINFORCED
MATERIALS
A. Carpinteri
Department of Structural Engineering, Politecnico di Torino,

10129 Torino, Italy
R. MassabO
Istituto di Scienza delle Costruzioni, Universita di Genova,
16145 Genova, Italy
Different nonlinear fracture mechanics models are proposed in order to explain and
reproduce the constitutive flexural response of brittle matrix multiphase materials. The
models apply consistently to ceramic matrix or cementitious matrix composites. The
one-fibre and n-fibre discrete models are bridged-crack models that account for
macrostructural studies of materials with localized reinforcements or for microstructural
studies of fibrous composites. The continuous model, with bridging or cohesive option,
applies to fibre or particle reinforced composites or to self-reinforced materials. The
theoretical dimensionless formulations of the models are illustrated. The structural
behavior of beams in flexure is analysed and a transition in the global response from
strain-hardening to strain-softening is verified when increasing the beam size. In
addition, snap-back and snap-through instabilities are reproduced. The continuous
model is proved to be a limit case of the discrete model and its effectiveness is attested
by comparison with the results of experimental tests on fibre reinforced cementitious
beams. Eventually, the continuous model bridging option is compared with the cohesive
option in order to show and discuss the applicability ranges and the fundamental
differences.
L Introduction
In the last decades new composite materials have been extensively studied in
different fields of engineering applications. In high-technology applications, i.e., for
utilization in thermostructural environments, the components which make up these new
generation materials are brittle matrices (alumina, glass, mullite ... ) and secondary
phases such as continuous fibres (Silicon-carbide, metal fibres, ... ), strong discontinuous
brittle fibres (whiskers) or ductile particles. In civil engineering applications the new
materials consist of cementitious matrices (mortar, cement, concrete, ... ) added up
together with continuous or discontinuous reinforcing fibres (steel, glass, synthetic
fibres, ... ).
In spite of the deeply different structural utilizations and the very heterogeneous
mechanical and physical properties of the component materials, there are many similar
features regarding the behavior of cementitious matrix and ceramic matrix composites.
In particular, the fundamental secondary phase role in both of them is that of
improving the fracture toughness of the brittle matrix by means of a bridging action
affecting the matrix micro- and macrocracks, so to prevent their coalescence, opening
and growth. These bridging toughening mechanisms are due to debonding, sliding and
frictional pulling-out between the matrix and the high resistance discontinuous fibres or
particles and to yielding of the low resistance ductile continuous fibres.
31
C. C. Sih et al. (eds.), Advanced Technology for Design and Fabrication of Composite Materials and Structures, 31-48.
32
Knowledge of the structural behavior of these new materials can lead to

improvements in the material design through an optimization of the components. A
fracture mechanics approach makes it possible to analyze the composite post-cracking
behavior and, unlike the classical strength theory, to explain certain discontinuous
phenomena, that are experimentally verified, such as the size scale effects or the snap-
back and snap-through instabilities.
Two different nonlinear crack models, both descending from the Dugdale-
Barenblatt Model [1,2], are used to analyze the composite failure process: the bridged-
crack model and the cohesive-crack model. In both of them the process zone at the real
crack tip, where the bridging action develops, is replaced by a fictitious crack on which
a closing traction distribution is applied. This distribution is a function of the cohesive
law connecting stress and crack opening displacement.
In the bridged-crack model a singular stress field is assumed at the crack tip and
the crack growth criterion sets the total crack tip stress intensity factor KI equal to the
matrix toughness K IC ' KI = K IC . Different versions of the model have been proposed
to analyze composites with a continuous volumetric distribution of reinforcing phases [3-
7]. In addition, in order to make small-scale microstructural studies on reinforced
composites or in the case of a rather small number of reinforcements (e.g., bars, rivets
or patches) different versions of the model have been proposed by Carpinteri et al [8-
10].
In the cohesive-crack model, on the other hand, a finite stress field is assumed in
the crack tip vicinity and consequently the crack growth criterion sets KI = o.
Different versions of this model have been proposed [1,2,11-15].
In the present paper three nonlinear fracture mechanics applications, for the
analysis of different brittle matrix composites, are studied with the above-mentioned
general models. In particular, beam sections subjected to bending moment are
examined. Nevertheless these applications can be easily extended to analyze different
geometries or loading conditions.
(1) The one-fibre discrete model is a bridged-crack model, formulated and

successively improved by Carpinteri et al [8-10], to analyze composites with one
localized reinforcement such as in the case of steel bar reinforced concrete members.
The model has obtained experimental confirmations in [16,17]. The basic formulation,
briefly recalled in the sequel, constitutes the theoretical framework for the other two
applications.
(2) The n-fibre discrete model, is a bridged-crack model addressed whether to

macrostructural studies on brittle matrix composites with a discrete distribution of
reinforcements; or to small scale analyses of fibrous composites.
(3) The continuous model is a nonlinear model with two different options, bridging
and cohesive, suitable for the analysis of composites with a continuous volumetric
distribution of secondary phases. It is an extension of the n-fibre discrete model in the
hypothesis of homogenizing the fibre bridging action. This model applies not only to
multiphase composites, but also to self-reinforced materials such as alumina or concrete
in which the bridging action develops by grains or aggregates. The different bridging
and cohesive options, included in a global dimensionless formulation, make it possible to
study composites whose properties are known at different levels. The bridging option
applies if the matrix toughness can be distinguished from the toughening mechanism of
33
the reinforcing phase, while the cohesive option applies if the global toughening
mechanism of the whole composite is only known. In fact, in the bridging option the
crack growth is governed by the toughness of the matrix and the bridging tractions are
governed by the properties of the reinforcing phase and by its interaction with the
matrix. On the other hand, in the cohesive option the damage process producing the
advance of the crack is the same as that governing the opening process along the process
zone.
The proposed models explain and reproduce the constitutive flexural response of
composite members and verify the ductile-brittle transition in the global structural
behavior when the size scale increases. In the bridged-crack models (one-fibre, n-fibres,
continuous with bridging option) the structural response is governed by the brittleness
number Np [8,18] that is a function of the matrix toughness, of the yielding or sliding
limit of the reinforcements, of the secondary phase volumetric ratio and of a
characteristic structural size. In the cohesive-crack models (continuous with cohesive
option) the response is guided by the brittleness number s [19] that is a function of the
fracture toughness and the ultimate strength of the composite and of a characteristic
structural size.
Comparisons with experimental results attest the effectiveness of the proposed
models.
2. One-Fibre Discrete Model
Consider the composite cracked beam in bending shown in Figure l(a) where hand
b are respectively the beam depth and thickness, a is the crack length and c is the
(a) ONE-FIBRE MODEL (b) N-FIBRE MODEL (c) CONTINUOUS MODEL
Figure 1 - Theoretical models.
distance of the reinforcement from the bottom of the beam. Moreover, let = ~ and , e
= tbe the normalized crack depth and fibre coordinate. We make the following
assumptions.
• The analysis concerns the local behaviour of the cracked cross section whereas
the phenomena relating the surrounding material, such as distributed compliances,
diffuse damage or other macrocracks, are disregarded.
• A linear elastic constitutive law together with a LEFM crack propagation

condition is assumed for the matrix.
• The unknown fibre bridging action is represented by indeterminate closing forces

p directly applied onto the crack faces. The bridging relationship of the continuous
fibre, relating the bridging force P with the corresponding crack opening displacement,
w, is assumed rigid-perfectly plastic in order to describe the fibre yielding or slippage.
34
Object of the model is to evaluate the beam configurations corresponding to the

crack in a state of mobile equilibrium and kinematic congruence, for increasing crack
depth. The indeterminate problem is solved by applying a congruence condition to the
crack opening displacement w at the fiber level, in order to evaluate the unknown
reactions P.
The crack opening displacement w at the fiber level is given by:
(1)
in which wM and Wp are the crack opening displacements respectively produced by the
bending moment M and by the forces Pj "PM and "PP are the localized compliances
due to the crack. The principal concepts that enable us to evaluate the localized
compliances are presented in the sequel.
According to Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics the intensity of the singular stress
field at the crack tip is measured by a stress intensity factor KI depending on the
applied loads and on the geometrical properties of the cracked member [20,21 J. By
means of the superposition principle KI takes the form:
(2)
where KIM and KIP are the stress intensity factors respectively due to the bending
moment M and to the opening forces P.
As is well known, the following expression relates KI with the strain energy release
rate ~f
K2
R _ I (3)
lIl-E
where E is the Young's Modulus of the matrix. Furthermore, an energy balance
demonstrates the equivalence between ~I and the total potential energy W released
during the formation of a unitary increment of the crack surface area A:
~I = - ~f = - ~'Z' t (4)
On the other hand, the total potential energy W, Vla Betti's theorem ("PM =
"MP) and Clapeyron's theorem, takes the form:
W = - ~ "ppp 2 + "PMPM - ~ "MMM2 (5)

where "MM is the localized rotation due to a unitary bending moment. The expressions
of the localized compliances result from the integration of equation (4) and by equating
the result to the right-hand side of equation (5) [8,9J.
In order to define a proper congruence condition, let us consider the toughening

action played by the fibre that bridges the crack, keeping it closed during its elastic
phase and controlling its opening after yielding or slippage. Hence the congruence
condition sets the crack opening displacement w equal to zero until fibre yielding or
slippage and makes it possible to evaluate the elastic fibre reaction as a function of the
applied moment:
35
w = 0, P < Pp (congruence condition) (6)

e
J Y~((,y)dy
Ph __~(_________
M -~
(7)
J Yp((,y)YM(y)dy
(
r
in which Y M and Y are polynomial functions depending on the crack depth and on the
fibre position [20,21 .
After yielding the problem becomes determinate because the fibre reaction is equal
to the yielding force Pp = As"'u, As and "'u being the fibre area and the yield stress,
respectively. The equilibrium condition, for the crack in a state of mobile equilibrium
takes the form:
KI = KIC (equilibrium condition) (8)

KIC being the matrix toughness. By means of equation (8), it is easy to obtain the
moment of crack propagation MF which, in a dimensionless form, results:
(9)
where a(e,() takes the alternative expressions:
I, (after yielding)
a(e,() ={ (10)
-: ' (before yielding)
p
and Np is a nondimensional number which defines the brittleness of the element:

Pp hO. 5
.,. __
N - _p_u _ (11)
P - K IC ho. b -
5 KIC
where p = ~h is the fibre percentage. The brittleness number increases by increasing

the fibre content or by decreasing the beam depth.
After evaluating the fracture moment during the virtual crack propagation, the
moment versus localized rotation relationship can be obtained, which characterizes the
composite member from a structural point of view. The localized rotation is definable
following a procedure analogous to that previously proposed for w [9].
3. N-Fibre Discrete Model
Consider the previously analysed cross section with a greater number n of

reinforcements, Figure l(b). Such a situation is representative for the microstructural
analysis of fibrous composites, to study the local action of fibres on crack propagation,
and even for macrostructural studies of members with a discrete number of
reinforcements such as bars, rivets or patches.
36
Assume m as the number of fibres crossing the crack of length a and ci as the
coordinate of the generic reinforcement i from the bottom of the beam. The cross
sectional behavior is analysed with a matrix formulation in order to evaluate the
unknown reactions of the m fibres crossing the crack. They are the components of the
vector {P} = {P 1, ... ,P m }T. The analysis is based on the one-fibre model assumptions.
The component wi of the vector {w} = {wl, ... ,w m }T, defining the crack opening
displacements at the different fibre levels, is given by:
m m
w·1 = w·M
1
+ .~
" w··IJ = ).·MM
1
" ). IJ.. p.J
- .~ (12)
J=l J=l
where wiM and Wij are the crack opening displacements respectively produced by the
bending moment M and by the generic reaction p.; ).·M and ). .. are the corresponding
localized compliances due to the crack. J 1 IJ
The total crack tip stress intensity factor becomes:
(13)
and the total potential energy W results:
1 m m m 1
t!..W =- " ). IJ.. p.p.
-2 .~.~
" 1 J
+ .~
" ).·MP.M
1 1
- -2 ).MMM 2 (14)
1 = IJ = 1 1 = 1
The local compliances can be evaluated, as III the one-fibre model, through
equations (4) and (14).
Until yielding or slippage of at least one of the m reinforcements crossing the crack,
the bridging actions keep the crack closed at the different levels. The congruence
condition is consequently given by the following linear, symmetrical and positive
definite system:
{w} = {).M}M - [).]{P} = {OJ (congruence condition) (15)

where {).M} and [).j are respectively the vector {\M' ... ').mM} T of the local compliances
related to the moment M and the symmetrical m x m matrix, whose general element ij
represents the localized compliance ).... The system resolution leads to the unknown
IJ
vector {P} as a function of the applied moment:
{ii h = [).j-I{).M}h (16)
After yielding or slippage of the ith generic reinforcement the number of equations
in the system (15) reduces, being wi f; 0, as well as the indetermination degree, being Pi
equal to the yielding force. Even at the successive plastic deformations of the fibres the
number of the unknown quantities is again equal to the number of equations.
37
The equilibrium condition (8) leads to the moment of crack propagation MF :
MF _ 1 [ Np m ]
K h1.5b - Y (e) 1 + p-.~ PiCl'i(e'(i)Yp(e,<) (17)
IC M 1 =1
in which Cl'i(e'(i) is analogous to equation (10).
The proposed model is applied to analyze a beam in flexure with two layers of
reinforcement placed at lo and 120 of the beam depth and with an initial crack of length
ao = lo h. The dimensionless moment versus normalized localized rotation diagrams,
M~ 5 versus :FF, being lPFO the localized rotation at the initiation of crack
KICh·b 0
propagation, are shown in Figure 2, when varying the beam geometrical and mechanical
properties by means of the single parameter Np . The moment-rotation relationships
M. M.
Klc~·5b Np=O.1 ~C~·5b Np=0.9
'(~r
0.6
.(G:A:})
0.0 0.0
0.0 4 8 12 16 20 24 g>No 0.0 4 8 12 16 20 24 W'ib
Figure 2 - Discrete model: dimensionless moment versus normalized rotation.
define a transition from a global strain-softening behavior and unstable crack

propagation (for Np = 0.1 we have an underreinforced and/or large depth beam) to a
global strain-hardening behavior and stable crack propagation (for Np = 0.9 we have an
overreinforced and/or small depth beam). In any case, the discontinuities appear when
the crack approaches the reinforcements. These are put in evidence when the
theoretical loading process is controlled by the monotonically increasing crack depth
and represent the experimental snap-back and snap-through instabilities for deflection-
controlled and load-controlled processes, respectively. The horizontal dotted lines
represent the dimensionless ultimate moment for totally disconnected section. These
are asymptotes for the theoretical curves and are given by M~.5 = Np (1- cl ~ c2).
KICh b
4. Continuous Model
A continuous model will be proposed to analyze the structural response of self-
reinforced materials or composites with continuously distributed secondary phases. The
material inhomogeneities such as microdefects, grains, aggregates, fibres or particles
prevent us to study the problem with a direct application of the linear elastic fracture
mechanics concepts. In fact microcracking coalescence, fibres or particles debonding,
sliding and yielding in the process zone in front of the macrocracks, supply a bridging
38
action that provides crack control. This model replaces the process zone and the
bridging actions respectively by a fictitious crack and by a distribution of closing
tractions u(w), which is a function of the crack opening displacement w. Therefore, the
bridging tractions behave like nonlinear springs smeared along the crack. With these
assumptions the nonlinear problem is solved using the superposition principle and the
crack tip stress intensity factors that, according to fracture mechanics, are measures of
the singular stress fields due to u(w) and to the external applied loads.
The continuous model is formulated with two different options in order to analyze
a wide range of composite materials; namely, the bridging option and the cohesive
option. Their fundamental difference concerns the crack tip stress field, the consequent
crack growth criterion and the bridging law.
In the bridging option a singular stress field is assumed at the crack tip and the
crack starts propagating when the total crack tip stress intensity factor reaches the
matrix toughness critical value K IC . Consequently two distinct factors contribute to
the global toughness of the composite: the matrix toughness and the reinforcing phase
toughening mechanism, which is represented by the crack tip shielding effect realized by
the bridging tractions.
In the cohesive option, on the other hand, a finite stress field is assumed at the
crack tip and consequently the crack starts propagating when the total crack tip stress
intensity factor becomes equal to zero. With this option only the global toughening
mechanism of the whole composite is defined and it is represented by the shielding
effect produced on the crack tip by the cohesive tractions.
The bridging and the cohesive tractions simulate respectively the secondary phase
restraining of crack propagation and the combined matrix-secondary phase resistance
against crack propagation.
In a fibrous brittle matrix composite, in which the bridging actions due to the
matrix inhomogeneities are much less important than the action played by the fibres,
the bridging law u(w) can be simply evaluated by means of fibre pull-out tests. A
typical qualitative pull-out curve (22) is shown in Figure 3, where three branches can be
Pull Out II III
Load
Slip
Figure 3 - Qualitative pull-out curve.
distinguished: the first defines the fibre elastic elongation up to the breaking of the
elastic bond or the fibre yielding limit; the second, with a lower slope, represents
debonding or strain-hardening; the third, following the ultimate fibre strength or the
complete fibre-matrix separation, defines pulling-out against frictional forces. The real
u(w) relationships are composed of one or more of these qualitative branches depending
on the fibre properties, such as constitutive material, diameter, aspect ratio, shape,
orientation and distribution. and on the interaction of the fibres with the matrix.
39
The cohesive law can be evaluated by a direct tension test on the composite
material in which a stable crack growth across the width of the specimen is obtained.
Usually this results a decreasing function of the crack opening displacement. The
relationship is also definable, if the bridging mechanism is known, by simulating the
tensile test with an adequate bridging theoretical model.
Consider the cracked cross section in bending shown in Figures 1(c) and 4. The
total crack length a is given by the sum of two portions: the real crack ar, along which
IOatx) (Jew)
am
~ ~
M h M
of
xm a, :
Wk
Xk W,
x, Or
Figure 4 - Continuous model.
the crack faces have no interaction, and the fictitious crack af, upon which the closing
traction distribution u( w) is active. The relationship u( w) connects the bridging or
cohesive tractions with the crack opening displacement w(x), being x the coordinate
with respect to the bottom of the cross section. The crack opening Wr at the real crack
tip equalizes the critical value wc , if the process zone is already developed.
A loading process, which is controlled by the total crack depth a, is theoretically

simulated in order to define the constitutive flexural behavior of the cross section. The
unknown function of the problem is the crack opening displacement w(x). The problem
results to be nonlinear, the tractions u(w) being function of the unknown w(x). An
iterative procedure based on the alternate verification of equilibrium and congruence
conditions is established in order to solve the indeterminate problem. The procedure is
constituted by the following steps.
1. A total crack depth a is fixed.
2. A crack opening displacement relationship wl(x) is assumed, being i the iteration

. .
index. The fictitious crack depth a}, the real crack tip opening displacement w}, and
the shape of the crack faces are consequently fixed.
3. A position vector {(} = {(l, ... ,(n}T of the normalized coordinates ( =~ in a

discrete number of points n along the crack faces and the corresponding crack opening
displacement vector {wi} =
{wi((l), ... ,wh((n)}T, are defined. Moreover, by me~ns of
the bridging or cohesive traction law u(w), a bridging traction vector {ul } =
40
{ui(w\), ... ,ui(whn T is evaluated. In order to develop the nonlinear analysis in a matrix
form the bridging law u(w) is replaced by an approximating function Ii({ui },(), which is
a function of th~ assumed bridging vector {ui } and of the normalized coordinate (. The
function is obtained by interpolating over the components of the vector {ui }, Figure 4
[71·
4. Equilibrium condition: the external moment of crack propagation Mi<-, which
corresponds, together with the assumed bridging tractions, to the crack in a state of
mobile equilibrium, is evaluated.
5. The crack opening displacement vector {wi + I}, in the equilibrium state, is
evaluated.
6. Congruence verification: the calculated crack opening displacement vector
{wi+l} is compared with the assumed one {wi}. If con~ruence is satisfied the iterative
procedure stops, otherwise it starts again from point (3) with a new iteration i+1 and
the new shape of the crack faces that is defined by {wi + I}.
To carry out step (4), let us explain the secondary phase toughening mechanisms which
essentially consists in reducing the crack tip stress intensity factor due to the applied
moment. In fact, by the superposition principle, the total crack tip stress intensity
factor results to be:
(18)
in which KIM and KIu are the stress intensity factors due to the bending moment M
and to the tractions u(w), respectively. In the beam configuration these are given by
[20,211:
KIM =h i1b YMW (19)

e
K Iu = hO\b J u(w())Yp(e,()bh d( (20)
er
where YMW and Yp(e,() are polynomial functions and e =~, er = 'i: and (=~.
The equilibrium condition is given by the following relationship:
(bridging option)
(21)
(cohesive option)
By introducing the expressions of the stress intensity factor, the dimensionless

moment of crack propagation M~, at the iteration i, takes the form:
K
M~ 1 {
h1.5b = Y (e) B
Je Ii({ui},()
Uu Yp(e,()d( + K
}
(22)
IC M er
41
Bridging option: K = 1
ptr hO. 5
B -- N P--K--
- u (23)
IC
Cohesive option: K = 0
1 tr hO. 5
B = s = it- (24)
IC
in which ptru and tru are the maximum tractions in the bridging and in the cohesive law,
K and B are two constants that are respectively related to the matrix or homogenized
toughness and to the brittleness of the cross section and assume different values in the
two model options. In particular Np is the previously defined brittleness number and s
is the brittleness number early defined by Carpinteri [19] for brittle materials. In the
bridging brittleness number N p , tru represents the fibre ultimate strength (yielding,
rupture or pull-out strength) while in the cohesive brittleness number s, it represents
the ultimate strength of the composite. In an analogous way, K IC can represent either
the toughness of the matrix, or the toughness of the whole composite.
Step (5) is carried out by means of Castigliano's theorem. According to it, the
generic component wl+ 1 of the crack opening displacement vector {wi + I} is:
(25)
in which F is a fictitious force applied in (k and dual of wk(k)j U i is the total elastic
strain energy definable as a function of the strain energy release rate (4) and therefore of
the total crack tip stress intensity factor KiT (3) so that it results:
~ ~ i
f ~i bhd( = f K~T
2
Ui = bhd( (26)
o 0
being KiT defined as follows:
KiT = KiM - Kitr + KIF (27)

where KIF is the stress intensity factor due to the opening forces applied in (k [20,21].
By substituting equations (26) and (27) into equation (25) the relative crack
opening displacement results:
{f -KITr bhd}(
~ i 2
i + 1 -- 8F«)
wk 8 (28)
k 0 IF=O
and, by including the expressions of the stress intensity factors:
42
(29)
where ~ = max[(k,erl.
After evaluating the fracture moment and the bridging tractions when convergence
is achieved, the localized rotation 'P is obtained by Castigliano's theorem, according to:
'P = g~ (30)
and therefore:
'P =
2KIC {
Eho.5 K
MF
hl.5b fe YM(y)dy +
Ie °
e y
- B f (f I({:~,() Yp(y,()d()YM(Y)d Y} (31)
er er
In the following analysis the function I( {o-},(), approximating the traction law
o-(w), is defined by interpolating over the bridging traction vector {IT}, with cubic
splines [7]. The approximating function is thus defined by attaching together n -1 third
order polynomials 1/ {0- } ,(), j =1, (n - 1). Between the coordinate (j and (j + l' the
expression of 1/ {o-} ,C) is given by:
(32)
where the coefficients cjl are evaluated in order to preserve the continuity of the
approximating polynomials, up to the second derivative in the n points along the crack.
With this choice, the fracture moment becomes:
ej + 1
K
MF
hl.5b =Y W
1 {
B
n-l
.1:
f I/{o-},()
o-u Yp(e,()d( +K
}
(33)
IC M J= 1 e.
J
while the crack opening displacement, at the generic coordinate (k' takes the form:
wk =
2K
I~
h {M~.5 fe
O•5
YM(y)Yp(y'(k)dy +
KICh b (
_ k
n-l e 'Ipo-},() }
- B .1: f (f o-u Yp(c,()d()Yp(Y'(k)dy (34)
J= 1 ( (.
- J
43
where. ~ = ma.x(1c'(J'] and , = min[y,(. + 1]' and the localized rotation assumes the
followmg expressIOn: J
-
2KIC {M
r.p - Eh O'S
F
K h1. b
Je y2M(Y)dy +
5
IC 0
-B.E
n-l
Je (J'I.({a"},()
J tTu Yp«,()d()YM(y)dy
}
(35)
J =1 e·J e.J
5. Discrete Model Versus Continuous Model
The constitutive response of composites with a discrete number of fibres, or the
influence of concentrated reinforcements on the crack extension can be investigated by
means of the discrete bridging model. On the other hand, the continuous model can be
consistently applied to make macrostructural studies of multi phase nonlinear materials.
Nevertheless, if the number of the discrete reinforcements in the member is high
enough, like for example in ferrocement beams, the discrete and the continuous model
converge to the same results.
In order to make a comparison between the theoretical results, let us consider a
cracked beam in bending where 10 layers of reinforcement are placed in the first half of
the depth h. Let the initial crack length be O.lh and the reinforcements distributed at a
mutual distance of 0.05h.
Three beams characterized by different brittleness numbers, namely Np = 0.1, 0.4,
0.7, have been examined by means of the n-fibre discrete model, Figure 5 [23].
Moreover, the continuous model, with the bridging option, is applied to study the same
beams by defining the fibre volume ratios so to obtain the same brittleness numbers as
in the discrete case. The bridging traction law is assumed rigid-perfectly plastic, tT(w)
= ptTu, p and tTu being the homogenized fibre content and the yielding stress
respectively, Figure 5.
In Figure 5 the dimensionless moment versus normalized rotation diagrams are

shown. The thin lines represent the discrete model and the thick lines the continuous
model. The continuous model, smearing the reinforcement along the cross section,
defines an averaged response without predicting the saw-tooth behavior of the discrete
model. This experimentally verified behavior is due to the fibre bridging action that
progressively stops the crack growth. Nevertheless, a perfect agreement is advisable in
the global responses. The models both predict a transition from a strain-softening
response, for lower values of Np , to a strain-hardening response, for higher values of Np .
For example an increase in the reinforcement volume fraction can give rise to this
trend. The dotted lines represent the ultimate moments.
6. Continuous Model Versus Experimental Results
The continuous model is checked by simulating some experimental tests carried out
on fibre reinforced cementitious beams by Jenq and Shah [6]. The beams, whose
geometrical properties are shown in Figure 6, have been loaded in a three point bending
scheme and were initially n?:tched. The composite matrix is of mortar with a critical
toughness K IC = 26N/mm3 2, while the reinforcing phase is constituted of smooth steel
44
M,
DISCRETE CONTINUOUS
1.·
K,ch b Np=O.1
DISCRETE
MODEL MODEL
CONTINUOUS
T(5aJ
MODELS
M( 0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0 5 10 15 20 25 30 rp/'P,
M, M,
K~h'·5b 1.·
K,ch b
0.3 0.3
0.2 Np=O.4 0.2 Np=O.7

- DISCRETE DISCRETE
0.1 - - CONTINUOUS 0.1 - - CONTINUOUS
MODELS MODELS
0.0 0.0
0.0 5 10 15 20 25 30 rpjrp, 0.0 5 10 15 20 25 30 rpjrp,
Figure 5 - Discrete model versus continuous model.

P(N)
P=0.005
800 N p=0.34
- - EXPERIMENTAL
_ _ THEORETICAL
LOOdD
L=280 (mm) b=19 (mm)
h=76 (mm) 0.=23 (mm)
(Ibs.)
Pull-out test 4.0
15 20 6 (mm.1Q-')
of single fibre
(Naaman. Shah) 2.0
P(N)
0.00 .0 0.2 0.4 slip (in.)
........ - ...... .
P(N) ....... _.......... .
800 ,,
'- ................................................... .
600
- - EXPERIMENTAL P=0.01S
- - EXPERIMENTAL P=0.010
•....•.• THEOR. P T =0.015 Np=1.08
•.•....• THEOR. P T =0.010 Np=O.72
- - THEOR. P y =0.016 N p=1.15
- - THEOR. P T =0.014 N p=0.92
0.0 L - _ - - ' ._ _- ' -_ _" - _ - ' -_ _- ' - _ - - '
0.0 5.0 10 15 20 6 (mm.1(r') 10 15 20 6 (mm.1Q-')
Figure 6 - Continuous model versus experimental results.

45
fibres with a 0.4 mm diameter and an aspect ratio about equal to 60. The fibre pull-out
curve is shown in Figure 6; the maximum pull-out load is Pp = 27N and the
critical slip value Wc ~ 12 mm. max
In order to apply the bridging option, we make an extrapolation of the single fibre
pull-out behavior to describe the bridging traction law representing the whole fibres
within the matrix. This is made by multiplying the fibre stress, that is defined as the
ratio between the pull-out load and the fibre cross sectional area, by the fibre vOlume
fraction. In addition, a second order power law is assumed to approximate the
descending branch of the experimental curve. The ascending elastic branch has not to
be included in the bridging law. These assumptions neglect the effects of fibre
distribution and orientation and any probabilistic consideration related to the fibre-
matrix constitutive behavior. The matrix is assumed perfectly brittle.
The theoretical and experimental results, by means of the load-deflection curves,
are presented in Figure 6. The thin lines are the experimental curves and the thick
lines the theoretical ones. In the first diagram, which is related to a beam reinforced by
a~fibre volume fraction p = 0.005, the theoretical curve is translated to the right in
order to avoid the nonlinear experimental deflections coming before the crack extension.
In fact these are produced by distributed damage within the beam volume and by
microcracking in the process zone in front of the real crack. The assumed bridging
model neglects these phenomena. A good agreement is found in the strain-softening
behavior during crack propagation and in the ultimate loads.
In the other two diagrams, which are related to beams with p = 0.010 and p =
0.015, an almost elastic-perfectly plastic behavior and a strain-hardening behavior are
respectively verified. In each diagram two theoretical thick curves are shown; the
continuous ones, that better represent the experimental results, have been obtained by
slightly increasing the true fibre volume ratio. This necessity can be explained since the
analysis neglects phenomena such as the angle effect or the matrix nonlinear behavior.
It is interesting to notice that, in all the tests, the fibres continue to cross the crack
until the beam is fully disconnected, so that the process zone extends over the whole
beam depth.
7. Bridging Option Versus Cohesive Option
To make a comparison between the proposed continuous models, the cohesive

option is used to analyze the low fibre ratio (p=0.005) beam tested by Jenq and Shah.
Since the experimental cohesive law is not available, the continuous model with the
bridging option is applied in order to simulate a direct tension test on the composite
material, with a double edge notched specimen, Figure 7(a}. The stress intensity
factors related to the bridging tractions and to the applied load for this particular
geometry are obtained from the handbooks [20]. An iterative procedure, which is
analogous to the one proposed for the member in flexure, is developed in order to
reproduce the crack growth within the width of the specimen and to define the cohesive
law. The cohesive tractions (f are equal to the applied tractions whereas the
corresponding crack opening displacements w are provided by the specimen elongations
allowed by the crack.
A bilinear approximation of the evaluated cohesive curve is shown in Figure 7(b).

The curve, which is tending to infinity when the crack opening is zero, has been cut at
the level of matrix strength. The second branch is almost horizontal being the crack
opening small with respect to the fibre length at the complete specimen disconnection,
46
when the pull-out mechanism may be considered as just starting.
P (N) p=o.oos
a 800 - - BRIDGING OPTION
11 u(MPo)
)
W/2 I __ - - COHESIVE OPTION
6 COHESIVE LAW
600
~P
4.
2
400
1 1
W/2 I--
n 0.0
0.0 0.04 0.08 w(mm)
a
(0) (b) (c)
0.0
0.0 S.O 10 15 20 <5 '(mm<lO-')
Figure 7 - Bridging option versus cohesive option.
The cohesive option is applied to analyze the beam in bending and the results are
compared with those of the bridging option. The diagram of the load versus deflection
due to the crack, is shown in Figure 7(c). The thin line, which has been obtained from
the bridging option, and the thick line, obtained from the cohesive option, define the
same global behavior. The dotted line in the diagram has been obtained disregarding
the initial peak of the cohesive law and emphasizes the importance of a proper
definition of the laws representing the composite nonlinear behavior, sharp variations
and discontinuities included.
8. Conclusions
The fundamental role of the secondary phases added in brittle ceramic or

cementitious matrices, is to provide crack control and to improve the matrix toughness.
Though the secondary phase action is different according to the mechanical, geometrical
and distributive properties of the components, in any case it is represented by a
bridging mechanism affecting the matrix micro- and macrocracks so to prevent their
coalescence, opening and growth.
Different nonlinear fracture mechanics models have been proposed in order to

analyze the behavior of composite structural members, in particular beams in flexure.
In the one-fibre and n-fibre discrete models the secondary phase bridging action is
simulated by means of discrete forces applied onto the crack faces, which represent
localized reinforcements. In the continuous model the secondary phase bridging action
is represented by a distribution of closing tractions acting on a fictitious advancing
crack. The continuous model formulation descends from the discrete models in the
hypothesis of homogenizing the reinforcements action, and applies to composites with a
continuous distribution of secondary phases. The continuous model presents a bridging
option and a cohesive option, for the cases of non vanishing and vanishing crack tip
stress intensity factor, respectively. In fact, in the bridging option the crack growth is
governed by the matrix fracture toughness and the bridging tractions represent the
secondary phase action. In the cohesive option, on the other hand, the cohesive
tractions represent the combined matrix-reinforcement toughening and crack growth
restraining mechanism.
47
Different applications have been presented by means of comparisons between the

theoretical models and between the continuous model and the results of experimental
tests carried out on fibre reinforced cementitious beams. The continuous model
correctly reproduces the structural behavior of brittle matrix composite members if the
properties of the components are known, e.g., the matrix toughness and the bridging
actions. In macrostructural studies on certain cross sectional configurations with
numerous reinforcing elements the n-fibre discrete model and the continuous model
converge to the same results.
Eventually, the last application makes clear that, if the bridging mechanism is
known, both the cohesive option and the bridging option can reproduce the structural
response. Otherwise, if for example different bridging mechanisms are present, such as
fibre bridging and aggregates bridging in the crack wake and microcracking in front of
the main crack, the cohesive option has to be applied by defining a global cohesive law,
whose shielding effect represents the totality of the bridging toughening mechanisms.
References
[lJ D. S. Dugdale, "Yielding of Steel Sheets Containing Slits", J. Mech. Phys. Solids,
8, pp. 100-104, 1960.
[2J G. I. Barenblatt, "The Mathematical Theory of Equilibrium Cracks in Brittle

Fracture", Adv. in Appl. Mech., 7, pp. 55-129, 1962.
[3J R. M. L. Foote, Y-W. Mai and B. Cotterell, "Crack Growth Resistance Curves in
Strain-Softening Materials", J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 6, pp. 593-607, 1986.
[4J D. B. Marshall, B. N. Cox and A. G. Evans, "The Mechanics of Matrix Cracking in

Brittle-Matrix Fiber Composites", Acta. Metall. Mater., 33, pp. 2013-2021, 1985.
[5J B. Budiansky, J. W. Hutchinson and A. G. Evans, "Matrix Fracture in Fiber-

Reinforced Ceramics", J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 34, pp. 167-189, 1986.
[6J Y. S. Jenq and S. P. Shah, "Crack Propagation in Fiber-Reinforced Concrete", J.

Engng. Mech., 112, pp. 19-34, 1985.
[7J B. N. Cox and D. B. Marshall, "Stable and Unstable Solutions for Bridged Cracks
in Various Specimens", Acta Metall. Mater., 39, pp. 579-589, 1991.
[8J A. Carpinteri, "Stability of Fracturing Process in R.C. Beams", J. Struct. Eng.,

110, pp. 544-558, 1984.
[9J C. Bosco and A. Carpinteri, "Softening and Snap-Through Behavior of Reinforced

Elements", J. Eng. Mech., 118, pp. 1564-1577, 1992.
[lOJ C. Bosco and A. Carpinteri, "Fracture Behavior of Beam Cracked Across

Reinforcement", Theor. and Appl. Fract. Mech., 17, pp. 61-68, 1992.
[l1J J. R. Rice, "A Path Independent Integral and the Approximate Analysis of Strain
Concentration by Notches and Cracks", J. Appl. Mech., 35, pp. 379-386, 1968.
[12J A. Hillerborg, M. Mooder and P.-E. Petersson, "Analysis of Crack Formation and
Crack Growth in Concrete by Means of Fracture Mechanics and Finite Elements",
Cern. Cone. Res., 6, pp. 773-782, 1976.
48
[13] A. Carpinteri, "Cusp Catastrophe Interpretation of Fracture Instability", J. Mech.

Phys. Solids, 37, pp. 567-582, 1989.
[14] A. Carpinteri, "Decrease of Apparent Tensile and Bending Strength with Specimen
Size: Two Different Explanations Based on Fracture Mechanics", Int. J. Solids and
Struct., 25, pp. 407-429, 1989.
[15] B. Cotterell, P. Paramasivam and K. Y. Lam, "Modelling the Fracture of
Cementitious Materials", Mater. and Struct., 25, pp. 14-20, 1992.
[16] C. Bosco, A. Carpinteri and P. G. Debernardi, "Minimum Reinforcement in High-

Strength Concrete", J. Struct. Eng., 116, pp. 427-437, 1990.
[17] A. Carpinteri and R. Massab6, "Discontinuities in the Constitutive Response of a
Fibre Reinforced Beam in Flexure", (in Italian), Proc. of AIMETA-92, Trento, pp.
203-208, 1992.
[18] A. Carpinteri, "A Fracture Mechanics Model for Reinforced Concrete Collapse",
IABSE Colloquium on Adv. Mech. of Reinforced Concrete, Delft, pp. 17-31, 1981.
[19] A. Carpinteri, "Static and Energetic Fracture Parameters for Rocks and
Concretes", Mater. and Struct., 14, pp. 151-162, 1981.
[20] H. Tada, P. Paris and G. Irwin, The Stress Analysis of Cracks Handbook, Del
Research Corporation, St. Louis, Missouri, 1963.
[21] D. P. Rooke and D. J. Cartwright, Compendium of Stress Intensity Factors, The
Hillingdon Press, Uxbridge, Middx, England, 1976.
[22] P. Bartos, "Review Paper: Bond in Fibre Reinforced Cements and Concretes", Int.
J. Cem. Comp., 3, pp. 159-177,1981.
[23] C. Bosco and A. Carpinteri, "Fibre Toughening and Crack Growth Stability in
Fibre-Reinforced Disordered Materials", Proc. Int. Conf. on Fract. in Brittle
Disordered Materials, Noordwijk, The Netherlands, 1, pp. 295-305, 1991.
MODELLING THREE-DIMENSIONAL COMPOSITES
B. N. Cox
Rockwell International Science Center, 1049 Camino Dos Rios,

Thousand Oaks, California 91360
This paper reports progress towards predicting the elastic properties, strength,
damage tolerance, and fatigue lives of woven or braided composites with 3D
reinforcement.
Modeling begins with experimental observations of the mechanisms of failure under

various loading conditions. In compression, the primary mechanisms are kink band
formation in aligned tows and limited delaminations. In tension, failure progresses by
tow rupture. In both tension and compression, high strains to failure are often
measured, implying high damage tolerance and notch insensitivity.
Elastic properties are predicted very well by rules of mixtures corrected for
irregularity or waviness in the reinforcement. Strength can be predicted fairly well by
simple micromechanical arguments.
On the other hand, predicting damage tolerance, notch sensitivity, and the failure of
structures requires a computational model that deals explicitly with the architecture of
the reinforcement and the progression of local damage events throughout the body. A
model called the "Binary Model" has been developed for this purpose.
1. Introduction
The internal geometry of composites has usually been determined by convenience

and cost during processing. Thus high strength and high modulus polymer composites,
for example, evolved as unidirectional and cross-plied, two dimensional (2D) laminates
because of the convenience of handling unidirectional prepregs and the relative ease of
compacting and curing 2D lay-ups. Yet in many applications, the 2D nature of polymer
composites has severely restricted their use. They have poor through-thickness strength
and are susceptible to delamination, particularly following impact. This has been one of
the principal reasons that they have not yet appeared in commercial aircraft primary
structures. Supplying this deficiency by chemistry, i.e., by using high toughness resins
or thermoplastics, has been relatively expensive.
The history of the development of brittle matrix fibrous composites for high
temperature use is similar, but even more remarkable in light of the extreme price paid
in properties for the convenience of geometrical simplicity. The first rule in making a
tough brittle matrix composite is to ensure that the interface is weak, so that cracks
originating in either the matrix or the fibers are deflected at the interface, rather than
penetrating from one phase into the other in a catastrophic manner. Unfortunately,
this leads immediately and unavoidably to poor strength under loads normal to the
fibers, since nearly all the load must be borne by the brittle matrix alone. In spite of
this fatal weakness, research on the most popular candidates for high temperature
applications, in particular ceramic and intermetallic matrix fibrous composites, has
dealt almost exclusively with unidirectional or 2D fiber architectures. Success in their
development has almost always been measured in terms of strength and fatigue
resistance achieved for loads that are aligned with the fibers, with great effort being
49
c.C. Sih et at. (eds.). Advanced Technology for Design and Fabrication of Composite Materials and Structures, 49-62.
50
expended to maxmuze these properties by controlling interfacial properties during

processing and high temperature loading. Yet it seems very unlikely that such
materials will ever possess useful through-thickness strength and impact damage
tolerance, with these properties becoming more severely degraded the higher the fiber
volume fraction.
Recent advances in several fields suggest that the most promising solution to the
difficulty of obtaining through-thickness strength and damage tolerance in many classes
of materials lies in 3D composites. In the most general terms, a 3D composite is one in
which load can be transferred directly in any of three linearly independent dimensions
by the reinforcing phase alone. Various ways of achieving this will be illustrated below.
The potential of 3D reinforcement for through-thickness strength and damage tolerance
is obvious, but they can also have remarkable in-plane properties relative to those of 2D
laminates, notably comparable strength and greatly enhanced ductility. Furthermore,
as the technology of 3D composites develops, it is becoming clear that they are also
cost-competitive in manufacture. The question of cost is paramount in many current
research and development programs, which have the general goal of introducing the
advantages of 3D composites into the commercial arena.
2. Some Examples of 3D Composites
The four most important methods of producing 3D fiber structures are weaving,
braiding, stitching, and knitting. These processes must generally be carried out with
dry fiber tows or yarns, which means that most 3D composites must be finished by
introducing the matrix by some kind of infusion or infiltration. The 3D preform can be
fabricated with any sufficiently flexible and strong fibers. The most commonly used
fibers to date have been carbon and glass, while some use of low radius SiC fibers (e.g.,
Nicalon 1 fibers) has now begun. The earliest examples of useful 3D composites were C-
C composites, with the matrix formed by carbonization of an infused polymer, followed
by graphitization. More recently, advances in resin transfer moulding (RTM) have
enabled impregnation and cure with aerospace quality polymer resins, leading to a new
class of 3D polymer matrix composites with excellent mechanical properties.
Simultaneously, the range of available classes of fiber preforms has been significantly
broadened. The development of metal, intermetallic, and ceramic matrix 3D
composites remains in its infancy. Early examples include graphite preforms infiltrated
by liquid Cu and SiC preforms infiltrated either by liquid glass or by SiC using
chemical vapor infiltration.
A schematic of a typical stitched laminate is shown in Figure 1. While a stitched

laminate may still exhibit some delamination following impact loading, the stitching
essentially eliminates the propagation of the delamination crack under subsequent
compressive loading and the residual strength is barely affected [1-3]. Some further
remarks on the properties of stitched laminates appear below.
Stitching may also be used to join a skin r.n: sheet to a stiffener, a common
structural configuration in airframes (wings and fuselage). The flanges of the stiffener
can be stitched directly to the skin while both are dry preforms, and the entire
assembly impregnated and cured in one shot. The resulting integral structure cannot
fail by debonding of the skin and stiffener. Manufacturing costs are reduced by the
elimination of rivets.
INippon Carbon Co., Japan.

51
SC·1194-CS
Quasi-
isotropic
lay-up
---=
-
F--
-Bobbin
thread
Figure 1 - Schematic of quasi-isotropic laminate reinforced by modified lock stitching.
Integral structures can also be formed elegantly by weaving or braiding. Figure 2

shows a preform for a skin and orthogonal stiffeners that has been woven as one piece.
yam continuous
thlUlJl!b inlt!l"SOCliom
Ribs inl'8l11
with panel
________ 0". 90" It W
_______ reinfun:emonlS in panel. ribs
Figure 2 - An integrally woven preform. Reproduced with the kind permission of

Techniweave Inc., Rochester, New Hampshire.
Both the skin and stiffeners contain 0°, 90° and ± 45° yarns. Integrally woven or braided
skin-stiffeners have the virtue that the reinforcement passes continuously from every
part of each structure into every other part, providing a degree of structural integrity
unmatched by riveting or bonding.
With modern computer-controlled apparatus, both weaving and braiding permit

fabrication of preforms of complex shape. As well as skin-stiffener structures, examples
include curved window belt frames for aircraft structures formed by braiding and woven
preforms for C-C turbine fan blades. Fabrication of such parts to net-shape eliminates
the substantial cost of machining.
3. Structure-Property Relations for 3D Woven Composites
Aside from their utility in manufacturing parts of irregular shape, 3D composites

52
display remarkable engineering properties in flat coupon tests. In the following, some
insight into the origin of these properties and ideas about predicting structure/property
relations are inferred from experimental observations of 3D woven interlock
graphite/epoxy composites [4,51, an example of which is shown in Figure 3. They
stuffer
Figure 3 - A through-the-thickness angle interlock weave consisting of AS4 carbon fibers

in a Tactix 138/H41 2 matrix.
consist of a rather coarse 0·/90· laminate reinforced by warp tows woven through the
thickness along approximately sinusoidal, saw-tooth, or rectangular wave paths. In all
tests referred to below, loading was along the O· direction, parallel to tows called
"stuffers". The composites tested fall into two categories according to the degree of
compaction achieved during consolidation: "lightly compacted" with total fiber volume
fractions, V, near 0.4; and "heavily compacted" with V - 0.6. All the composites
consist of AS4 fibers in either Tactix 138 resin (lightly compacted) or Shell 1895 resin
(heavily compacted).
3.1 Elastic Properties
Upper bounds to Young's modulus can be predicted from rules of mixtures. In this
approach, the composite is modeled as aligned tows embedded in an effective medium
representing nonaligned tows. For example, for loading along the stuffer direction, the
moduli Es, Em and Ex of the stuffers, the effective medium, and the composite are
given by
Es :::: VEf + (1- V)En Em:::: [V /Ef + (1- V)/ErI- \

Ex :::: fsEs + (1- fs)Em (1)
2Dow Chemical Co., Freeport, Texas.

53
where fs is the fraction of all fibers lying in stuf£ers and E f and Er are the known fiber
and resin moduli. While V can be measured by acid digestion, the fraction fs is known
from the weaver's specifications.
In the comparison of the upper bound with experiment in Table 1 (from [5]), the
product fs V indicates the volume fraction of aligned fibers .
Table 1 -Measured and estimated tensile Young's modulus in stuffer direction
Material Expt. Rules of fsV Knockdown

(GPa) mixtures factor X
~upper bound)
GPa)
Lightly • layer-to-Iayer 30±6 37 0.13 -30%

compacted angle interlock 29 41 0.15
• through-the-thickness 27 48 0.18
angle interlock 39 49 0.18
• orthogonal 30 51 0.19
interlock
Heavily • layer-to-Iayer 85±8 96 0.36 -10%

compacted angle interlock 80 85 0.32
• through-the-thickness 79 92 0.35
angle interlock 72 89 0.34
• orthogonal 88 96 0.36
interlock 70±5 86 0.32
Rules of mixtures estimates of Young's modulus exceed experimental

measurements because stiffness is degraded by irregularity in tow positioning. Figure 4
Figure 4 - Stuffer misalignment in an angle interlock weave.
illustrates stuf£er misalignment in one interlock weave. In heavily compacted

composites, tow misalignment is relatively small, but still significant. In lightly
compacted composites, misalignment is much larger.
54
Rough estimates of the effects of tow irregularity can be made by regarding short
segments of tows as unidirectional fiber/epoxy composites aligned at some randomly
varying angle U with respect to the load axis. The knockdown factor Xu' of such a
segment is a decreasing function of U that can be found from the elementary theory of
composites. The knockdown factor, X, for the composite can be estimated by averaging
Xu over all tows in several cross-sections. The results have been added to Table 1. The
knockdown factors are generally large enough to account for the degree of
overestimation produced by rules of mixtures. However, measuring geometrical
irregularity is difficult and produces somewhat uncertain numbers which will vary with
processing conditions.
Because of this difficulty, it is not realistic to expect to predict composite modulus,

including knockdown factors, to better than a few percent. More sophisticated models
are not justified. More accurate data can only be obtained from experiment.
On the other hand, Table 1 shows clearly the importance to composite stiffness of
maintaining straight tows during weaving and processing. This is not done at present
and stands as a major challenge to the industry.
3.2 Failure in Compression
While elastic properties are insensitive to the presence of through-thickness yarns,

the geometrical details of the reinforcement architecture have a profound effect on
failure, whether in tension or compression. Consider, for example, a recent comparison
of the behavior of stitched laminates (Figure 1) and woven angle interlock composites
under uniaxial, in-plane compression [4]. Both the stitched and woven composites
contain carbon fibers in mechanically similar resin matrices. The total volume fraction
of fibers that are not in-plane is around 5% in each case. Yet the geometrical
arrangement of these few out-of-plane fibers proves critical.
The stress-strain histories for the stitched and woven materials are compared in
Figure 5. The stitched laminates show elastic response up to maximum load, which
occurs at around 1% compressive strain, where they fail catastrophically, even though
the tests of Figure 5 were conducted under load point displacement control. The woven
composites, in contrast, survive far beyond the strain to maximum load, bearing
significant loads out to strains exceeding 15% in some cases.
Both the stitched and woven composites fail in compression by the formation of
kink bands, which is the predominant mode of failure for most fiber-reinforced polymers
[6,7]. However, as the post mortem photographs of Figure 6 show, the distribution of
damage in the two cases is very different. The stitched laminates fail by a single,
catastrophically propagating kink band spanning the whole specimen, while damage in
the woven composites consists of many kink bands distributed widely over the entire
gauge section.
The essential difference between the two cases can be explained in terms of the
spatial distribution of geometrical flaws [4]. The stitched laminates are relatively flaw
free in this sense, the laminae being relatively regular and flat and the stitching tows
playing no direct role in the mechanics of compressive failure [4]. Geometrical flaws in
the woven composites consist of intervals of the 0 tows that are misaligned with respect
0
to the applied load axis; and locations where through-thickness yarns wrap around 90 0
tows, which then impose lateral loads on 0 tows. Both misalignment and lateral loads
0
are an ineluctable characteristic of woven or braided structures; and both lower the
critical stress for kink band formation [6,7]. In the absence of spatially distributed
55
500
_ 400
III
Q.
!.
300
1/1
UI
!
Ui 200
100
0.05
Strain
(b)
300
iii
Q.
!.
200
.
1/1
1/1
CII
Ui 100
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15
Strain
Figure 5 - Strain-load histories of (a) stitched laminates and (b) ane;le interlock woven
composites under uniaxial compression. From [4J.
flaws, which is the case in stitched laminates, the first kink band to initiate (usually at
a free surface). generates a catastrophic stress concentration, leading to unstable kink
band propagation; and the material is brittle. In the presence of spatially distributed
flaws, kink bands initiate at many sites around each of which the neighboring material
is sufficiently strong to survive the concomitant stress concentration. Failure follows
only after extensive damage and the material is ductile [4].
3.3 Failure in Tension
Tensile test curves for heavily compacted composites are shown in Figure 7 (from
[5]). Very high strains are occasionally recorded, with one specimen bearing peak load
out to a strain of - 4%.
Upper bounds to strength in tension, O'~c), can be obtained directly from the
manufacturer's data for carbon fibers or unidirectional laminates with appropriate
allowances for volume fractions. Thus
(2)
56
SCP()OO~'T
..
11 mm 1
~ ~
load
~.~~~-------~
axis
Figure 6 - Post-mortem damage in (a) stitched laminate and (b) an angle interlock
woven composite following failure in compression from [4].
57
1000
I
-"h,
I
I I •
, ,." ..
"
Ii 800
Q. " ..Vi...;1·-V-·-·-·-
:::ii /'::,','~"1
'Ui' 600 /~/'
! ,W
," I'
l'
i'I
:/~
c;; 400 " .:
I I/,'
I .. I
I -h·L·2
,:rpo I
--. h·T·'
_ . h·T·2
-- -. h-O
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04

Strain
Figure 7 - Uniaxial tension tests of heavily compacted composites loaded along stuffers.
In the key, "L" refers to layer-to-Iayer angle interlock, "T" to through-the-thickness
angle interlock, and "0" to orthogonal interlock weaves.
where Ec and E f are the moduli of the composite and the fiber, the former either
estimated by rule of mixtures or measured, and o"fc} is the quoted fiber strength. For
AS4 fibers, .,.~c} ~ 4 GPa. 3 Using measured values for Ec and with E f ~ 250 GPa, one
finds .,.~c} = 450-500 MPa for the lightly compacted composites and .,.~c} - 1.2 GPa for
the heavily compacted composites. These values are 25-50% higher than measured
strengths.
There are several likely causes of strength degradation. (1) Prior to weaving, AS4
yarns are wrapped with polyvinyl alcohol threads to prevent spreading. The polyvinyl
alcohol is removed with hot, distilled water when the weaving is completed. Some
chemical degradation of the fibers is possible. (2) The rigors of the weaving process are
always likely to damage tows. (3) Both the weaving and consolidation processes result
in deformation of tows. Nominally aligned tows that are not straight will have a lower
effective modulus, leading to overloading of neighboring tows that are straight. (4) A
misaligned, kinked, or nonuniformly squashed tow may be weaker than a straight tow.
(5) Lateral loads are induced on aligned tows by the reaction of warp weavers to in-
plane tension, which may reduce their strength.
Further research is required to determine which factors account for the strength
reduction in 3D woven composites. For the moment, it is enough to say that existing
3D woven composites are probably far from optimal in tensile strength.
Strain to failure as measured in a tensile test is not a meaningful material property,

because damage is inhomogeneously distributed and depends on the test configuration.
A better approach is to model damage as a cohesive zone. The constitutive law relating
stress, p, and displacement, u, in the cohesive zone is a material property. Knowledge
of p(u) permits prediction of the failure of parts of any shape.
3Data sheets of Hercules, Inc., Wilmington, Delaware.

58
The cohesive zone can be defined as in Figure 8, which depicts damage emanating
from a notch or hole. The leading edge of the zone coincides with the furthest failed
crack
~
~" 2u c
stress
f - -II
.
~
"
c
.8"
..
c
E
l.
c;:?:tor ~
~~
cohesive unfailed
zone stuffers
Figure 8 - Schematic of tensile failure as a cohesive zone.
aligned tow (stuffer in the case shown). The tractions at the leading edge will be near
Pc, the stress for tow rupture. Over the cohesive zone, failed tows continue to transfer
load, albeit decreasing, as they are pulled out of the composite. Pull-out is complete at
the trailing edge of the zone, where the displacement discontinuity, u, across the zone
(or the crack opening displacement) reaches a critical value, u c. The function p(u) will
decrease monotonically from Pc to zero over [O,ucl.
The cohesive zone introduces a characteristic length, ech [8]:

ucEc
ech = PC (3)
When the size of a notch is much less than ech' strength will be unaffected. When the
width of a part is less than e h' its strength will fall only as the net section stress rises
[9,10]. c
Table 2 shows estimates of e h based on measured pull-out lengths and tow rupture
stresses. The values are very lar~e, indicating exceptional damage tolerance and notch
insensitivity.
Table 2 - Cohesive zone characteristics
Composite type Ec Uc Pc
(CPa) (mm) (CPa)
Lightly compacted 30 1-5 0.3 10-50

Heaving compacted 80 1-5 0.9 10-50
The characteristic length ech depends on tow strength via Po and pull-out lengths
via uc. It can be increased without compromising tensile strength only by increasing
U c·
59
Tow pull-out lengths are determined by slip lengths along debond cracks that form
around tows near sites of stress discontinuity, such as a tensile crack; and by the
statistics of flaw strength in tows.
Slip lengths can be estimated by shear lag analysis, as sketched in Figure 9 for
relaxation near a tensile crack. The slip length e~ is related to the remote load ua,' the
critical shear stress TO for interfacial sliding, and the tow circumference s and area A by
(4)
r
SC·0903·E
't - interface friction stress

0-
------ I
---- I
-
I ..... L ............. I I
\ I
I I I
I I I I
, I I
I I I I 1
Figure 9 - Slip near a tensile crack.
It rises in proportion to the tow diameter (or denier), since it is proportional to A/s. In
other words, coarse tow structures favor good stress redistribution around tow failure
sites, which favors subsequent tow failure at other locations and thus contributes to
large pull-out lengths.
The statistics of flaw strength determine how sensitive a segment of unfailed tow
will be to stress concentration within the cohesive zone. If flaws are broadly distributed
in strength and space, each failure will be weakly correlated to prior failures, again
favoring large pull-out lengths. Flaws reflect reinforcement architecture, among other
things, since cross tows that impose lateral loads on aligned tows tend to weaken them
locally.
Thus both of the main factors influencing U c can be controlled, either by choosing
coarse tows or by designing the reinforcement in such a way that points where aligned
tows are weakened by lateral loads are well distributed in space.
4. Analyzing 3D Composites
While infinite variety is possible in the architecture of 3D preforms, very few have
been manufactured and tested to date. The reason for this is simply cost. The cost-
competitiveness of 3D composites comes from high volume manufacture of the same
unit, while the cost of manufacturing a few samples of a single architecture is very high.
Thus a purely empirical approach to optimizing 3D reinforcement architecture, i.e.,
testing preforms in which all geometrical parameters are varied, will be prohibitively
expensive. Yet the widely varying properties found in those 3D composites that have
already become available suggests that their potential has barely been tapped. A
systematic method of optimization will payoff very handsomely.
60
At the same time, new methods must be developed to analyze the reliability of 3D
composites before they can be employed in most structures. Their heterogeneous nature
and the strong relation between their macroscopic properties and their internal
structure render this a new problem, quite unlike analyzing monolithic alloys or 2D
laminates. Conventional finite element methods or laminate theory will not work for
3D composites. Furthermore, in integral structures, such as the skin-stiffener structures
of Figure 2, the transfer of load from one component to the next is now via the
reinforcement itself, rather than via a bond or distinct fastener. Analyzing such load
transfer problems demands explicit modeling of the reinforcing fabric.
The dual problems of optimizing the design of 3D composites and predicting their
reliability thus have the same solution - a theoretical understanding of how
reinforcement geometry affects properties, incorporated in a computational model of
failure. Several such models are now under development, mainly in the context of
polymer composites for primary aircraft structures (e.g., [11]). Most of these begin by
reducing the problem to that of the least structural unit - a unit cell - by whose
translation and replication the entire composite can be recreated. The properties of the
composite are then computed as those of the unit cell, which are determined by finite
element methods, with sufficient elements within the unit cell to represent the details of
its heterogeneous internal structure. These models successfully predict macroscopic
elastic properties, and may indicate trends in strength. However, they are ill-suited to
computing properties following the first onset of damage. Furthermore, in many 3D
composites the unit cell is so large, because of the complexity of the preform structure,
that this approach becomes impracticable.
An alternative model, the "binary model", has been developed to deal more
efficiently with the all-important details of the reinforcement geometry [12,13]' based on
detailed observations of failure mechanisms in woven composites, e.g., as reviewed
above. In the most general terms, the binary model computes the mechanical response
to load of two separately defined, interacting phases, the reinforcement and a matrix or
"effective medium". Each possibly curved reinforcing tow is modeled as a one-
dimensional curved line element, with the sum of all tows constituting an unconnected
3D frame. The effective medium is modeled as a three-dimensional, isotropic
continuum. The effective medium and reinforcing tows are coupled by imposing the
constraint that certain nodes of the computational elements into which they are divided
must share the same displacements. As in the real composite, no two reinforcing tows
are coupled directly. They interact only via the effective medium. Tow and effective
medium elements are commensurate with the characteristic scale of the reinforcement
architecture, e.g., the distance between points at which one tow crosses two other tows
successively. Relatively large sections of the composite structure can thus be modeled
in a calculation of modest size. Both tow and effective medium elements are nonlinear,
with plasticity and local failure incorporated in their assigned constitutive properties.
Elements are also prescribed randomly varying material parameters, in simulation of
variations either in intrinsic strength or in geometry over lengths less than the element
size. Fluctuations in geometry over lengths larger than the element size are introduced
explicitly by adding a random component to the displacements of nodes in the initial
stress-free configuration.
This model has successfully reproduced stre:)s-strain histories such as those shown
in Figures 5 and 7. It has shown, amon~ other things, the transition in woven
composites from ductile behavior, Figures 5lb) and 7, to brittle behavior, similar to
Figure 5(a), upon removing the naturally occurring irregularity in the geometry of the
fiber preform. The extension of the model to the analysis of parts and therefore
reinforcements of complex geometry is straightforward.
61
5. Challenges for the Near Future
3D composites offer cost-effective solutions to many materials challenges in both

room and high temperature applications. However, to get the most out of 3D
composites, one must recognize from the start that they behave entirely differently from
monolithic materials and 2D composites. Ductility and strength, for example, can be
traded off to some extent by modifying the density of wrap-around sites and the degree
of tow misalignment. The ratio of in-plane to through-thickness properties, as required
in a given application, will depend on the class of 3D preform used (whether braided,
woven, stitched, or knitted), as well as on the variations chosen within any class.
Attention should also be paid to controlling tow or yarn tension during processing.
Holding in-plane tows straight will enhance strength substantially in both compression
and tension, while through-thickness yarns must not be crimped by processing
pressures, at pain of losing through-thickness stiffness and delamination resistance.
In extending 3D reinforcement into composites with brittle matrices such as

intermetallics and ceramics, perhaps the most difficult challenge will be one of process
chemistry: how to incorporate the matrix material into a tightly bound fiber structure
with the poorly connected large pores characteristic of 3D preforms. However,
consideration should also be given to tailoring preforms and interface conditions to take
advantage of the 3D nature of the reinforcement. If the reinforcement, by its very
geometry, already ensures ductility and damage tolerance, then the appropriate
interface may be strong, rather than weak as in a unidirectional or 2D brittle-matrix
composite.
In short, developing 3D composites successfully requires the integration of several

disparate and previously unconnected disciplines. Composite design requires intimate
familiarity with the range of possibilities and limitations of 3D preforms, which is still
very much the province of the textile industry. Successful processing requires
knowledge not only of available preforms and process chemistry, but also of how to
control mechanical properties by controlling geometry. Structural design and reliability
analysis require knowledge of both the textile and processing fields, as well as
theoretical tools for predicting structural properties from a given choice of reinforcement
geometry in an integral 3D part, whose geometry might be as complex as that of an
entire aircraft wing. The full scope of 3D composites will not be realized until free flow
of ideas and information exists between people in all these disciplines.
Acknowledgements
This paper refers extensively to previously published work done in collaboration

with Drs. W. C. Carter, M. S. Dadkhah and W. L. Morris.
References
[1] M. B. Dow and D. L. Smith, "Damage Tolerant Composite Materials Produced by

Stitching Carbon Fabrics", Int. SAMPE Tech. Conf. Series, Vol. 21, pp. 595-605,
1989.
[2] R. Palmer and F. Curzio, "Cost Effective Composites Using Multi-Needle Stitching
and RTM/VIM", Fiber-Tex 1988 Conf. Proc., Greenville, South Carolina,
September 1988, NASA Conf. Publ. 3038, 1989.
62
[3] B. N. Cox, "Fundamental Concepts in the Suppression of Delamination Buckling

by Stitching", in Proc. 9th DoD/NASA/FAA Conf. on Fibrous Composites in
Structural Design, Lake Tahoe, Nevada, November 1991, ed. J. Davis, NASA, 1992.
[4] B. N. Cox, M. S. Dadkhah, R. V. Inman, W. L. Morris and J. Zupon, "Mechanisms

of Compressive Failure in 3D Composites", Acta Metall. et Mater., 40, pp. 3285-
3298, 1992.
[5] B. N. Cox, M. S. Dadkhah, W. L. Morris and J. G. Flintoff, "Failure Mechanisms

of 3D Woven Composites in Tension, Compression and Bending", submitted to
Acta Metall. et Mater.
[6] A. S. Argon, Fracture of Composites, Treatise of Materials Science and

Technology, Vol. 1, Academic Press, New York, 1972.
[7] B. Budiansky and N. A. Fleck, "Compressive Failure of Fiber Composites", J.
Mech. Phys. Solids, 41, pp. 183-210, 1993.
[8] A. H. Cottrell, "Mechanics of Fracture", Tewksbury Symposium on Fracture,

University of Melbourne, pp. 1-27, 1963.
[9] G. Bao and Z. Suo, "Remarks on Crack Bridging Concepts", Appl. Mech. Review,
45, pp. 355-366, 1992.
[10] B. N. Cox and D. B. Marshall, "Concepts for Bridged Cracks in Fracture and
Fatigue", Acta Metall. Mater., in press.
[11] Proceedings of the 9th DoD/NASA/FAA Conf. on Fibrous Composites in

Structural Design, Lake Tahoe, Nevada, November 1991, ed. J. Davis, NASA, 1992.
[12] W. C. Carter, B. N. Cox, M. S. Dadkhah and W. 1. Morris, "An Engineering

Model of Woven Composites Based on Micromechanics", in Proc. Third NASA
Advanced Composites Technology Conference, Long Beach, California, 1992.
[13] B. N. Cox, W. C. Carter and N. A. Fleck, "A Binary Model of Textile

Composites", submitted to Acta Metall. Mater.
DESIGN-FABRICATION-PERFORMANCE RELATIONSHIP OF ADVANCED
TEXTILE STRUCTURAL COMPOSITES
T. D. Kostar, J.-H. Byun and T.-W. Chou
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Center for Composite Materials,

University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716
The "multi-step" braiding process is introduced and its application to three-

dimensional braided hybrid composites is discussed. Using an assumed yarn packing
arrangement within the preform, equations were derived relating non-dimensional pitch
to both in-plane rotation and inclination angles. Coupled with a fundamental
understanding of the braiding process, these relations supply a guide to the micro-
structural design of advanced three-dimensional braids. An automation scheme for the
manufacture of the multi-step braids has also been developed. As a special case, four-
step braided composites have been analyzed and the composite micro-structure related to
composite elastic constants. This approach is readily extended to advanced multi-step
braids.
1. Introduction
The design and fabrication of preforms for advanced composites have gained
considerable attention in light of the recently developed three-dimensional textile
preforming techniques. It is within this realm of preforming technology that the full
advantage of the knowledge of process-structure-property relations may be realized.
The fabrication process of these preforms directly determines the composite micro-
structure and the resulting mechanical properties. Of special interest to the fiber
composites community are the four-step, or track and column, braiding which produce
preforms of a three-dimensional nature [1]. An extension to the four-step process has
recently been suggested [2]. This general track and column braiding process, termed
"multi-step", lends itself to preform micro-structural design. A brief explanation of
these braiding schemes is supplied below.
1.1 Four-Step Braiding Process
The four-step braiding process [3] involves four distinct Cartesian motions of groups
of yarns termed rows and columns. For a given step, alternate rows (or columns) are
shifted a prescribed distance relative to each other. The next step involves the
alternate shifting of the columns (or rows) a prescribed distance. The third and fourth
steps involve simply the reverse shifting sequence of the first and second steps,
respectively. A complete set of four steps is called a machine cycle (Figure 1). It
should be noted that after one machine cycle the rows and columns have returned to
their original positions. The braid pattern shown is of the lxl variety, so termed
because the relation between the shifting distance of rows and columns is one-to-one.
Other braid patterns (i.e., lx3, lx5, etc.) are possible but they require different machine
bed configurations and a specialized machine. Track and column braiders of the type
depicted in Figure 1 may be used to fabricate preforms of rectangular cross-sections
such as T-beam, I-beam, and box beam. Four-step braided composites offer excellent
shear resistance and quasi-isotropic elastic behavior due to their symmetric, intertwined
structure. However, the lack of unidirectional reinforcement results in low stiffness and
strength, and high Poisson effect in the braiding direction. To alleviate these
deficiencies, some advanced techniques allow for axial yarns to be inserted into the
63
G. C. Sih et at. (eds.), Advanced Technology for Design and Fabrication of Composite Materials and Structures, 63-76.
64
structure during fabrication.
step zero step one step two step three step four
Figure 1 - The four-step braiding process.

1.2 Yarn Groups and Repeat Geometry
Before extending the four-step braiding process to the more versatile "multi-step"
braiding process, a few words about the important concepts of yarn groups and repeat
geometry are in order.
Yarn groups are sets of yarn tows which travel the same path. A given braiding
process may have many yarn groups and a varying number of yarns per group. As will
be seen shortly, different braiding schemes will yield different distributions of yarn
groups. For example, some track and column shifting sequences will group certain
yarns near the preform corners while others may group certain yarns near the sides or
interior. This phenomena has a direct application to hybrid composites where high
performance yarns such as carbon may be placed only where needed.
The existence of yarn groups implies that, after one complete shifting sequence
(cycle), each yarn in a group has moved to its leading yarn's location. This in turn
implies that the braid geometry produced during one cycle is the repeating geometry for
the entire structure. That is to say, a cross-sectional slab of preform produced during
one cycle may be "stacked up" on top of itself to reproduce the entire preform. It is
desirous to relate processing parameters such as pitch length (length of braid formed
during one cycle) and track and column shifting sequence to this repeating geometry.
Once this is accomplished, the tailored design of preform architecture may be realized.
1.3 "Multi-Step" Braiding Cycles
If we no longer limit ourselves to constant IxI row/column displacement and

instead turn our attention to individual control of a given row or column displacement,
a multitude of avenues opens up to us. To exemplify this idea, consider the braid cycle
shown in Fi~ure 2. For simplicity, a base array of 4x4 yarns is used. Notice that
certain rows/columns are displaced two units while others are displaced one unit. This
cycle yields a total of six yarn groups where the groups "e" and "f' tend to remain near
the center of the structure and serve to inter-lace the core with the outer yarns. This
allows for a distinction between inner and outer yarns leaving more room for design of
the braid structure. In addition, the idealized repeating geometry for this braid cycle is
depicted in Figure 2.
A multi-step process may contain any number of specified steps in a given braid
cycle. As an example, consider the braid cycle depicted in Figure 3. The cycle consists
of eight steps with a one unit displacement for each step. Again, for simplicity, a 4x4
65
step 1 step 2 step 3 step 4
Group "a" has 6 yarns

Group "b" has 6 yarns
Group "c" has 6 yarns
Group "d" has 6 yarns
Group "e" has 2 yarns
Group "f' has 2 yarns
Figure 2 - A novel multi-step braiding scheme showing location of yarn groups and the
idealized repeating geometry.
base array was used. Notice the number and location of yarn groups. Groups "a" and
"d" tend to occupy the corner locations while groups "b" and "c" the sides and interior.
This suggests an application to hybrid composites where high performance fibers may be
placed where needed while still benefiting from the structural and delamination
resistant properties of the 3-D braid.
66
••••
••••
Group "a" has 5 yarns

Group "b" has 9 yarns
Group "c" has 9 yarns
Group "d" has 5 yarns
h/4
(steps 1 & 2)
h/4
(steps 3 & 4)
h/4
v
(steps 5 & 6)
\
h/4
.~ (steps 7 & 8)
Figure 3 - An eight-step braiding scheme showing location of yarn groups and the
idealized repeating geometry.
67
2. Geometric Model
From careful observation of the transverse cross-section of four-step preforms, it

was found that an individual yarn may be ideally inscribed inside a rectangle of
dimensions 2u x 2v (Figure 4). Since the four-step process is a specific example of
general track and column braiding, it is safe to assume that a similar result will apply
to any 3-D braid. In other words, the transverse cross-section of any multi-step, three-
dimensional braid will display elliptical yarn cross-sections which may be inscribed
inside a rectangle as shown in Figure 4.
I~ ~I
2v
y
Figure 4 - Idealized yarn packing in preform and inscribing rectangle used in the
geometric model.
The dimensions of the inscribing rectangle (2u x 2v) may be related to the effective
yarn diameter, in-plane rotation angle, inclination angle, and pitch length as are defined
in Figure 5. The values of i and j are the non-dimensionalized row/column shifting
distances of individual yarns. By assuming that the inscribing rectangle dimensions
equal inter-yarn spacing, the following relation may be obtained directly from Figure 5.
68
h : Pitch Length
q> : Rotation Angle
'II : Inclination Angle
d : Effective Yarn Dia.
Figure 5 - Definitions of effective yarn diameter, pitch length, in-plane rotation angle,
and inclination angle.
(1)
This equation represents a complex relation between the control parameters h, d, i, j
and the preform geometric parameters cp and 1/;. It should be evident that the value of
the rotation angle cp may be estimated from
tancp = i/j (2)

After suitable manipulation and by defining the non-dimensional pitch hd as
hd = hid (3)
an equation expressing hd as a function of 1/;, i and j may be obtained. Figure 6
represents this result. This graph may be viewed as a design constraint in the
25
I!I 1xl phi=45
20
• 1x2 phi=26.2
-0 15 •
<>
1x3
2x3
phi=18.4
phi=33.7
........
..c 10
0 30
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
ps i ( deg .)
Figure 6 - Non-dimensional pitch versus inclination angle for various values of in-plane
rotation angle.
69
fabrication of multi-step braids. That is to say, for a given pitch length (h) and
effective yarn diameter (d), each yarn in the braid which has been shifted i x j (cp) must
be oriented at an angle 1/J as governed by Figure 6.
By further defining the symbols
Ci Rj: number of yarns displaced i by j
i Ci: number of yarns displaced i by 0
j Rj: number of yarns displaced 0 by j

(4)
Ci: number of columns which move i steps
Rj: number of rows which move j steps
Pij: percentage of total yarns that is displaced i by j and inclined at the angle 1/J
the following relations may be obtained:
Rj = ~Pij t 2 /4uv (5)

such that
Ci = ~Pij w2 /4uv (6)

Here, u and v are half-width and half-thickness of the inscribing rectangle for a yarn
displaced i by j; wand t represent the desired preform width and thickness,
respectively. The corresponding pitch length needed to orient this yarn percent at the
desired angle 1/J may be obtained from the previous discussion. Utilizing this approach,
it becomes feasible to tailor design preform size and micro-structure to within the design
constraints exemplified in Figure 6.
3. Fabrication
The fabrication of multi-step braids requires a versatile machine. A prototype of

such a machine has been designed, constructed, and successfully used in the fabrication
of multi-step braids. Beyond conventional row and column braiding machines, the
multi-step braiding machine allows for individual control of a given row or column. A
given shifting sequence may include up to three units of displacement for each row and
column and any number of steps in the sequence. In addition, stationary guide tubes
allow for the insertion of longitudinal yarns anywhere throughout the braid.
Conventional four-step and two-step braids are but a small sub-set of possible braids
which may be manufactured.
4. Performance
The burden is now one of thermo-elastic property prediction for three-dimensional

braided composites. As an example, consider the braid architecture, and hence
resulting composite micro-structure, of the 4-step IxI braided composite. The results
obtained for this special case may be readily extended to "multi-step" braided
composites.
70
4.1 Unit Cells
One approach to the analysis of braided composite micro-structure is the

identification of unit cells. A unit cell is defined as the smallest repeating sub-geometry
of the preform architecture. Another scheme utilizes the macro-cell approach which is
defined as the biggest repeating unit. In the following analysis, both approaches are
invoked.
4.2 Identification and Idealization
If the yarn movement is independent of one another, then there are no interactions
among them [4]. In the real situation, however, yarns are in contact with each other,
and their cross-sectional shapes are deformed. The location and cross-section of yarns
also change in accordance with mold size, which determines the final shape of the
composite specimen. An accurate description of the microstructure can be achieved by
observing the yarn cross-sections cut from the progressive sections of a composite
specimen along the longitudinal direction.
Based upon the results of such a procedure, the unit cells of the composite can be
constructed. Six different types of unit cells are identified as shown in Figure 7. Each
r--~ 1
h/2
T
z ~b/2~
x
Unit Cell {1} Unit Cell {2} Unit Cell {3}
Unit Cell {4} Unit Cell {5} Unit Cell {6}
Figure 7 - Idealized unit cells of the four-step braided composite.

71
unit cell is idealized as a parallelpiped containing a single yarn. In unit cell {I}, a yarn
goes in the straight diagonal direction. For unit cell {2}, the yarn assumes the path
along the surface of the parallelpiped and as well as in the diagonal direction. The
other four unit cells {3}, t4}, {5}, and {6}, are located at the corners of the composite
braid. As the row and column numbers of the preform increase, unit cell {I} tends to
dominate the entire composite because of their higher volume percentage relative to the
other types of cells.
The unit cell geometry can be described by the yarn orientation angle (J, and the
unit cell size, h, b, and c, as shown in Figure 7. Here, h is the pitch length, and b and c
are related to the yarn movement on the machine bed and the degree of preform
compaction in the mold. If the column and row numbers of yarns in the central part of
the machine bed are mc and nc, respectively, the number of yarns in the column and
row of the composite cross-section are identified as
m = mc+1; n = nc+1 (7)

Then, the parameters b and c can be obtained from the cross-sectional sIze of the
sample,
b = FT/m; c = T/n (8)

where, T and F are, respectively, the thickness and shape factor of the sample cross-
section (width, W = FT). Thus, the braider yarn orientation angle can be expressed in
terms of h, F and T for each unit cell.
Unit cell {I}: tan (J = 2T ~F2 + 1 (9)

1 h m 2 n2
Unit cell {2}: tan (J2 = r~; tan (J2' t

= ~~~ + ;2 (10)
T 4F2 1
Unit cell { 3} : tan (J3 = 11 m2 + n 2 (11)
(12)
Unit cell {5}: tan (J5 = 2tan (J2; tan (J5' = tan (Jl (13)
Unit cell {6}: tan (J6 = tan (J2 (14)
4.3 Fiber Volume Fraction
In order to analyze the macroscopic characteristics (such as fiber volume fraction,

elastic constants, and strength) of 3-D textile composites, it is necessary to employ the
macro-cell approach, which is defined as the biggest repeating unit. For the case of 4-
step braided composites, the macro-cell encompasses the entire cross-section and the
unit pitch length of the composite sample.
Figure 8 shows the cross-sections of a yarn and its orientation angle for unit cell
72
{I}. The lengths of major and mlllor axes of the yarn cross-section are fd and d,
h/2
I
I
/- - - - - - - - - -..<- fil_
""
y
Figure 8 - Yarn cross-section and orientation angle corresponding to unit cell {I}.
respectively, where f is elliptical shape factor. The total volume of yarns of a specific
unit cell in the macro-cell can be obtained from the projected area of the yarn, the pitch
length, and the total number of a specific unit cell in the macro-cell. In the general m-
column and n-row yarn arrangement of 4-step braided composites, the numbers of unit
cells {I} and {2} are n(m+I)/2-4, and n(m-I)/2-3, respectively. The numbers of
unit cells {3}, {4}, {5}, and {6} are 2,1,1, and 2, respectively. Thus, the total yarn
volume of each unit cell type in the macro-cell is expressed as follows
VI = PK~;SOI [~ (m+I) - 4J (15)
hA cos0 2 n
V2 = 2PKCOS02 [1 + COSI)["2 (m-I)-3J (16)
V3 ----.1hL
- PKCOS0 (17)
3
hA cosO 4 2cos0 4
V4 = 4PKCOSO 4 [1 + cosO4' + cosO 4,) (18)
V - hA [1 + COS0 5J (19)
5 - 2PKCOS0 5 cos0 5'
(20)
where K, A, and p are the fiber packing fraction, the yarn linear density, and the fiber
density, respectively. The total volume of the macro-cell is given by
73
VT = FT2 h (21)
Thus, the fiber volume fraction of the 4-step braided composite (Vf) is
(22)
4.4 Composite Elastic Properties
The elastic properties of 4-step braided composites can be predicted based upon the
fiber and matrix properties and the three-dimensional fiber architecture. Although the
lamination theory has been applied to 3-D textile composites [5], only the in-plane
properties were obtained due to the assumption of the theory. Since 3-D textile
composites frequently have thick cross-sections due to the introduction of through-the-
thickness reinforcements, it is necessary to determine the elastic properties in all
directions of the composite. The basic assumptions of the present analysis are that (1)
yarns are considered as unidirectional composite cylinders after resin impregnation, and
(2) yarns are not deformed at the points of contact under applied load.
---U~~------L-~--~X
e
s ~I
Figure 9 - Coordinate system of a spatially oriented yarn segment.
4.5 Coordinate Transformation
Figure 9 shows the coordinate systems of a spatially oriented yarn segment . The
local coordinate system is indicated as 1-2-3, where axis 1 coincides with yarn axial
direction. In the global coordinate system, z-axis is along the composite lcngitudinal
direction, and x-y-axes are in the width and thickness directions of the composite. The
braider yarn orientation is indicated as 0 with respect to the x-axis. Angles ¢ and t/J are
defined as the rotation and inclination angles, respectively.
The compliance matrix of the composite cylinder in the 1-2-3 coordinate system is
expressed as follows due to the transverse isotropy
74
l/E U -v21/ E22 -v21/ E22 0 0 0

-v12/ E U 1/E22 -v32/ E22 0 0 0
-v12/ E U -v23/ E22 1/E22 0 0 0
[S] = (23)
0 0 0 1/G23 0 0
0 0 0 0 1/G 12 0
0 0 0 0 0 1/G 12
where the Young's modulus E, shear modulus G, and Poisson's ratio v are obtained
from the fiber and matrix properties using micro-mechanics analysis. Then, the
compliance matrix of the unidirectional composite cylinder, referring to the 123
coordinate system, is transformed to [S'], referring to the xyz coordinate system:
[S'] = [T]t[S][T] (24)

where [T] is the transformation matrix, and [T]t is a transposed matrix of [T].
The general transformation matrix between the local and the global coordinate
systems may be related to individual yarn rotation and inclination angles, which in turn
may be related to m, n, and h [61' Once completed, the transformed compliance of each
yarn of the macro-cell may be ca culated.
4.6 Elastic Constants
The elastic property of a macro-cell can be obtained from that of a unit cell by
volume averaging. First, the transformed compliances of each yarn see;ments in a unit
cell are averaged to obtain the compliance of the unit cell. Unit cells til, {3}, and {6}
do not need this averaging process because only one orientation of yarn segment is
involved in each unit cell. For the other unit cells, the averaging is based upon the
projected length of the yarn segment on a specific axis. If the loading direction is along
the z-axis of the unit cell, isostress condition is assumed, and compliances of the yarn
segments are averaged based upon their projected length on the z-axis. Thus, the
averaged compliances of unit cells {2}, {4}, and {5} are
(S.. h = 1
-2 (S!,)O + -21 (S!·)o
IJ IJ 2 IJ 2'
(S")4
IJ
= -41 (S!·)O
IJ 4
+ -41 (S!·)O
IJ 4'
+ -21 (S!,)O
IJ 4"
(25)
(S")5
IJ
= ~ (S!·)O
IJ 4
+ 1 (S!·)O
-2
IJ 4'
where Sij is the transformed compliance of the composite cylinder.
Depending on the assemblage of the unit cells in serial or parallel connections with
respect to the loading direction, the averaging is based upon compliances or stiffnesses.
If load is applied along the z-axis of the macro-cell, the unit cells are arranged in
parallel to the loading direction. Thus, isostrain condition is assumed, and the
stiffnesses of unit cells are averaged over the macr.o-cell volume to obtain the composite
stiffness matrix (Cij)
t
C~IJ = N = 1 (C")N
IJ
yyN
T
(26)
75
where (Cij)N is the stiffness matrix of the unit cell inverted from Sij' and VN/V T is the
volume fraction of the unit cell with respect to the macro-cell. The parameter N
corresponds to the type of unit cell from {I} to {6}.
Finally, the stiffness matrix of the composite is inverted to the compliance matrix,
[Sf, and the engineering elastic constants are then obtained as follows
Exx = l/S~l' Eyy = 1/S~2' Ezz= 1/S83

Gyz = 1/S~4' Gxz = 1/S~5' Gxy = 1/S~6
(27)
Vxy = - S~2/S~2' Vxz = - S8dS~1
Vyz = - S82/S~2
Computer software has been established for the calculation of elastic constants for 4-
step braided composites. Again, such an approach is readily adaptable to the more
general "multi-step" braided composites.
5. Conclusion
An extension of the four-step braiding process has given birth to the highly
versatile multi-step braiding process. The advent of multi-step braiding has also
facilitated the understanding of yarn grouping. With this, the manufacture of three-
dimensional hybrid composites becomes a reality.
Using an assumed yarn packing arrangement within the preform, equations were
derived relating non-dimensional pitch to both in-plane rotation angle and inclination
angle for individual yarns. These equations represent a geometric constraint for the
fabrication of multi-step braids. By coupling these equations with the fundamental
relations of the braiding process, the tailored design of braid architecture becomes
possible.
An automation scheme for the manufacture of multi-step braids was developed.

The machine is capable of fabricating braids with a wide variety of micro-structures,
including the placement of axial reinforcement yarns where desired.
As a special case of multi-step braiding, a four-step braided composite was analyzed
in order to determine the relationship between composite micro-structure and composite
elastic constants. Both the unit cell and macro-cell approaches were utilized in this
study. A volume averaging method was applied on a unit cell basis and then summed
over the macro-cell of the composite. Since this approach deals directly with the
geometry of the fiber array, it is easily extended to any three-dimensional multi-step
braid.
References
[1] T.-W. Chou, Microstructural Design of Fiber Composites, Cambridge University

Press, 1992.
[2] T. D. Kostar, "Design and Automated Fabrication of Three-Dimensional Braiding",

M.S. Thesis, University of Delaware, 1992.
76
[3) R. Florentine, "Apparatus for Weaving a Three-Dimensional Article", U.S. Patent

4.312.261, January 26, 1982.
[4) J.-H. Byun and T.-W. Chou, "Three-Dimensional Textile Composites: A Review",
112th ASME Winter Annual Meeting, Symposium on Composites in Transportaion
Vehicles, Atlanta, Georgia, 1991.
[5) J. M. Yang, C. 1. Ma and T.-W. Chou, "Fiber Inclination Model of Three-
Dimensional Textile Structural Composites", Journal of Composite Materials, Vol.
20, pp. 472-484, 1986.
[6) J.-H. Byun, "Process-Microstructure-Performance Relationships of Three-

Dimensional Textile Composites", Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Delaware,
1991.
MODELLING OF FILAMENT WINDING TECHNOLOGY
G. Di Vita, M. Farioli, F. Ferraro and P. Perugini
C.LR.A., Centro Italiano Ricerche Aerospaziali,

Capua (CE), Italy
This work aims to develop a procedure for optimizing the generic filament wound
structures that are readily adaptable to existing systems. Compromise between the
structural and technological requirements is achieved by selecting the appropriate choice
of fiber orientation. To this end, a finite element code in conjunction with that for
numerical simulation was developed to obtain fiber stability on the mandrel when
winding. Once the design variables are defined, the winding process is optimized in
terms of percentage of waste material, machine time and others.
1. Introduction
Processing of thermosetting matrix composite materials by filament winding is

achieved by winding a fiber tape impregnated with resin around a mandrel. Fiber
impregnation can occur immediately before the winding process, conveying the fiber
through a resin bath (wet winding). Alternatively a commercial pre-impregnated fiber
tape can be used. The development of sophisticated numerically controlled filament
winding machines and curing autoclaves have not only automated filament wound
composite structures but also resulted in improving their quality.
The filament winding industry is growing today and has extended the technique to
the production of non-axisymmetric structures. A great deal of progress has been made
to develop the mathematical models for assuring stability of the winding process [1,2] in
addition to optimizing the performance variables as design considerations [3]. This
work further explores into the filament winding process in order to supple a complete
procedure. Mathematical models are described. An application is made to verify the
result experimentally.
2. Design Procedure
A flow chart for the production of filament wound structures is shown in Figure 1.
Starting with an initial design in which the number of layers in the structure has been
decided, the deposition angle that satisfies the functional requirements must .be
determined. Implementation of the optimization criteria is made via a finite element
analysis. This involves finding the winding angle that maximizes the failure load of the
laminate. The first ply criterion could be used as an example [4]. The desired winding
is found after successive trials by using a numerical code [3]. More specifically, an
iterative procedure is used to modify the winding angle for optimizing the system
performance while achieving fiber stability. In particular, the filament trajectory
outside the useful zone is found to obtain complete mandrel coverage with a minimum
of material wastage. Machine time is also minimized in relation to the winding machine
axis speed.
77
G. C. Sih et al. (eds.). Advanced Technology for Design and Fabrication of Composite Materials and Structures. 77-83.
78
Optimization
Criteria
Figure 1 - Design procedure.
3. Generalized Slippage Tendency Equation
Consider the parametric equations of the surface S in a cylindrical polar system:
x = r(z,e) . cos(e), y = r(z,e) . sin(e), z =z (1)

The line r on S is described by
x = x[z,e(z)] = a(z), y = y[z,e(z)] = b(z), z = c(z) (2)

Hence, a generalized slippage tendency equation can be written as [2]:
da _ ~(qi + q4 ·sina· cosa) . (qi . sin 2 a + q2· sina· COSa + q3· cos 2 a). K
dz - PI·cosa
• 3 • 2 • 2 3
P2· sm a - P3· sm a· COSa - P4 . sma· cos a - P5· cos a
Pl· COSa (3)
79
The coefficients Pj (j = 1,2, ... ,5) and qj (j = 1,2, ... ,4) are functions of the differential
properties of the surface:
PI = f(p,pz,PO)' ql = f(pz)
P2 = f(p,pz,po), q2 = f(p,pz,PO'pzO)
P3 = f(p,pz,PO'pzO)' q3 = f(p,pzz) (4)
P4 = f(p,pz,PO'PzO'Pzz), q4 = f(p,pz,pzO)
P5 = f(pO'Pzz)
Equation (3) together with
do = .Jl+PI . tana (5)

dz ~p2+p~
constitute a set of first order ordinary differential equations that represent the stable
trajectory of the fiber on the mandrel for each value of the slippage tendency K ~ /J
which is the friction coefficient between the fiber and the mandrel. For a correct
analysis, it is important to have accurate experimental values of /J for different
combinations of fiber and matrix.
4. Mandrel Coverage Optimization
Inputs to the finite element simulation are the winding angles. For vessel
configurations, the dome shape could be used as a guide to verify trajectory stability.
Complete coverage of the mandrel is also an important consideration such that each
stable trajectory must be connected to the previous one in the useful zone. For an
axisymmetrical shape mandrel in Figure 2, the same trajectory is repeated after a
simple rotation
60 = pc2sa (6)
of the mandrel for each end course of the winding machine carriage. The same can be
done for a non-axisymmetrical shape mandrel. Reduction of the primary material
wastage, however, requires a knowledge of the return of the filament in the non-
axisymmetrical zones of the mandrel and the procedure for calculating the return is
different. This is accomplished by searching for the stable trajectory with return
determined from equations (3) and (5) that would deviate from point (zO,OI,PI) and
arrive at the point (zO,02,P2)' This gives the fiber alignment as shown in Figure 3.
Because each trajectory is different than the previous one, the procedure must be
repeated for each winding. The shooting method [5] can be used.
5. Example of the Design Procedure
The design criterion for the component in Figure 4 will be discussed. Let the
structure be fixed at one end and submitted to a static load at the other.
80
(a) Mandrel
(b) View A-A
Figure 2 - Non-axisymmetrical shape of filament return in a cylindrical portion of the

mandrel.
(a) Mandrel
(b) View A-A
Figure 3 - Non-axisymmetrical shape of filament return in non-axisymmetrical portion

of the mandrel.
81
Parameters
TETA 41.1600
SPOS 0. 617000
'j
..,
I
~ ,
/
, t·
'-
.'
., i
, ,
J "
)
'- :
'-
,.
Figure 4 - Finite element model (parameters TETA 41.1600; SPOS 0.617000).
5.1 Winding Angle
This section is concerned with applying the routine of the ANSYS finite element
code [6]. Specifically, the STIF99 layered element was used. Consider the stratification
as a laminate of 10 layers of glass/epoxy with the following properties:
Ex = 53.8 GPa, V xy = 0.25

(7)
Ey = 17.9 GPa, G xy = 8.9 GPa
with hO = 0.125 mm being the laminate thickness. Nodal displacement was chosen as
the objective function . A constant winding angle of approximately 41° is found .
5.2 Slippage Tendency
Appropriate value of a is found by requiring the slippage tendency at each of the

trajectory to be less than the coefficient of friction or K ~ p. Integration of equation
(5) gives the trajectory r(B,z) for a prescribed winding angle. Note that B = B(z) . From
equation (3), there results
dO' . 3 . 2 • 2 3
Pl'd ·cosa+P2· sm a+P3· sm a . cosa+P4·smO'·cos a+p5'cos a
K= Z. '2·' 2 (8)
~( ql + q4 . sma· coso') . (ql . sm 0'+ q2 . sma · cosO' + q3 . cos a)
Once a is known for different z together with the local differential properties of the
mandrel, the slippage-tendency at each point of the trajectory can be determined. For
the present case, Kmax = 0.16 which is less than 0.275 in [7] obtained experimentally
for the friction coefficient between the fiber glass and steel mandrel. With this winding
angle, the return trajectories are determined. Mandrel coverages are shown in Figures
82
2( a) and 3( a).
5.3 Experimental Verification
The winding simulation code can be checked by first calculating the results for
complete coverage of the mandrel. The correct trajectory of feed eye deposition can
then be determined so that both the physical and kinematic limits of winding are
satisfied. For large winding machines, rotational load is dominant. Variations of the
rotational angle (Je with time should be smooth. This requires maintaining a constant
angle between the tangent plane for a point of deposition on the mandrel and the
horizontal plane. The physical limits are observed by minimizing the distance between
the feed eye of deposition and mandrel surface. A spline interpolation scheme can be
applied to optimize the speed of rotation. The winding machine has four degrees of
freedom. They consist of translation in the x, y and z direction in addition to the
mandrel rotation (Je. A comparison between the numerical simulation and experimental
winding can be found in Figure 5.
Figure 5 - Comparison between numerical simulation and experimental mandrel

winding coverage.
Conclusion
This paper describes a complete and optimized design philosophy of advanced

filament winding technology. The winding code has been interfaced with a finite
element program that consists of a complete package of the filament winding
technology. The winding angle was considered as a design variable so as to obtain the
best compromise between structural and technological considerations. The entire
winding process was optimized and tested with good agreement between analysis and
experiment.
83
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge Mr. Braun and Mr. Knauss for their kind cooperation during the
experimental work at BAER plant in Weingarten (D).
References
[1] R. W. Soanes, "Wrappability of Curves on Surfaces", ARDEC Technical Report,

Benet Laboratories, Watervliet, New York.
[2] G. Di Vita, M. Marchetti and P. Perugini, "Non-Geodesic Winding Path Equations
on a Non-Axisymmetric Surface", Proceedings of the 8th International Conference
on Composite Materials, Honolulu, par. 14-A-1, 1991.
[3] G. Di Vita, M. Marchetti, P. Moroni and P. Perugini, "Designing Complex Shape

Filament-Wound Structures", Composites Manufacturing, Vol. 3, No.1, pp. 53-58,
1992.
[4] R. M. Jones, Mechanics of Composite Materials, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
York,1975.
[5] B. P. Flannery, W. H. Press, S. A. Teukolsky and W. T. Vetterling, Numerical

Recipes, 1988.
[6] G. J. De Salvo and R. W. Gorman, "ANSYS Engineering Analysis System User's

Manual, Revision 4.4, Swanson Analysis System, Houston, Pa., 1989.
[7] G. Di Vita, M. Grimaldi, M. Marchetti and P. Moroni, "The Filament Winding

Manufacturing Technique: Studies on the Determination of the Friction
Coefficient and on the Optimization of the Feed Eye Motion", Proc. 22nd SAMPE
Technical Conference, Boston, pp. 972-979, 1990.
MATERIAL ANISOTROPY AND WORK STRAIN CHARACTERIZED BY
STATIONARY VALUES OF STRAIN ENERGY DENSITY FUNCTION
G. Sacchi-Landriani
Department of Structural Engineering, Politecnico di Milano,

Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy
M. Rovati
Department of Structural Mechanics and Design Automation,

University of Trento, Via Mesiano 77, 38050 Trento, Italy
A. Taliercio
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Parma,

Viale delle Scienze, 43100 Parma, Italy
Stationary values of the strain energy density function are used to determine the
relative position of the material symmetry axes and those of principal stress and strain.
The minima and maxima would determine the directions of orthotropy for which the
body would exhibit the stiffest or softest response.
Variational principle is applied to formulate the orthotropic linear elastic problem

in three dimensions. Solutions are obtained for a cubic and transversely isotropic
material such that the principal axes of stress and strain are aligned with the axes of
orthotropy according to the stationary values of the strain energy density.
Similar considerations are given to the plane state of stress where the variational
process would also involve the material coefficients as independent variables.
1. Introduction
Attempts to optimize the mechanical properties of orthotropic materials with

internal stresses and strains have been made in [1-3]. Bounds on elastic energy were
established for plane stress states [4]. More recently, the subject has been extended to
three-dimensions [5-6].
This work is concerned with the maxima and minima of the strain energy density
function that would determine the directions of orthotropy corresponding to the stiffest
or softest response. They correspond to the coincidence of the direction of principal
stress, strain and orthotropy. Detail solutions are given for a cubic and transversely
isotropic material. Such interpretations are closely related to the strain energy density
criterion [7,8] used in failure analysis for bodies with or without existing defects. The
maximum and minimum strain energy density function are assumed to correspond,
respectively, with the direction of dominant dilatation (volume change) and distortion
(shape change). A stiff and soft response would correspond, respectively, to dilatational
and distortional behavior. Two-dimensional plane stress analyses are also performed for
orthotropic materials. Variations of strain energy density with material coefficients are
discussed.
85
86
2. General Formulation: Bounds to Elastic Strain Energy
Consider a linear elastic orthotropic body that occupies the open domain V E R3
by the boundary BV == BV t U BV u as shown in Figure 1. Tractions ti and
Y3
BVu
t ,-
t
Y2
0
Y1
Figure 1 - Schematic of three-dimensional orthotropic elastic body.
displacements ut (i = 1,2,3) are prescribed on BV t and BV u , respectively. The body

forces b· are given in V with y. (i = 1,2,3) being the reference axes. Let x· (i = 1,2,3)
be a syltem of rectangular Cartesian coordinates the axes of which are ali~ried with the
principal directions of orthotropy. A second reference axes x a (a (~ I,II,III) are assigned
to denote the principal directions of str~i~. The unit vectors g a are associated with
the axes x a such that their components gi a are referred to the xi axes.
The problem involves finding the relationships between x· and x a for which work
done by the forces takes extreme values. Information is thhs required on the nine
components gfa) satisfying the orthogonality conditions gfa)g~,B) = 8~~~ with a, ,B = I, II,
III. It is, however, more expedient to use the three Euler angle: OJ (j = 1,2,3) as shown
in Figure 2. If s· and c· stand, respectively, for sinO. and cosO., then the direction
J J J J
cosines of the coordinates x a referred to 0. are given by
J
g~II) g~II) g~II) (1)
g~III) g~III) g~III)

87
Figure 2 - Euler angles.
2.1 Variational Consideration
Let '3'0 denote the minimum of the functional '3' as given by
'3'0 == min '3'(Oq) = min! (J V tiu.dS + I V biu.dV) i,q = 1,2,3 (2)

~ ~ t I I
It is equal but opposite in sign to
UO = minu.I U (3)
with U(u.,Oq) being the total potential energy for any compatible displacements U·. The
constrain~d minimum problem stated in equation \2)
can be written las an
unconstrained minimum/maximum problem in the form [2 :
'3'0 = min max (J 8V tiu.dS + I V biu.dV - I V WdV) (4)

Oq ui t I I
where W is the strain energy density function

W = 2"I Eikrs EikErs (5)
With reference to x· or the principal directions of orthotropy, the strain energy density
in equations (5) canlbe rewritten as
2W = E 1111 E11E11 + 2E1122 f11E22 + 2E 1133 f11 E33 + E2222 E22f22
+ 2E2233 E22 E33 + E3333 E33 E33 + 4 E1212 E12f12 + 4 E2323 E23E23
+ 4E 3131 f31 E31 (6)
The strains are f .. and Eijke stand for the elastic moduli.
IJ
2.2 Stationary Values
Since 8'3'/OOq involves only the term W, a system of three nonlinear algebraic
equations can be obtained from
88
aW ja8 q = 0, q = 1,2,3 (7)

solving for the three unknowns 8q . If e(3 ((3 = I,II,III) are the principal strains and 0'00
the stresses, equation (7) can be stated as IJ
af m ag((3)
aW _ ik ~ _ 2 " e _i_ g((3) - 0 (8)
7f9 - 0' a8 - L..J (3 a8 k-
q q (3=1 q
and hence
k ij
f3jO' fik = 0
k k i'
hjSI - f 2{I)O' \k =0 (9)
2( em - eII)uikgfII) grII) = 0
where fk are the Ricci's skew tensor components. Rearranging equations (9), it IS
possible Ito show that
=0
(el - eIIkikgfl)gr l )
(eII-em)O'ikgfII)grII) = 0 (10)
(em - el)O'ikgfIII)gkl ) =0
In general, if the principal strains are all distinct, equations (10) imply that all shear
stresses vanish:
(11 )
The above condition thus corresponds to the coincidence of principal directions of stress
and strain. This is known for plane stress [2] while the above is a more general
interpretation.
In particular, the following trivial solutions prevail if the principal directions of

stress and strain would coincide with those for the material symmetry axes:
• 81 = 82 = 83 = 0 => Xl == xl, x2 == xII, x3 == xIII
• 81 = 82 = 0,8 3 = ~ => Xl xl, x2 == xIII, x3 == - xII

(12)
• 81 = ~, 82 = 0, 83 = ~ => Xl == - xII, x2 _ xl, x3 == xIII
_11' 8 -8 - 0
• 8 I - 2' 2 - 3 - => -
Xl = xm ,x2 - x I ,x3 == x II
The above is an extension of the two-dimensional case [2,3]. The remaining two trivial
solutions (i.e., with x 3 == xl) can be regarded as limiting cases of xl ---> x 3; otherwise,
the Euler's angles are indeterminate.
• 81 = 82 = 83 = ~, or 81 = 0, 82 = ~, 83 =0 => Xl == xII,
x2 == xIII, x3 == xl
89
(13)
Although the complete analytical solution of the general case seems to be extremely
involved, solutions other than the trivial ones can be easily obtained by considering
coincidence of only one axis of orthotropy and one principal direction of strain. For
instance, if xl is aligned with xl' x2 and x3' then the three quasi-trivial solutions would
result:
xl = xl: 91 = 02 =0
2(E1122 _ E3 311 )e +(E 2222 _ E 3333 )( e +e )
cos 2o - I II III
3- [E2222+ E3333 _ 2(E 2233 + 2E 2323 )]( ell - eIII)
(14)
xl = x3: 01 = 02 = ~ or 01 = 0, 02 = ~
2(E3311 _ E 2233 )e +(Ellll_ E2222)( e +e )
cos29 - ± I II III
3- [Ellll+E2222_2(E1122+2E12l2)](eII_eIII)
Similar solutions are obtained by aligning xII or xIII with one of the principal directions
of orthotropy. Moreover, it is not difficult to check that the solutions for the
corresponding two-dimensional case [2-4] can be easily recovered from the general
solution stated above.
3. Cubic Symmetry
Consider now an orthotropic material with cubic symmetry characterized by three

constants such that along the principal directions of orthotropy are
Ellll = E2222 = E3333 = K; E1122 = E2233 = E 3311 = A;
(15)
E12l2 = E 2323 = E3l3l = I'
Note that, if K = A+21', the isotropic case is recovered. In the cubic case, the strain
energy density takes the form
2W = (K€11+ A€22+ A€33)€11 + (K€22+A€33+A€U)E22
+ (K€33+ A€11+ A€22h3 + 41'(€h+€h+€~1)
= AI~ + 21'II€ + (K-A-21')(€h+€~2+Eh) (16)

90
where
If = fik<i"k = eI +eII +eIII' II f -- fik fki -- e2I +e2II +e III
2 (17)
are the first and the second invariant of the strain tensor. In this case, it is not difficult
to check that the stationarity conditions for W read
(fll-f22h2 = OJ (f22- f33h3 = OJ (f33- f llh1 = ° (18)
and are independent of the material constants. Equations (18) are satisfied if
Case C 1: f12 = f23 = f31 = ° (19)

Case C 2: fll = f22 = f33
Case 1 in equations (19) corresponds to anyone of the trivial solutions (11 = (12 = (13 = 0,
etc., where the principal directions of orthotropy coincide with those for stress and
strain and Case 2 to a stationary point of W such that the direct strains along the
material symmetry axes are equal. The corresponding Euler angles are
(20)
Non-trivial solutions of equations (18) are
Case C 3: fll = f33' f12 = f23 = 0, for (11 = (12 = 0, (13 = ±7r/4
Case C4: f22 = fll' f23 = f31 = 0, for (11 = ~, (12 = 0, (13 = ± 7r/4 (21)
Case C S: f33 = f22' f31 = f12 = 0, for (11 = O,~, (12 =~, (13 = ±7r/4
The above corresponds to one of the three principal directions of orthotropy is also
principal direction of strain.
Values of the strain energy density W would determine the maxima and minima of
the solutions in equations (19) and (21). Let W c' (j = 1,2, ... ,5) denote the
corresponding values of Cases C 1,C 2,,,,,C S as mentioned. £ence,
2Wc1 = 2Wo + (K-A-2p)IIf

2W c2 = 2Wo + 1(K-A-2p)l~
2W c3 = 2Wo + (K-A-2p)«en+eIII)2/2+eJ) (22)
2Wc4 = 2Wo + (K-A-2p)«eIII+el)2/2+eh)
2WcS = 2Wo + (K-A-2p)«el+enn2+eln)

in which
91
(23)
is the value of the strain energy density for the isotropic case If, = A+2p. Without loss
in generality, there prevail for eI ~ en ~ enI the possibilities depending upon whether
If, is greater or less than A+2p. The former and latter would correspond, respectively, to
material with low and high shear stiffness as pointed out for the case of plane stress [4].
That is for If, ~ A+2p, the results are
en ::; (eI+em) /2 ::} W cl ~ WC3 ~ WC5 ~ W c4 ~ W c2

(24)
en ~ (eI+em) /2 ::} W cl ~ Wc5 ~ Wc3 ~ W c4 ~ W c2
and for If, ::; A+2p:
en ::; (eI+ e m)/2 ::} W c2 ~ W c4 ~ Wc5 ~ Wc3 ~ W c1
en ~ (eI+em) /2 ::} W c2 ~ W C4 ~ Wc3 ~ WC5 ~ W c1 (25)
4. Transversely Isotropic Materials
Consider a transversely isotropic material, e.g., a unidirectional fiber composite or

layered material. If the xlx2-plane coincides with that of transverse isotropy, then x3 is
the axis of rotation symmetry. The solution becomes independent of £II. There prevails
five independent material constants:
E3333 = 1f,3; E2233 = E3311 = A3; E 3131 = E 2323 = P3; E1l22 = A;
E1212 =p (26)
such that Ellll = E2222 = A+2p. It is expedient to let
D = 1f,3 + A + 2p - 2(A3+2P3)
(27)
Cl'1f, = h - (A+2p)]/D; Cl'A = (A3 - A)/D; Cl'p = (P3 - p)/D
The nondimensional parameters Cl'1f,' Cl'A and Cl'p reflect the anisotropic behavior of the
material while D determines the stationary values of W [3].
The strain energy density for transversely isotropic materials is given by
2W = 2Wo + D{fh + 2Cl'A Iff33 + 4Cl'p[ei s§ + (enc~+ems~)cm (28)
where W 0 is defined by equation (23) and
f33 = eIs~ + (eIIc~+eIIIs~)c~ (29)
In equations (28) and (29), s· = sinB. and c· = cosB. for j 2,3. Application of
equations (10) yields J J J J
(eI-en)D{Cl'AIf + 2Cl'p(eI+en) + f33}g~I)g~n) = 0

(en-em)D{Cl'AIf + 2Cl'p(en+em) + f33}g~n)g~III) = 0
92
(em-eI)D{a..\If + 2ap(em+eI) + f33}g~m)g~I) = 0 (30)

such that
(31)
Only two of equations (30) are independent. If one of the principal strains along the
axes xa (a = I,II,III) coincides with the axis of rotational symmetry, the trivial
solutions are
Case T( 2WT1 = 2Wo + D[2a..\IfeI + (all:-2a..\)ell for 92 =~, 93 arbitrCi.ry

Case T 2: 2WT2 = 2Wo + D[2a..\IfeII + (all:-2a..\)ehl for 92 = 93 = 0 (32)
Case T3: 2WT3 = 2Wo + D[2a..\Ifem + (all:-2a..\)ehIl for 92 = 0, 93 =~

Other possible solutions of equations (30) correspond to one of the Euler angles being 0
or .,../2 unless two of the principal strains are equal. The case 92 = .,../2 has already been
considered for any values of 93. Non-trivial solutions can be tound, respectively, from
the second, third and first of equations (30):
Case T 4: 2WT4 = 2Wo-D{[(a..\+2ap)If-2apeIl2 - 4apeleII}
for 92 = 0 and cos293 = [all:If - (1+4ap)eIl/(em-eII)
Case T5: 2WTs = 2Wo-D{[(a..\+2aj.JIf-2apeIIl2 - 4ajlem eI}

(33)
for 93 = .,../2 and cos29 2 = [all:If-(l+4ap)eIIl/(eI-em)
Case T6: 2W T6 = 2Wo-D{[(a..\+2ap)If-2apeml2 - 4ajleleII}
for 93 = 0 and cos29 2 = [all:If-(1+4ap)eml/(eI-eII)
The three solutions in equations (33) correspond to x3 placed in either one of the planes
(xII ,xIII), (xl ,xIII) or (xl ,xII).
The angles 92 or 93 must be real as they define the position of x3 to the principal
strains. More specifically, consider a pair of principal strains along j: :fir,
compare the three stationary values of W with x3 lying in the plane (x ,x ). One of
xIII and
the non-trivial solutions is Case T 3 and two of the trivial solutions are Cases T 2 and T 3.
Regardless of the strain state, it can be concluded that
W T2 > W T4 and W T3 > W T4 if D > 0

(34)
W T2 < W T4 and W T3 < W T4 if D < 0
Similar considerations can be given to the cases where x3 lies either m the plane
(xm,xI) or (xI,x II ). It can be said that
• if the material shear stiffness is low, the maximum value of the strain ¢nergy
density corresponds to one of the trivial solutions and the minimum value to one \pf the
non-trivial solutions;
93
• if the material shear stiffness is high, the maximum value of the strain energy
density corresponds to one of the non-trivial solutions and the minimum value to one of
the trivial solutions.
A summary of the stationary conditions for the trivial solutions in equations (32) and
non-trivial solutions in equations (33) can be found in Table l.
5. Orthotropy in Plane Elasticity
5.1 Mechanical Behavior
Application of the theory of anisotropic elasticity to composites has been discussed

by many previous authors [9-12]. For an elastic orthotropic material, the stresses and
strains are related as
(35)
Table 1 - Classification of stationary conditions for transversely isotropic materials
Case No. Conditions D>O D<O
T1 - 20'A1c<min{ (1 +40'J.I) (eI+en);(1+40'J.I)( eI+em)} max mIn

T2 (H40'J.I)( em+en» - 20'A1c> (H40'J.I) (eI+en) max mlll
T3 - 20' )c>max{ (H40'J.I)( en+em);(H40'J.I)( eI+em)} max mIn
T4 - O'J.I( O'A +O'J.I)Ic>max{ O'J.I(l+O'J.I)en;O'J.I(HO'J.I)em} mlll max
T5 O'J.I(l+O'J.I)em> - O'J.I( a A+O'J.I)Ic>O'J.I(l+O'J.I)eI mlll max
T6 - O'J.I(O'A +O'J.I)Ic<min{ O'J.I(l+O'J.I)eI;O'J.I(HO'J.I)en} mIn max
where the tensor Cijhk depends on 9 elastic constants. The axes of orthotropy are xi (i
= 1,2,3). If the x1xTpiane is a plane of elastic symmetry, then equation (35) simplifes
and can be written in matrix form as
0"11 C?111 C?122 C?133 0 0 0 cll

0"22 C?122 C~222 C~233 0 0 0 c22
0"33 C?133 C~233 C~333 0 0 0 c33
(36)
0"23 0 0 0 C~323 0 0 2c23
0"31 0 0 0 0 C?313 0 2c31
0"12 0 0 0 0 0 C?212 2c12
A plane stress state is assumed:
0"13 = 0"23 = 0"33 = 0 and c31 = c23 = 0 (37)

The strain energy density function
94
(38)
becomes
2W = C UU (iI+ 4C 1212(h + C 2222 (h + 2(C U22 (U(22 + C U33 (11(33
+ C2233(22(33)+4CU12(U(12 + 4C 1222 (12(22 + 2C 1233 (12(33 (39)

The compone~t. (33 can be .expressed in terms of the nonvanishing strain components
from the condItIon 0"33 = 0, I.e.,
C 1133(u +2C1233(12+C2233(22
(33 = - C 3333 (40)
Equation (40) can be inserted into equation (38) to give
2W = Q11(h+Q22(~2+4Q66(i2 + 2Q12(11(22 + 4Q16(11(12
+ 4Q26( 12(22 (41)
Observe the contractions

Ch33
Q 11 = CUll - C 3333
Ch33
Q 66 = C 1212 - C 3333 ( 42)
Q - C C1133C1233
16 - 1112 - C 3333
The state of plane stress becomes
(43)
Referred to the axes of orthotropy, equation (43) becomes
(44)
where the reduced stiffness coefficients referred to the material symmetry axes are
QO _ CO (C?133)2 Q~2 = C~222 _ (C~233)2
U - 1111 - C~333 C~333
(45)
95
The reduced stiffness coefficients Qij are related to their counterparts referred to the
material symmetry axes, Qij by the relations
Qll = Q?lc4 + 2(Q?2+2Q~6)S2C2 + Q~2s4
Q12 = (Q?1+Q~2 -4Q~6)S2C2 + Q?2(S4+C 4)
..
Q22 = Q?ls4 + 2(Q?2+2Q~6)S2C2 + Q~2C4
(46)
Q16 =-Q~2S3C + Q?lsc3 - (Q?2+2Q~6)sc(C2-s2)
Q26 = - Q~2SC3 + Q?1S3C + (Q?2 - 2Q~6)sc( c2- S2)

Q66 = (Q?I+Q~2-2Q?2)S2C2 + Q~6(C2_S2)2
where s = sinl/> and c = cosl/>. The angle I/> is between the reference axis y 1 and the axis
xl as one of the material symmetry axes shown in Figure 3.
O~------------------~---------------- ..
•·
Yl
Figure 3 - Schematic of two-dimensional orthotropic elastic body.
5.2 Stationary Values of Strain Energy Density
Referring to Figure 3, the two dimensional body occupies the region °

E '!R,2 in the
plane (Yl.Y2) with boundary ao == ant u aou . Prescribed in ant and aou are tractions
ti and displacements ur, respectively. The principal axes of orthotropy are (xI,x2)
oriented at an angle I/> with respect to the Yl-axis. The mixed boundary conditions
expressed in terms of the generalized variables Nij (i,j = 1,2) are
N... = 0 in
IJ,J .'
° N··n·J = t· on ant
IJ 1 '
N·· = N·· in
IJ Jl
n (47)
where ni are the components of the outward normal unit vector on a~. The bar
96
indicates the closure of the set. The compatibility equations with the displacement
boundary conditions are
E·' = -2l( u·I,J.+u·. ).m -n an d u· = u·* on anu (48)

IJ h~ J J
Problem Statement. The problem involves minimizing the functional"} or
"}O(u.,<,6)
1
= min
<,6
(-21 f V"t
<>0 tiu.dS)
1
i,j = 1,2 (49)
which is opposite in sign to minu.U, where U is the total potential energy. Similar to
1
the three-dimensional case discussed earlier, equation (49) can also be expressed as
"}O(u"<,6) = min (- minU) = min max ( - U)

1 <,6 ui <,6 ui
= min
<,6
max
ui
(f <>0
V"t
t1u.dS -
1
f 0
"
Wdn) (50)
where W is given by
2W = (QllEh+Q22E~2+4Q66Eh + 2Q 12 EllE22 + 4Q 16 EllE12
+ 4Q26E12(22) (51 )
The stationary conditions of equation (50) with reference to ¢; reduce to
ow/a¢; = a (52)
It is expedient to refer to the principal strain axes xl and xII in Figure 3 where () is
the angle between xl and xl with ¢; = iJ+(}. With reference to (xI,x lI ), equation (51)
becomes
(53)
where eI and ell are the principal strains. With the aid of equations (46), equation (53)
can be further expressed as
(54)
in which
97
(55)
Since (3 is fixed, equation (52) is equivalent to
8( - W) _ O· n
-8-0- - in" (56)
which leads to
(57)
Possible values of 0 are
sinO = 0, cosO = 0, cos 2 0 = - 2~ for 0 < - 2~ < 1 (58)
The first two conditions in equations (58) correspond to coincidence of the principal
directions of stress, strain and orthotropy. Making use of equati~ns (55), the third of
equations (58) becomes
(59)
in which
(60)
The second derivatives of - W with respect to 0 can be taken to check for minima.
Application of equations (58) to
(61)
there results the following three possibilities:

98
a2 ( - W) GJ\
a0 2 ICOS 2 0 = "21 = .A(GJ\ + 2.A)
(62)
The solutions sinO = 0 and cosO = 0 correspond to local minima if
2.A + GJ\ ~ 0; - GJ\ ~ 0 (63)
which, with the aid of equations (46) are equivalent to
(64)
Substituting equation (63) into the third of equations (58) yields
GJ\ (65)
.A(GJ\ + 2.A) :oS 0
The above results imply that equation (59) is not a local minimum since the conditions
in equation (63) are expected to hold true by virtue of their physical meaning.
It appears that the principal directions of stress and strain for an isotropic body
would coincide with those for the symmetry axes for an orthotropic material for which
W would yield a local minimum, provided that boundary displacements are not
prescribed and Q?l f. Q~2' The torsion of a thin tube made of an orthotropic material
is a case in point where the principal stresses are at 45° with respect to the axis of
rotation. A minimum of W would prevail if the axes of orthotropy is made to coincide
with those of the principal stresses.
5.3 Fiber Orientation and Density
Suppose that Q~l (Y1 'Y2) and Q~2(Y1 ,y2) are left unspecified in addition to .p(Y1,y2)·
This provides the additional freedom to alter the fiber density. The problem is thus to
find
c:f°(u.,.p,Q9.) = min (-21 In tiu.ds) (66)

1 11 A.
'/',
> QO
Q9.11- " 1
with the global constraint:
I 11 (Q~1+Q~2)d11 :oS CO (67)

where QO and CO are prescribed. Here, QO is the contribution of the matrix.
Making use of the Lagrange multiplier a [13], the problem can be stated as
c:f°(u.,.p,Q9.,a) = min max (Ian tiu.ds - I11 Wd11

1 11 </>,Qii ~ QO ui,a ~ 0 "t 1
(68)
99
Once again, equation (56) can be applied to give
sinOcosO(2.Acos20+~) = 0 (69)
The variations of".f with Q?l and Q~2 further yield the following:
(eI - eU)2cos 4 0 + 2( eleU - eiJ)cos 20 + eh :s &-

(70)
(eI - eU)2cos 4 o + 2( elen - eVcos 2 0 + eh :s &-
As before, sino = 0 and coso = 0 correspond to local minima and equations (70) give
(71)
If the stiffness coefficients Q?l and Q~2 do not attain their lowest value QO, equations
(71) yield
(72)
This strong constraint on the strain field can be, on the other hand, avoided if Q~ 1 (or
Q~2) is equal to QO (i.e., if the reinforcement of the composite along one of the material
symmetry axes vanishes), so that one of the inequalities in equations (71) can be
recovered. A similar problem was treated in [6].
6. Conclusions
The strain energy density in orthotropic materials can be maximized or minimized

by letting the principal stresses to be aligned with the principal strains. Such a
condition can be achieved if the material symmetry axes are collinear with those of
principal strain. For a material with cubic symmetry, the stationary value problem
involved only the material coefficients while the local strain state also played a role for
a transversely isotropic material. A common feature of two above examples is that
coincidence of the material symmetry and principal strain axes prevails for material
with low shear stiffness when maximizing the structural stiffness. If the shear stiffness
is high, coincidence of the aforementioned axes is preserved only partially or is
completely missing for the cubic material. For a particular state of strain, it is possible
to obtain local stationary values of the strain energy density for specific orientations of
the axes of orthotropy.
Stationary values of strain energy density were also found for plane stress states in
orthotropic materials. Coincidence of axes of principal stress, strain and orthotropy
corresponded to the condition of constant strains along the fiber directions.
Acknowledgements
The present was partially supported by the Italian Ministry for University and for
Scientific and Technological Research (MURST), which is here gratefully acknowledged.
References
[1] N. V. Banichuk, "Optimization Problems for Elastic Anisotropic Bodies", Arch.

Mech., 33, pp. 347-363, 1981.
100
[2] G. S. Landriani and M. Rovati, "Optimal Design for 2-D Structures made of
Composite Materials", ASME J. of Engng. Materials and Technology, 113, pp. 381-
385, 1991.
[3] P. Pedersen, "On Optimal Orientation of Orthotropic Materials", Structural
Optimization, 1, pp. 101-106, 1989.
[4] P. Pedersen, "Bounds on Elastic Energy in Solids of Orthotropic Materials",

Structural Optimization, 2, pp. 55-62, 1990.
[5] M. Rovati and A. Taliercio, "Bounds on the Elastic Strain Energy Density in 3-D
Bodies with Material Symmetries", Proc. World Congr. on Optimal Design of
Structural Systems, Rio de Janeiro, August 2-6, pp. 353-360, 1993.
[6] N. Olhoff and J. Thomsen, "Optimization of Fiber Orientation and Concentration
in Composites", Proc. CEEC Course on "Analysis and Design of Structures made of
Composite Material", Milano, Italy, May 28-June 1, 1990.
[7] G. C. Sih, "Strain Energy Density Factor Applied to Mixed Mode Crack
Problems", Int. J. of Fracture, 10, pp. 305-321, 1974.
[8] G. C. Sih, Mechanics of Fracture Initiation and Propagation, Kluwer Academic
Publishers, The Netherlands, 1991.
[9] R. M. Jones, Mechanics of Composite Materials, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1975.
[10] 1. J. Broutman and R. H. Krok, Composite Materials: Structural Design and

Analysis, Academic Press, New York, 1975.
[11] S. G. Lekhnitskii, Theory of Elasticity of an Anisotropic Body, MIR Publ.,
Moscow, 1981.
[12] S. G. Lekhnitskii, Anisotropic Plates, Gordon & Breach, New York, 1968.
[13] M. Save and W. Prager, Structural Optimization, Plenum Press, New York, 1985.
CONSTITUTIVE LAWS FOR FmRE REINFORCED CERAMICS
B. Kroplin, D. DinkIer and A. Fink
Institute for Statics and Dynamics of Aerospace Structures, University of Stuttgart,

Germany
This paper deals with the general development of material laws by means of the
classical formulation for homogeneous materials. On basis of a material model for
anisotropic elasticity and plasticity with isotropic and kinematic hardening rules, the
identification and validation of the material parameters for fibre reinforced ceramics is
shown.
1. Introduction
Thermal protection systems of reentry space transportation systems generally

consist of 'hot' bulk ceramic tiles attached to the 'cold' metal structure. In order to
reduce structural weight and increase maximum load, the concept of a hot load carrying
structure may be used in advanced space transportation systems [1]. The structure
carries both mechanical and thermal effects while the material has to withstand
temperatures up to 1600'C without losing stiffness or strength.
Fibre reinforced ceramic matrix composites such as Carbon/Carbon already have

been used for the wing structure and the nose cone of the US Space Shuttle. Carbon
reinforced Silicon Carbide (C/SiC) and Silicon Carbide reinforced Silicon Carbide
(SiC/SiC) satisfy additional requirements of hot structures.
Modelling the behavior of these materials in detail as a mesomechanical concept

requires the consideration of the fibres, the matrix material and the interaction of both.
A proper description of the material properties requires some investigations into the
micro- and mesomechanics, which in turn, demands large efforts in the development of
the theoretical formulation of the constitutive equations and the experimental
investigation as well. Besides, the identification of material parameters is often hard to
perform in experiments.
For the analysis of large structures a simplified model has to be used. Simplified
models employ a 'smeared' approach of the material properties which is based mainly
on a phenomenological macroscopic examination of the material. In this study, a
generalized elasto-plastic model based on a yield-surface of the Tsai-Wu type [2] is
derived. Hardening effects are described by isotropic and kinematic hardening rules.
The modulus of elasticity is assumed to be history-dependent in order to describe
increasing damage of the material. Experiments on orthotropic layered material are
used to identify and validate the material parameters.
Due to the path dependency of the constitutive law the numerical integration of
the rate equations is carried out in an incremental fashion, a Newton iteration scheme
with quadratic convergence is used in this process [3,4,5,10]. The tangent operator
needed for this scheme is derived by differentiating the stress-strain relations and the
consistency condition for finite load increments.
101
102
2. Formulation of the Constitutive Model
In traditional fibre reinforced polymer materials a high performance fibre is used to

stiffen and strengthen an easy to process matrix which has a low elastic modulus and
strength. Although increasing strength and stiffness of ceramics is useful, the major
goal in the development of fibre reinforced ceramics is to increase the fracture toughness
in order to avoid catastrophic brittle failure which is characteristic of bulk ceramics [6].
A wide variety of toughness mechanisms apply to fibre reinforced ceramics:
• The addition of a second phase to the matrix material generates an obstacle to a

propagating crack.
• Crack deflection and multiplication occurs when a crack encounters a fibre.
• Frictional fibre pullout absorbs energy in case of a weak fibre matrix interface.
• Thermal expansion differences lead to fibre and matrix prestressing.

These microscopic mechanisms result in macroscopic observable inelastic strains.
In order to describe these inelastic strains a rate independent· elasto-plastic model is
chosen. This model is characterized by an additive decomposition of elastic and
inelastic strains, by the yield criterion, the flow rule to describe inelastic strains and the
hardening rules which describe changes of the yield surface. The criterion and the rules
used in the proposed model are described in detail below.
2.1 The Tsai-Wu Yield Criterion
The criterion of Tsai and Wu [2] was developed as an operationally simple failure
criterion for anisotropic materials. The basic assumption is the existence of a failure
surface in the stress-space that takes the following scalar form:
(1)
Due to the symmetry of the stress tensor
IJ IJ
=
and the strength tensors F·· and F·· kl
0' •• 0' ••
Jl
IJ
the number of independent strength components are 6 and 21 for Fij and F ijkl ,
respectively.
For orthotropic and transversely isotropic materials the number of independent

components is reduced to 3 and 9. This yields the Hoffman criterion [7], which has been
used as yield criterion by Schellekens and De Borst [8]. For an orthotropic material
with no difference in tensile and compressive strength the number of independent
components is further reduced to 0 and 6, yielding the Hill criterion [9]. The von Mises-
Hencky criterion can be obtained by assuming plastically incompressible isotropic
material and thus reducing the number of independent components to 0 and 2.
In this paper the Tsai-Wu Hypothesis will be used in the form
tP = ~ (O'_cr)T Jg(O'-cr) - ~ O'~ =0 (2)

with
0' = [0' •• ]
IJ
cr = [crIJ.. ] Jg = [J~kl]
IJ
iJ,k,1 = 1,2,3
103
The components of Jg determine the shape of the surface in the stress-space whereas the
components of 0< describe the deviation of the center of the surface from the origin and
thus the difference of tensile and compressive strength. Figure 1 shows the intersection
Figure 1 - Intersection of a Tsai-Wu yield surface.
of a Tsai-Wu surface with a plane Uij - ukl in stress-space. The advantage of equation
(2) to the original formulation (1) is the straightforward way in which kinematic
hardening can be described by assuming an evolution law for the components of 0<.
Equation (2) leads to the definition of the reference stress Uv

u~ = (u - 0<) T Jg( U - 0<) (3)
which can be compared to the yield stress Uy. Differentiation of equation (2) with
respect to time yields the rate form of the yield criterion
;p = (u-o<)T Jg& - (u_o<)T Jga-uy&y =0 (4)

2.2 Stress-Strain Relations
A theory of infinitesimal deformations is used, since the failure strain of the

material considered is small. Therefore, the total strain as well as the total strain rate
can be split up into an elastic and an inelastic part
f = fe+f P (5)
i = ie+i P (6)
The elastic stress-strain relation in the case of linear elasticity is given by
. 1 Je. (7)
fe = E U
with
U = [uijl f = [fijl Je = [Jijkl1 i,j,k,l = 1,2,3

E is the modulus of elasticity in a principal direction of the material, Je denotes the
elastic mapping tensor.
104
The plastic strain rate is given by the associative flow rule
iP = 8(:~Ot) ~ = Jg(O"-Ot)~ (8)

where ~ is the consistency parameter.
2.3 Hardening Rules
The increase of the yield stresses due to plastic deformation is called hardening.
Hardening is modelled by modifying the initial yield surface. Figure 2 shows different
initial yield surface

isotropic hardening
kinematic hardening
anisotropic hardening
Figure 2 - Types of hardening.
types of hardening. Isotropic hardening is the uniform expansion of the yield surface
achieved by increasing O"y in equation (2). The movement of the yield surface in stress
space is called kinematic hardening and is described by changing the components of Ot.
The most complex form of hardening is a change in the shape of the yield surface, which
is called anisotropic hardening and is modelled by a modification of the components of
Jg. Due to the complexity of this type of hardening only simplified approaches exist.
Anisotropic hardening is not considered here.
In the formulation presented, isotropic hardening is described by
T(K) .p
iry = T(K)' tv (9)
l-~
where the material parameter T is the tangent modulus of a reference stress-strain

diagram, see [10,11]. The plastic reference strain rate is defined as
(10)
Kinematic hardening is described by Prager's hardening rule
Q = C(K)i P (11)
105
The material parameters T and C depend on the history parameter IC, which is
defined as
(12)
in order to ensure equal material behaviour in the tension and compression regime. The
scalar measure IC describes the inelastic strain history which is comparable to an internal
time scale.
2.4 Incremental Constitutive Law
Substituting the elastic strain rate by the elastic constitutive relation (7) and the
plastic strain rate by the flow rule (8) in equation (6) gives the rate form of the material
law
(13)
If the time derivative of the yield criterion is rewritten using the hardening rules
(9) and (11) this results in the rate form of the consistency condition
(u_a)T Jgu - q(a,u,Jg) = 0 (14)
where
q(a,u,Jg) = TT (u-a)T Jg(u-a)A
l- E
-C(u-a)T JgJg(u-a)A =0
Integration of the strain relation (13) and the consistency condition (14) using a
single point integration rule yields the incremental form of the constitutive law
(15)
where
(u - a) I { = ((u+{.6.u) - (a+e.6.a))
.6.a = [I + eC I e.6.AJg] - 1 C I e Jg (uH.6.u - a ).6.A
While the trapezoidal rule has to be used for the consistency condition in order to
satisfy the yield criterion in case of ideal plasticity, the choice of e is free for the strain
relation. Depending on the value of e, different integration schemes are applied.
The nonlinear incremental constitutive system of equations (15) is also denoted as

secant formulation. The stress increments .6.u and the increments of the consistency
parameter .6.A are determined using Newton's method. This corresponds to a multi-step
return algorithm.
106
2.5 Consistent Tangent Operator
The consistent tangent operator is needed for both, the local Newton scheme to
evaluate t::..u and t::..A and the global Newton scheme to achieve total equilibrium. The
derivation of this operator is shown here schematically. As already mentioned, the
tangent operator is derived by differentiation of the incremental constitutive relation
(15), which is rewritten as
(16)
The consistent tangential relation is then given by
(F+t::..A¢,UU) (¢,U+t::..A¢,UA) ] [du] [dE]

[ (17)
(¢,u+¢,uut::..u-t::..AA,u)T (-A-t::..AA,A+¢~At::..u) dA = 0
or short
H
[ pT Q
-AT
1[ du]
dA
= [ dE0 ] (18)
The so-called consistent tangent stiffness matrix is derived by solving (18) for dA and
reinserting into the strain equation. This yields
(19)
Generally, this stiffness matrix is nonsymmetric. For the special case of the strain
relation being integrated with the Euler backward scheme and assuming perfect
plasticity the tangent matrix becomes symmetric.
(i Je + t::..AJg) -1 Jg(u - 0:) 11 (u - o:)Tl Jg(i Je+t::..AJg) -1

(20)
(u - o:)Tl Jg(i Je + t::..AJg) -1 Jg(u - 0:) 11
where
(u - 0:) 11 = (u+ t::..u - 0:)

2.6 History Dependent Elastic Properties
Uniaxial tests of fibre reinforced ceramics have shown degradation of elastic

stiffness due to increasing damage. This reduction of stiffness can be modelled on the
material level by a modification of the elastic properties. In the constitutive model
presented here, the modulus of elasticity E is assumed to be a function of the history
parameter K..
107
(21)
Due to this assumption, the damage is considered to be isotropic. If anisotropic
damage has to be taken into account, the components of the elastic mapping tensor Je
have to be modified, where the identification of these parameters and relationships
requires a large set of multiaxial tests.
If the elastic modulus is a function of the actual state, the secant strain equation
cannot be formulated as a pure incremental relation
~{= ~{e + ~{p
instead the balance of the total strains has to be considered
where {, {e and {p denote the total strains of the previous load step. This is necessary
due to the fact, that the total stress state effects an increase of the total elastic strains
in case of a decrease of the elastic modulus. This leads to the secant stress-strain
relation
{+~{=El Je 17+ E1 Je~17+{p+JI~(17-a)I~~A (22)

11 11
The consistency condition remains unchanged.
3. Application to C/SiC
The evaluation and validation of the material parameters is shown for carbon fibre
reinforced silicon carbide (C/SiC). The material is manufactured by the German
National Aerospace Agency DLR and is still under development [12]. The
manufacturing method consists of three steps:
1. 2-dimensional 0°/90° carbon fibre fabric is laminated with a high carbon

precursor. Usually all plies are oriented in the same direction.
2. The matrix is carbonized at about 800°C. The shrinkage of the matrix is

imped~d by the fibres. This leads to a regular crack pattern in the resulting C/C
ceramIC.
3. At about 1500°C the matrix is infiltrated with liquid silicon. The silicon reacts
with the carbon matrix, the product is silicon carbide.
Figure 3 shows a cross-section of the material. Bundles of carbon fibres are

embedded in a carbon matrix surrounded by silicon carbide. The silicon carbide acts as
an internal oxidation protection system. The material has a free porosity of about 5%.
Because of the high infiltration temperature, the carbon fibres show a relatively high
degradation. The main goals of the material development are to prevent degradation of
the fibres to improve the strength of the material and to increase fracture toughness.
So far, all tests have been carried out under plane stress conditions. The elastic
data are derived from simple tension tests and torsion tests of tubes, while the values
perpendicular to the axes of orthotropy are estimated and marked by an asterisk. The
contracted matrix notation is used for the elastic mapping tensor J e , where the shear
flexibility is given for the engineering definition of shear strains
108
r ..
1J
= 2( ..
1J
Silicon Carbide (SiC)

Carbon Matrix
Carbon Fibres
Figure 3 - Carbon reinforced Silicon Carbide.
The following elastic data were measured and estimated
1. -0.2 -0.2* O. O. O.
-0.2 1. -0.2* O. O. o.
- 0.2* -0.2* 2.* O. O. O.
E = 60000 . ~, Je =
mm O. O. O. 3.75 O. O.
O. O. O. O. 4.0* O.
O. O. O. O. O. 4.0*
The yield surface is due to the orthotropy of the Hoffman type. The parameters
describing the yield surface have been evaluated in tension, compression and shear tests
as
27.6 1. 0.6 1.5 O. O. O.

27.6 0.6 1. 1.5 O. O. O.
-112.1 1.5 1.5 3.8 O. O. O.
uy = 214. ~, (} = -.lL2' Jg-
mm O. mm -
O. o. O. 9.4 O. O.
O. O. o. O. O. 16.7 O.
O. O. O. O. O. O. 16.7
In order to determine the hardening parameters the tension test shown in Figure 4
is applied. The sample was unloaded and reloaded several times to determine the
degradation of the modulus of elasticity. Two data sets have been used to determine
the parameters. The first is the data set measured directly in the test, the second has
been corrected in order to compensate errors due to too large time steps during the
measurement.
109
120 ,--- ---r- - - - r - - - r -- - , - -- ---,----,
100 ~--4-----~·-----+-·----~~q~~ 4-·-------,
80 ~--_4-----~------J~~~~ ------~-----. ,
t:l 60 I-----f---.-.--.Jr.
40
20
0.0005 0.001 0.0015 0 .002 0.0025 0.003

E
Figure 4 - Uniaxial tension test.

64000
62000
60000 +----+--+---r
58000
f
E
56000
~ 54000
w 52000
50000 , ,
~-j---+----i--i---+--+-+-----1f-
48000 __L __ '_.
I !
46000 1---+- : ! .--t---I~
o 0 .01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
1C
i , 1
--. --+---r-
I ,
50000
•I i 1 : !1 . I, I -
II
-r--.
40oo0~-+.--r~+--;~-i----t---I--~L-+-~
! ~ I- I- i I _ 1_,_
30000
---: -t--:I -- ~ +~ I
20000 --LJ.-J-_L-J--- -- -- ~-
I
I
t
Ii:
I I I
: I cprigin I las -
10000 -1---1--- --I ---f.----I- cohee\!
It =4
es
000
.-..!
O~~--~~~-L-~~-~-L-~~
o 0 .01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
1C
Figure 5 - Dependence of material parameters on history parameter /c.

110
Figure 5 shows the dependency of the material parameters with respect to the
history parameter K.
The modulus of elasticity remains constant until a limit value of K is reached.

Beyond the limit value K = 0.0273 the relation between E and K can be written as
E = 64000. - 140000 .. K
The tangent modulus T can be taken as independent of the load history
T = const. = 40000.
These dependencies have been implemented in the material module of a Finite

Element code. Figure 6 shows the stress-strain diagram obtained by simulating a
tension test with unloading and reloading. The results show very good agreement to the
test data of Figure 4.
120 r - - - - " ' T ' - - - r - - . . , - - - , - - - - , . . . - - - - ,
100 ~···················t···························+····· ......................., ......................... +.?7~ ........ +............
80 ~........................!.............................,......................... w-:
60 1-........... j..................... Y'/'·. ...... ·t···· ..............-......~

1
40 1-....... . ...+.....,ij"/'//~#' ................... ,. ---_..1.. ····1
FE-c' Iculation! - -
20 ~···········,ij"/v/.#·········· ! ....................... + ...................+ ...............,i . .
o ~~~ __ __ __ __ ~ ~ ~ L-_~
o 0.0005 0.001 0.0015 0.002 0.0025 0.003

E
Figure 6 - Numerical simulation of a tension test.
4. Summary
A constitutive model for anisotropic material has been derived using a yield surface
of the Tsai-Wu type combined with isotropic and kinematic hardening rules. The
model has been enlarged to history dependent elasticity. The derivation of the
consistent tangent operator has been shown schematically.
The evaluation of the material parameters has been performed for Carbon fibre
reinforced Silicon Carbide.
Acknowledgements
This research has been carried out in the Sonderforschungsbereich 259 'High
Temperature Problems of Reentry Space Transportation Systems' of the Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft DFG. We express our thanks to the Institute of Aircraft
111
Constructions of the University of Stuttgart, that has provided the material data.
References
[1] D. Chaumette, "Thermal Protection Systems for Spaceplanes, from Hermes to

Advanced Space Transportation Systems (A.S.T.S.)", Congr. of the Int. Astron.
Fed., Paper No. IAF-87-304.
[2] S. Tsai and E. M. Wu, "A General Theory of Strength for Anisotropic Materials",
J. Compo Mat. 5, 1971.
[3] J. C. Simo and R. 1. Taylor, "Consistent Tangent Operators for Rate-Independent
Elastoplasticity", Compo Meth. Appl. Mech. Engng. 48, 1985.
[4] J. C. Simo and R. L. Taylor, "A Return Mapping Algorithm for Plane Stress
Elastoplasticity", Int. J. Num. Meth. Engng. 22, 1986.
[5] B. Kroplin and D. DinkIer, "Some Thoughts on Consistent Tangent Operators in

Plasticity", Proceedings of the International Conference on Computational
Plasticity, Barcelona 1989.
[6] R. L. Lehman, "Ceramic Matrix Fiber Composites, Structural Ceramics, Treatise

on Material Science and Technology, Volume 29, Academic Press, 1989.
[7] O. Hoffman, "The Brittle Strength of Orthotropic Materials", J. Compo Mat. 1,

1967.
[8] J. C. J. Schellekens and R. DeBorst, "The Use of the Hoffmann Yield Criterion in
Finite Element Analysis of Anisotropic Composites", Compo Struc. 37, 1990.
[9] R. Hill, "A Theory of the Yielding and Plastic Flow of Anisotropic Metals", Proc.
Roy. Soc. A 193, 1948.
[10] B. Kroplin and D. DinkIer, "Global Constraints Applied to Static Instability

Analysis", Numerical Methods for Non-Linear Problems, Vol. 3, Proceedings of the
International Conference, Dubrovnik 1986.
[11] B. Kroplin and D. DinkIer, "A Material Law for Coupled Yielding and Geometrical
Instability", Engng. Compo 5, 1988.
[12] R. Kochendorfer, "A Fast and Low Cost CMC-Manufacturing Process", Proc. 8th
Int. Conf. on Composite Materials (ICCM), Honolulu 1991.
ON THE FmER-GOVERNED BIMODULAR CONSTITUTIVE MODELS
P. Bisegna and F. Maceri
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Rome "Tor Vergata",

Via della Ricerca Scientifica, 00133 Rome, Italy
E. Sacco
Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Cassino,

Via Zamosh 43, 03043 Cassino, Italy
In this paper the fiber-governed constitutive equations of bimodular composite

materials are discussed. Necessary and sufficient conditions are found for the existence
of a strain energy density, and for its positive definiteness. In the case of the Bert's
type constitutive equation, the positive-definite strain energy density requirement tends
to reduce the range of applicability of this model when used to describe the real
composite materials behavior.
A new fiber-governed bimodular constitutive equation is formulated; it guarantees

the existence of a positive-definite strain energy density and has a wider range of
applicability.
1. Introduction
Composite materials may exhibit nonlinear behavior characterized by a linear

relationship between the stress and strain both in tension and in compression, but with
different elastic moduli. This behavior is usually referred to as "bimodular" and can be
described by either:
• Eigenvalue-governed models, or
• Fiber-governed models.
The bimodularity of the first type [1-8] depends on the signs of the principal stresses or
strains. It is suitable to bimodular materials with isotropic behavior but could not
adequately model the fiber-reinforced composites. On the contrary, the bimodularity of
the second type [9-12], peculiar for fiber-reinforced composites, depends on the sign of
the unit elongation in the fibers direction (strain-based) or on the sign of the stress in
the layer normal to the fibers (stress-based).
A micromechanical treatment of the bimodular fiber-reinforced composites [9]

appears to favor the strain-based model rather than the stress-based model. Indeed,
fibers are not exactly rectilinear in the natural state, so that they may undergo a
stretching or an increase of curvature depending on the strain in their direction. As a
consequence, the direct stiffness of the homogenized material in the fibers direction may
undergo an increase or a decrease.
In this paper, the infinitesimal deformation theory is applied to consider the fiber-
governed strain-based model [10]. The linear relationship between stress and strain for
fibers in extension is distinguished from that for fibers in contraction. That is, the
corresponding fourth order constitutive tensors, say C + and C - , are taken different.
113
C. C. Sih et aL. (eds.), Advanced Technology for Design and Fabrication of Composite Materials and Structures, 113-128.
114
One of the criteria used to evaluate the consistency of the bimodular constitutive
equations is to verify if the positive definiteness of the strain energy density function
applies [12J. In this paper the existence, continuity and convexity of such a function is
discussed. When applied to the model proposed in [10], they are found to impose severe
restrictions on the coefficients of C + and C - .
A more general approach is adopted that makes use of the concept of a linear
elastic material subject to internal constraint. The result in [10] may be recovered as a
special case. While the proposed model provides a more general description of
bimodular materials, certain discontinuities of the shear moduli, which experimental
tests seem to show, still remain incompatible with the requirement of a positive definite
strain energy density.
2. Fiber-Governed Bimodular Material
2.1 Notation
Let 0/ be the three-dimensional euclidean vector space and Lin be the class of the
linear transformations of 0/ into itself (second-order tensors). The scalar product is
defined by the trace operator: A· B = tr(A to B), where 0 denotes the composition
product and the superscript t denotes the transpose. The class of the symmetric
second-order tensors is:
Sym = {A E Lin: A = At} (1)

If {c1,c2,c3} form an orthonormal basis of 0/, it can be shown that the symmetric
tensors:
Xl = c1 <8I c1' X2 = c2<81 c2' X3 = c3<81 c3' X4 = Jz (c1 <8Ic2+ c2<81c1)'

X5 = Jz (c2 <8I c3 +c3 <8IC2)' X6 = Jz (c3 <8Ic1 + c1 <8Ic3) (2)
are the elements of an orthonormal basis of Sym. The symbol <81 denotes the tensor
product.
2.2 Strain-Based Model
In what follows, considerations will be given to a bimodular fiber-governed strain-

based constitutive relation in the context of potential theory. The same could be
applied to a stress-based model.
Let E E Sym be a strain tensor. The value E· X3 IS the unit extension III the
fibers direction along which c3 prevails. Defined are:
~+ = {E E Sym: E,X 3 > O}
~o = {E E Sym: E,X 3 = O} (3)

~- = {E E Sym: E,X 3 < O}
A bimodular constitutive equation may result by means of mapping:

115
EES+ ...... T E Sym

(4)
EES- ...... T E Sym
In what follows the case of a linear behavior in fibers extension and contraction is
considered, so that the constitutive equation takes the form:
T = C+[E], EES+
(5)
T = C-[E], EES-
where both C + and C - are two linear operators of Sym into itself. Of course, one
expects to know the stress tensor T corresponding to a strain tensor E belonging to So,
which is not defined by equation (5). Indeed, in the literature either one of the
constitutive laws in equation (5) is tacitly assumed to hold even in So. It will be shown
that this ambiguity disappears if a positive-definite strain energy density exists.
2.3 Strain Energy Density
In the infinitesimal deformation theory, a material is said to be elastic if a function

L exists:
L:E E Sym --> T(E) E Sym (6)

giving the stress tensor T(E) corresponding to each strain tensor E.
A scalar function w, defined as Sym, is said to be a potential of the constitutive

equation (6) (or a strain energy density) [15] if it is a differentiable function such that
T(E) = GradE w(E) (7)

i.e., T(E) is the Frechet-derivative of w(E) with respect to E. If a strain energy density
exists, then the material is said to be hyperelastic.
In the case of a bimodular material, this definition is too restrictive. It will be

shown that the existence of a differentiable function satisfying equation (7) impose
extremely severe restrictions on the coefficients of the tensors C + and C - used to
define the function L as given by equation (5). A weaker definition of the strain energy
density is introduced by means of the concept of deformation work expended in a
deformation process [21].
Let L be a Borel locally bounded function (this requirement can be easily satisfied
by the function defined by equation (5), with a suitable extension on SO). A
deformation process can be defined as an absolutely continuous mapping E of the
compact interval [toh] into Sym. A deformation process E is said to be closed if
E(t o) = E(tl)·
It is worth-noting that by the previous definitions the integral
tl
JT(E(t)) d!~t) dt (8)
to
116
makes sense. In fact, the function t ...... T(E( t)) is measurable and bounded. The
function t ...... dE(t)/dt is a summable function. Therefore, the product in equation (8) is
summable. The value of the integral, denoted by W(E), is called the work performed in
the process E.
A material is said to conserve energy, or to be conservative, or to be hyperelastic, if

the work performed in any deformation process E depends only upon the initial E( to)
and final E(t 1 ) strain (or, equivalently, if the work performed in any closed deformation
process E vanishes). In a conservative material an "elastic potential" or "strain energy
density function" w can be defined, up to an arbitrary additive constant:
tl
w(E) = f T(E(t)) . dE(t)
dt
dt (9)
to
where E(t) is any deformation process such that E(t o) = 0 (the null deformation) and
E(t 1) = E (any given element of Sym). The function w(E) represents the strain energy
stored in a unit volume of the material when a deformation E occurs.
A consequence of the previous definition is that the strain energy density is

continuous. This follows from the inequality:
1
Iw(E)-w(Eo)1 = If T(EoH(E-Eo))·(E-Eo)d~1 ~
o
~ liE - Eo II·sup{IIT(D)IJ, liD - E 0 II ~ liE - E 0 II} (10)
D
Moreover, w is differentiable if L is continuous. Precisely, let Eo E Sym and

suppose that a neighborhood 9.1 of Eo exists in which T(E) is a continuous function.
Then w is Frechet differentiable at Eo and its derivative is T(E 0). This follows from
the inequality:
1
Iw(Eo+S)-w(Eo)-T(Eo)·SI = If [T(EoHS)-T(Eo)J·S d~1 ~
1 0
~ (f IIT(EoHS)-T(Eo)lld~)·IISII (11)
o
where S E Sym has a norm sufficiently small to ensure that Eo +S E 9.1. In fact, the
supposed continuity of T in 9.1 implies that the right-hand bracketed term tends to zero
as IISII -> o.
3. Existence of Strain Energy Density Function
Consider the problem of characterizing the coefficients of the elasticity tensors c+

and C - in order to guarantee the existence of a potential w.
117
Suppose that such a potential does exist. Its restrictions to S + and S - are the
potentials of the mappings:
(12)
As a consequence, mappings (12) admit a potential and then satisfy the conditions [14]:
c + symmetric and c - symmetric (13)

This leads to [14]
(14)
iP' I s+ =! E·C+ [E] + const. (15)
It was shown in section 2.3 that the potential iP' is a continuous function. The
continuity of iP' implies that the restrictions of iP' at g + and g - as given by equations
(14) and (15) can be extended by continuity to:
(16)
The two continuations take the same value on gO. Hence,
(17)
As a consequence, the two constants in equations (14) and (15) are equal and the
following equality is satisfied:
(18)
A more compact form is
6 C[E]. E = 0 'IE E SO (19)

where 6C = c+ -C-.
On the other hand, equations (13) and (19) guarantee the existence of a strain
energy density. Henceforth, either one of the relationships in equation (5) is assumed to
hold on So. A function iP' can be defined from equations (14), (15) and (17). The
continuity of iP' is guaranteed by equation (19).
Let E be a closed deformation process. The process E can be subdivided in

subprocesses E(i) whose extremes are E~) and Eli), occurring entirely in g-
?r in SO or inS +. By means of equations (13), the work performed in the process E(i)
IS
(20)
118
The work performed along the whole process E can be computed as

W(E) = ~.W(E(i))
1
(21 )
Hence, the work W performed in any closed deformation process E vanishes as a result
of substituting equation (20) into equation (21). Then, the material is hyperelastic and
the function IV represents its strain energy density.
4. Consequences of Existence of Elastic Potential
4.1 Constitutive Tensors
Formulas for C [14J of a linear elastic material are listed below:
• Monoclinic Material (symmetry plane orthogonal to c3):
C = 'IX I lSi Xl +'2X 2 lSi X 2+'3 X3 lSi X3+'4X4 lSi X 4+'5(X I lSi X 2+X 2 lSi Xl)
+'6(X 1 lSi X3+ X 3 ISiX I )+'7(X I ISiX 4+X 4 lSi X I )+'8(X2 lSi X3+ X 3 lSi X 2)
+'9(X 2 ISiX4 +X 4 lSi X 2)+'lO(X3 lSi X 4+X 4 lSi X 3)+'U X 5 lSi X5
+'12 X 6 ISiX 6+'13(X 5 lSi X6+ X 6 lSi X 5) (22)
• Orthotropic-Rhombic Material (symmetry axes parallel to cI,c2,c3):
C = 'IX I ISiXI+'2X2ISiX2+'3X3ISiX3+'4(XI ISiX2+X2 ISiX I )

+'5(X I lSi X3+ X 3 lSi X 1)+'6(X2 lSi X3+X3 lSi X2)+'7X4 lSi X 4
+'8 X 5 lSi X 5 +'9 X 6 lSi X6 (23)
• Orthotropic-Tetragonal Material (tetragonal axis parallel to c3; other symmetry

axes parallel to cl and c2):
C = 'IX 3 ISiX 3+'2(X I +X2) lSi (X 1+X 2)+'3[X 3 lSi (X I +X 2)+(X I +X 2) ®X 3J

+'4(X I - X 2) lSi (Xl - X 2)+'5 X4 lSi X 4+'6 X 5 lSi X 5+'6 X 6 lSi X6 (24)
• Transversely Isotropic Material (transverse isotropy axis parallel to c3):
C = 'IX3 ISiX3+'2(X I +X2) lSi (X I +X 2)+'3[X3 lSi (X I +X 2)+(X I +X2) ®X 3J

+'4(X I - X 2) lSi (Xl - X 2)+2'4X4 ® X 4+'5 X 5 lSi X 5+'5 X 6 ®X6 (25)
It is assumed that a bimodular constitutive equation belongs to a certain symmetry

class if both tensors C + and C - belong to the same symmetry class.
4.2 Difference of Constitutive Tensors
The superscripts + and - denote, respectively, the coefficients ,. of C + and C - ,

1
with 0i being the difference between two corresponding coefficients of C+ and C- , i.e.,
0i = ,t - 'i-' Making use of equations (19) and (16), the following relations are found:
119
• Monoclinic Material:
11+ = 11- , 12+ = 12- , Il = 14- , 15+ = 15- , Il = Ii, 19+ = 19 ,
111 = Iii, li"!2 = /12' 11-t = 113 and

(26)
~c = 63X3 0X3+66(X10X3+X3@X1)+6S(X2@X3+X30X2)
+6 1O (X 3 @X4+X4 @X 3)
The elastic coefficients are reduced from 2 x 13 to 17.
• Orthotropic-Rhombic Material:
11+ = 11- , 12+ = 12- , Il = 14- , Il = 17- , Il = IS- , 19+ = 19- and
~c = 63X 3 @X3+65(X 1 @X 3+X3 @X1)+66(X2@X3+X3 0 X2) (27)
• Orthotropic-Tetragonal Material:
12+ = 12- , Il = 14- , 15+ = 15- , It = 16- and

(28)
• Transversely-Isotropic Material:
(29)
4.3 Counterexample
The existence of strain energy density yields a continuous function w which is not,
in general, differentiable. A counterexample to the differentiability of w can be
obtained for a transversely isotropic material. Suppose that 63 "# 0 in equation (29).
Let Eo = Xl +X2 and calculate the directional derivative of w at Eo in the X3
direction. The incremental ratio is obtained:
'liCE 0 + tX 3) - 'liCE 0 )
t
(30)
which has the respective limits C + [E 0 j. X3 or C - [E 0 j. X3 for t-O + or t-O -. This is
because Eo +tX3 E!; +, if t>O, and Eo +tX 3 E!; - , if t<O. As a consequence, the
directional derivative of w in the X3 direction does not exist, because the hypothesis
63 "# 0 guarantees that
(31 )
120
Hence, iii is not differentiable at Eo.
5. Lack of Uniqueness of Elastic Equilibrium Solution
The existence of a strain energy density is not sufficient to guarantee the

uniqueness of solution for the elastic equilibrium problem for a body modelled by the
constitutive equation (5) even when the elasticity tensors C + and C - are both positive-
definite.
As a matter of fact, consider the elastic equilibrium problem for a body n, without
body forces and subject to boundary tractions:
t(p): = Tn(p), P E an (32)

where T is a given constant tensor and n(p) is the outward normal at p E an. The
constitutive equation (5) prevails.
Suppose that lWO different symmetric tensors E 1, E2 can be found, both satisfying
equation (5) with T. Then, the two homogeneous strain and stress fields given by
E1(p) = El and T1(p) = T (33)
E2(P) = E2 and T2(P) = T (34)

are both solution of the elastic equilibrium problem. In fact, the boundary equilibrium
equations, as well as the constitutive equations, are satisfied by hypothesis. The field
equilibrium equations and the internal compatibility equations are satisfied as a
consequence of the homogeneity of the stress and strain fields.
The existence of El and E2 both satisfying equation (5) with T will be proved in a
special case. Suppose that n IS made of a transversely isotropic bimodular material,
that the elasticity tensors c + and C - are positive definite and that their coefficients
satisfy the relations
'"'2·-'2
._",+-",- ",+>",-
-'2 "3
'" ._",+-",- '" ._",+-",-
'3' '4·-'4 -'4 , '5·-'5 -'5 (35)
A strain energy density thus exists, as a result of equation (29). The stress tensor T is
taken:
(36)
where K. and I-' are two positive scalars. The two strain tensors El and E2 are given by
(37)
It is easy to verify that El E S + and E2 E S - , since:
(38)
121
where the above inequalities follow from the assumed positive definiteness of the tensors
c+ and c-.
This counterexample shows that a general uniqueness theorem for the problem of
the elastic equilibrium of a body modelled by using the constitutive equation (5) cannot
hold.
6. Positive Definiteness of Strain Energy Density

A strain energy density is said to be positive-definite if it governs a stress-strain
relationship with the property that any stress increment expends a positive work for the
corresponding strain increment. More precisely, let .6.T be any nonzero stress increment
and .6.E the corresponding strain increment from a material state (Eo,TO). The positive
definiteness of the strain energy density occurs when:
(39)
for any material state (EO,T Q). This condition is the same as the monotonicity of the
stress-strain relationship which can be expressed as
(40)
for every choice of two different strain-stress corresponding pairs (E1,T 1) and (E 2,T 2).
Suppose that equation (40) holds. The linearity of C + and C - gives
(41)
These inequalities hold for every nonzero E E Sym and imply that C + and C - are
positive-definite. Another consequence of equation (40) is
(42)
Two equivalent expressions to equation (42) are
C + [E + - E -]. (E + - E - )+.6.C[E -]. (E + - E -) > 0,
vE + E S + , VE - E S- (43)
C - [E + - E -j. (E + - E - )+.6.C[E + j. (E + - E -) > 0,
VE + E S + , vE - E S- (44)
Let Eo E SO and 1l>0, and take
E - = - IlX3+ Eo E S - and E + = ItX 3 + E 0 E S+ (45)

From equation (44), there results
(46)
Since equation (46) holds for every positive scalar It and for every tensor Eo E So, it
leads to
122
(47)
With jg 0 being a linear space and LlC a linear operator, equation (47) implies that
(48)
which is equivalent to
LlC[X3l l.. jg 0 (49)

Equations (49), (16), (19) and (13) give
LlC = 6X 3 0X 3 (50)
for some scalar 6.
Conversely, assume that C + and C - are positive definite fourth-order tensors, and
that equation (50) holds. For any value of the scalar 6, the constitutive relationship
defined in equation (5) admits a positive-definite strain energy density. In fact, if 6 ~ 0
then
Llc[E + l· (E + - E -) = 6(X3 . E + )[X3 . (E + - E - )1~ 0 VE + E jg +,

E-Ejg- (51)
Hence, as a consequence of the positive definiteness of C - , equation (44) is satisfied. If
6 ~ 0, then
LlC[E -l· (E + - E -) = 6(X3· E - )[X3 . (E + - E - )1~ 0 vE + E jg +,
E- Ejg- (52)
Hence, as a consequence of the positive definiteness of C + , equation (43) is satisfied. In
both cases, equation (42) holds. Again, by the positive definiteness of C + and C - ,
equation (41) holds. Equation (40) easily follows from equations (41) and (42).
The hypothesis of the positive definiteness of the strain energy density implies that
the elasticity tensors C + and C - must have the same elastic coefficients, with the
exception of the coefficient of X3 0 X3 which can be interpreted as the direct stiffness of
the material in the fibers direction. More specifically, the elastic constants are reduced
from
• 17 to 14 for a Monoclinic Material,
• 12 to 10 for an Orthotropic-Rhombic Material,
• 8 to 7 for an Orthotropic-Tetragonal Material,
• 7 to 6 for a Transversely-Isotropic Material.
It is worth noting that the positive definiteness hypothesis implies the

differentiability of the strain energy density w. To prove this statement, it is sufficient
to show that:
123
(53)
exists for every Eo E S 0 and E f Sym and is a linear function of E. To this end, let t
go to zero with a constant sign. Hence, the limit (53) exists and its value is
depending on the signs of t and of E· X3 as a result of equation (15). But, smce

Eo E So, equation (50) implies that
and hence IT! is differentiable.

As a consequence of equation (55), the ambiguity of the constitutive equation (5)
for E E SO disappears. In fact, for a trivial deformation in the fibers direction, c + or
C - may be chosen arbitrarily.
Another more important consequence of the existence of a positive definite strain

energy density is the uniqueness of solution of the elastic equilibrium problem when
formulated by specifying tractions, displacements, or mixed conditions. Let (ul,E 1,T 1)
and (u2,E 2,T 2) be two solutions of the same elastic equilibrium problem for a body 0,
made of a material modelled by the constitutive equation (5) assuming that a positive
definite strain energy density exists. Here, u· is the displacement field, Ej is the strain
field and T j is the stress field, for j = 1..2. Let
w = u2-ul; E = E 2 -E 1; T = T 2 -T 1 (56)
It is well-known that [15]:
fT. E do = 0 (57)
o
From equation (57) and from the positive definiteness of the constitutive equation, it
follows that E is zero everywhere in the body, and hence w is an infinitesimal
displacement of o.
Note that if a positive-definite strain energy density exists, then it is a convex

function. In fact, if the mapping defined in equation (5) admits a potential and satisfies
equation (40), then it is conservative and hence [16] cyclically monotonic [17]. As a
consequence, the potential of that mapping is convex.
7. Generalized Bimodular Fiber-Governed Model
In what follows, a bimodular constitutive equation is said "well-posed" if it admits

a positive-definite strain energy density.
A new fiber-governed bimodular model will be formulated; it assumes the

bimodularity to depend upon a function of the strain tensor E. The model proposed in
[10] assumes that this function is the value of the unit elongation in the fibers direction
(E.X 3). The more general expression C[E].X3 is taken here, where C is a positive-
definite fourth-order symmetric tensor. In this sense, the present model is a
generalization of that in [10].
124
The tensor e can be regarded as the elasticity tensor of an internally constrained

elastic material. The constraint is [18]
T E %, where % = {S E Sym:S.X3 ~ O} (58)

where T represents the stress tensor. The set % of the admissible stresses is a closed
convex cone.
The constraint on the stress makes an inelastic deformation arise. If Ea and Ee
stand, respectively, for the inelastic and elastic part of the strain tensor, then
E = Ee+Ea = O[T] + Ea (59)

where D=e - 1. Assume that Ea obeys the hypothesis of normality:
Ea' (T* - T) ~ 0 \fT'" E % (60)

i.e., that the power expended for Ea by any variation of the stress, compatible with
equation (58), is not positive.
The constitutive equation of an elastic material subject to the specified internal
constraint, defined by equations (58), (59) and (60), can be equivalently stated as
follows: "To any given strain tensor E E Sym there corresponds a stress tensor T(E),
which is the unique solution of the variational inequality:
(T* - T(E)) . (E - D[T(E)]) ~ 0 \fT* E !lb" (61)
It is well-known [20] that the previous variational inequality has a unique solution,
for every E E Sym, as a result of the positive definiteness of [) and of the convexity of %.
.Following the procedure in [18,19], it can be shown that the mapping
EHT(E) (62)
implicitly defined by equation (61) is monotonic and positively homogeneous of degree
one. It admits the potential
ili(E) =! T(E).E (63)

which is convex and differentiable.
It is known [19] that the tensor T(E) is the orthogonal projection of e[E] onto the
convex cone % in the Hilbert space Sym, endowed with the scalar product
(A,B)O = A· D[B], A,B E Sym (64)

If e[E] E!lb, then T(E) = e[E] (the projection of e[E] is e[E] itself). If e[E] It x,
then T(E) E 8%, which is the boundary of % that is the subspace SO defined in equation
(3). Therefore, T(E) is the image of e[E] under the linear operator which projects Sym
onto so. The explicit form of this operator may be easily carried out. The final results
are
125
T(E) = C[E] if C[E] E !lb
- - C[ X31 ® C[ X31 . (65)

T(E) = c[E], C=C - QX31' X3 ,If C[E] ¢!lb
Equation (65) defines a bimodular fiber-governed constitutive equation, in the sense
that the relationship E .....T has two different linear expressions, depending upon the sign
of a linear function of the strain. Precisely, the "switch" quantity is c[E]. X3, i.e., the
normal stress that would arise on the layer orthogonal to the fibers if the material had a
linear elastic behavior, governed by the elasticity tensor C.
A material whose constitutive equation corresponds to equation (65) has no direct
stiffness in direction c3 when C[E] ¢!lb. In fact, equation (65) was found by assuming
that no compressive normal stress on the layer orthogonal to c3 can exist.
A more general bimodular model may be defined by
T(E) = C+[E] = (Ce+C)[E], ifE.C[X3] ~O

(66)
T(E) = C- [E] = (Ce+C)[E], if E.C[X3] < 0
where Ce is a positive-definite tensor. The stress-strain relationship in equation (66)
admits a positive-definite strain energy densitYj which is the sum of the function defined
in equation (63) and of the quadratic function 2" CerE]. E.
The difference between the two fourth-order tensors C + and C - which govern the
stress-strain relationship in equation (66) is
~C - C[X3] ® C[X3] (67)
- C[X3],X3
Consider, for instance, a transversely isotropic material, having c3 as the
transverse isotropy axis. In this case, equation (67) becomes
62
~C = 61X 3 ®X 3 + 63 (X 1 +X 2 )®(X 1+X 2 )
1
+ 63(X3® (X 1 +X2 )+(X 1 +X 2 ) ®X3) (68)
Hence, two scalar parameters (6 1 and 63) are available to fit a measured difference.
The model in [10], when well-posedness is required, may be recovered from

equation (66), as a special case. To this end, it is sufficient to take C such that
(69)
The difference tensor ~C reduces to
(70)
and the "switch" quantity becomes E· X3. Hence, the stress-strain relationship III
equation (5) governed by a positive definite strain energy density is obtained.
8. Comparison with Experiments for Bimodular Materials

Experimental data on bimodular materials are limited. The elastic moduli of
126
polyester-rubber and aramid-rubber can be found in [13]. Let v denote the major
Poisson's ratio, while Et and E t are the respective Young's modulus in the longitudinal
(fiber) and transverse direction. The transverse shear modulus is G t and the
longitudinal-transverse shear modulus is Gtt .
Referring to the coefficients in equation (25), it is not difficult to establish:

_ Et Et (V2) _ 1
.6. - E - 4G -
2 _
v , rl - 1 + .6. E t , r2 - K E t ,
t t
(71)
r3 = XEt , r4 = G t , r5 = 2GU
Calculations based on the values in [13] yield the results in Table 1. The elastic
constant rl exhibits the largest difference between "tension" and "compression", while
the least dIfference prevails for r5. The differences in Table 1 cannot be covered by the
constitutive equation (5) if a posItive definite strain energy density is assumed to exist.
In fact, neither equation (50) nor equation (68) can be satisfied by the difference of the
elastic moduli given in Table 1.
Table 1 - Elastic properties of aramid and polyester rubber

Property Aramid-Rubber Polyester-Rubber
tens. compr. diff. tens. compr. diff.
Et (MPa) 3584 12.0 3572 617 36.9 580

E t (MPa) 9.09 12.0 -2.9 8.00 10.6 -2.6
v 0.416 0.205 0.211 0.475 0.185 0.290
G t (MPa) 2.90 4.99 -2.09 2.33 4.75 -2.42
G£t (MPa) 3.70 3.70 0.00 2.62 2.67 -0.05
rl (MPa) 3591 13.4 3578 630 37.7 592
r2 (MPa) 42.1 33.6 8.5 57.7 24.5 33.2
r3 (MPa) 17.5 6.90 10.6 27.4 4.54 22.9
r4 (MPa) 2.90 4.99 -2.09 2.33 4.75 -2.42
r5 (MPa) 7.40 7.40 0.00 5.24 5.34 -0.10
9. Conclusions
The bimodular fiber-governed model presented in [10] was examined by considering
the existence of a strain energy density function. Even when a strain energy density
exists, a counterexample is found showing that the positive definiteness of the elasticity
tensors is not sufficient to ensure the uniqueness of solution of the elastic equilibrium
problem. This feature is recovered when a positive-definite strain energy density exists.
In this case the model proposed in [10] is subject to restrictions and limited in
application to real bimodular materials.
A new fiber-governed bimodular model is formulated. It guarantees the existence

of a positive-definite strain energy density. The model incudes that in [10] as a special
127
case and offers a wider range of applications to bimodular materials. For a transversely
isotropic material, two scalar parameters are available for fitting the differences of the
elastic coefficients for fibers in extension and contraction.
Experimental tests seem to show different values of the shear modulus along the
plane orthogonal to the fibers. The proposed model is not able to allow these different
values. More investigations are then required to better understand the shear/fibers
elongation interaction effect, maybe even from the micromechanical point of view.
Acknowledgements
The financial supports of the Ministry of University and Research of Italy and of
the National Council of Research of Italy are gratefully acknowledged.
References
[1] S. A. Ambartsumyan, "The Axisymmetric Problem of Circular Cylindrical Shell

Made of Materials with Different Stiffness in Tension and in Compression", S. A.,
Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Mekh., No.4, p. 77, 1965.
[2] G. S. Shapiro, "Deformation of Bodies with Different Tensile and Compressive

Stiffnesses", Mechanics of Solids, Vol. 1, No.2, p. 85, 1966.
[3] S. A. Ambartsuyman, "The Basic Equations and Relations of the Different-

Modulus Theory of Elasticity of an Anisotropic Body", Mechanics of Solids, Vol. 4,
No.3, p. 48, 1969.
[4] N. G. Isabekyan and A. A. Khachatryan, "On Multimodulus Theory of Elasticity

of Anisotropic Bodies in a Plane Stress State", Izv. Akad. Nauk Armyan. SSSR,
Mekh., Vol. 22, No.4, p. 25, 1969.
[5] F. Tabaddor, "Constitutive Equations for Bimodulus Elastic Materials", AIAA J.,
Vol. 10, p. 516, 1972.
[6] R. M. Jones, "Stress-Strain Relations for Materials with Different Moduli in

Tension and in Compression", AIAA J., Vol. 15, p. 16, 1977.
[7] F. Maceri and E. Sacco, "A Contribution to the Mechanics of Bimodular

Materials", Materials Engineering, Vol. 1, No.1, pp. 189-199, 1989.
[8] E. Sacco and J. N. Reddy, "Analysis of Thick Bimodular Composite Plates using
an Energy Based Constitutive Model", Computers & Structures, Vol. 39, No. 1/2,
pp. 149-154, 1991.
[9] H. P. Patel, J. L. Turner and J. D. Walter, "Radial Tire Cord-Rubber

Composites", Rubber Chem. and Tech., 1976.
[10] C. W. Bert, "Models for Fibrous Composites with Different Properties in Tension
and in Compression", J. Eng. Mat. Tech., 1977.
[11] F. Tabaddor, "A Survey of Constitutive Equations of Bimodulus Elastic

Materials", Mechanics of Bimodulus Materials, Bert, ed., Winter Annual Meeting
in New York, 1977.
128
[12] C. W. Bert, "Recent Advances in Mathematical Modeling of the Mechanics of

Bimodulus, Fiber-Reinforced Composite Materials", Proc. 15th Annual Meeting,
Soc. Eng. Science, Gainesville, Florida, 1978.
[13] J. N. Reddy and C. W. Bert, "On the Behaviour of Plates Laminated of Bimodulus
Composite Materials", ZAMM, Vol. 62, pp. 213-219, 1982.
[14] M. E. Gurtin, The Linear Theory of Elasticity, Handbuch der Physik, Band VIa/2,
Springer-Verlag, 1972.
[15] M. E. Gurtin, "An Introduction to Continuum Mechanics, Academic Press, 1981.
[16] G. Romano, 1. Rosati, F. Marotti and P. Bisegna, "A Potential Theory for
Monotone Multi-Valued Maps", Quart. J. Appl. Math, 1993.
[17] T. Rockafeller, Convex Analysis, Princeton University Press, 1970.
[18] G. Del Piero, "Constitutive Equation and Compatibility of the External Loads for
Linear Elastic Masonry-Like Materials", Meccanica, 24, pp. 150-162, 1989.
[19] G. Romano and M. Romano, "Sulla Soluzione di Problemi Strutturali in Presenza

di Legami Costitutivi Unilaterali", Rend. Acc. Naz. Lincei, Cl. Sc. Fis., Mat. e
Nat., Serie VII, Vol. LXVII, 1979.
[20] D. Kinderlehrer and G. Stampacchia, An Introduction to Variational Inequalities

and their Applications, Academic Press, 1980.
[21] C. Truesdell, The Elements of Continuum Mechanics, Springer-Verlag, 1966.

GENETIC ALGORITHMS FOR THE DESIGN OF COMPOSITE PANELS
S. Nagendra, R. T. Haftka and Z. Giirdal
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,

Blacksburg, Virginia 24061
Genetic algorithms (GA's) are powerful tools for the design of laminated composite
structures and can easily handle the discrete nature of the stacking sequence design
problem. The paper discusses new strategies and operators for laminate design problems
and demonstrates their application to the stacking sequence design of unstiffened and
stiffened composite panels under combined in-plane loads. Initial population seeding and
the application of a binary tree for storage and retrieval of analyzed designs lead to
substantial reduction in the number of reanalyses needed during optimization. The
power of the GA based design procedure is illustrated by comparing the discrete designs
with those obtained using continuous optimization methods like sequential linearization.
Not only are better designs obtained, but the GA approach easily generates multiple and
near optimal design alternatives.
1. Introduction
The application of methods of biological genetics to problems of artificial adaptive

systems dates back more than thirty years [1]. Their use as tools for solving
mathematical optimization problems is more than twenty years old [2]. However,
applications to engineering optimization problems were slow, with early applications
ranging from natural gas pipeline control [3], to electronic circuit design and job shop
scheduling [4].
The first application of genetic algorithms (GA's) to structural optimization - the
design of a lO-bar truss was made in [5J. More recently, use was made of genetic search
[6] for several structural design problems for which the design space is known to be
either nonconvex or disjoint. Addressed in [7,8] are the optimal selection of discrete
locations on truss structures for actuators and other peripherals. The design of
composite laminates for buckling and strength constraints were considered in [9,10].
Genetic algorithms have several advantages over derivative-based hill-climbing

optimization techniques. They work simultaneously on several designs and because
they use probabilistic selection, they can temporarily accept poorer designs. Hence,
they are less likely to get trapped in local minima. They do not need derivatives for
operation, and so they are suitable for problems where derivatives do not exist or are
difficult to calculate. In addition, genetic algorithms are also powerful tools for discrete
problems due to easy mapping of the design variables into genetic strings. Finally,
genetic algorithms maintain a population of potential solutions throughout the search.
Therefore, they offer alternative solutions in case the best solution is not acceptable
based on considerations that have been left out of the optimization formulation. These
considerations include cost, aesthetics, durability, reliability, etc., which cannot be
easily modelled or are too costly to evaluate repeatedly for the purposes of optimization.
On the other hand, genetic algorithms usually require a large number of analyses,
running into the thousands or even the millions. Furthermore, because of their
probabilistic nature, an evaluation of the effectiveness of these algorithms may require
running dozens of genetic optimizations. For these reasons, genetic algorithms are not
129
130
recommended for use for most structural optimization problems. Rather, GA's are
useful for problems where discreteness, discontinuities, or the existence of a large
number of local minima makes the application of other optimization algorithms difficult
or questionable.
While most work in structural optimization employs continuous optimization

techniques, several researchers proposed and employed discrete optimization techniques.
For example, a penalty function approach was applied to the design of trusses [11]. The
most popular technique for solving discrete structural problems appears to be the
branch and bound method. This method was used for plastic design of frames [12].
The branch and bound algorithm was combined with sequential linear programming for
the discrete optimal design of trusses [13]. A similar approach was applied to the design
of a composite laminate and other problems [14]. The problem of laminate design [15]
was solved using a nonlinear version of the branch and bound algorithm. The problem
of laminate design was linearized for maximum buckling load by the use of ply identity
design variables and then used the branch and bound method to solve this linear
problem [16].
While most work to date has employed the branch and bound technique, stacking
sequence design of laminated composite structures is one of the interesting and fruitful
areas of application of the genetic algorithms. The stacking sequence design problem is
discrete and is known to have a large number of similar-performance optima [17].
Furthermore, in the design of such laminates, the analysis is often computationally
inexpensive so that performing thousands of analyses is feasible.
The objective of the present paper is to demonstrate the advantages and features of
GA's for designing laminated composite structures with emphasis on stacking sequence
design. First, a brief review of the genetic algorithm is provided, including description
of various standard genetic operators. New strategies and operators that were
specifically proposed for stacking sequence design are described. Finally, results for
unstiffened and stiffened composite laminates are presented to demonstrate the use of
genetic algorithms.
2. Genetic Algorithms
Genetic algorithms use techniques derived from biology and rely on Darwin's
principle of survival of the fittest. When a population of biological species evolves over
generations, characteristics that are useful for survival tend to be passed on to future
generations because individuals carrying them get more chances to breed. Individual
characteristics in biological populations are stored in chromosomal strings. The
mechanics of natural genetics are based on operations that result in structured, yet
randomized exchange of genetic information (i.e., useful traits) between the
chromosomal strings of the reproducing parents and consist of crossover and occasional
mutation of the chromosomal strings.
Genetic algorithms simulate the mechanics of natural genetics for artificial systems
based on operations which are the counterparts of the natural ones. As will be
described in the following paragraphs, these operations (as applied to the function
optimization problem) involve simple easy-to-program random exchanges of location of
numbers in a string, and, therefore, at the outset, look like a completely random search
of the extremum in the parameter space based on function values only. However,
genetic algorithms are experimentally proven to be robust and the reader is referred to
l18] for further discussion of the theoretical properties of genetic algorithms. In the
remaining of this section, we discuss the classical genetic representation of a
131
minimization problem and focus on the mechanics of selection of "fit" individuals and
evolution process based on classical genetic operations, namely; crossover and mutation.
2.1 Genetic Coding
Application of the operators of the GA to a search problem requires the

representation of design variables in terms of bit strings that are counterparts of the
natural chromosomes. For example, if we have a minimization problem
minimize f(x), x = {xl,x2,x3,x4} (1)

a binary string representation of the variable space could be of the form
0110 101 -11 "-v--J

"-v--J _
1011 (2)
Xl x2 x3 x4
where string equivalents of the individual variables are connected head-to-tail, and, in
this example, base 10 values of the variables are Xl = 6, x2 = 5, x3 = 3, x4 = 11 and
their ranges correspond to {15 ~ xl,x4 ~ OJ, {7 ~ x2 ~ O} and {3 ~ x3 ~ OJ.
Because of the bit string representation of the variables, genetic algorithms are ideally
suited for problems where the variables are required to take discrete or integer
variables. For problems where the design variables are continuous values in a range xr
$ Xi $ xp, the number of bits m that are needed depends on the precision xpre
required for the final solution and can be calculated from
(3)
For example, for a variable defined in the range {0.01 $ X· $ 1.81}, and required
accuracy xpre = 0.001, the smallest number of bits that satisfie~ the requirement is m =
11, which produces increments of 0.00087 in the value of the variable instead of the
required 0.001.
2.2 Genetic Population
Genetic algorithms work with a population of strings (chromosomes) and the

population size is one of the most important parameters affecting the performance of
the algorithm. The initial population is typically generated randomly, but often biased
towards generating reasonable designs. For example, if the design variables are
thicknesses, we may want to choose the mean values of the random variables used to
initialize the thicknesses so as to produce mostly feasible designs in the initial
population. The next important step in the process is reproduction in which individual
strings with good objective function values are copied to form a potential parent pool,
an artificial version of the survival of the fittest. The bias towards strings with better
performance is achieved by increasing the probability of their selection in relation to the
rest of the population. One way to achieve this is to create a biased roulette wheel
where individual strings occupy areas proportional to their function values or to their
rank in the population.
2.3 Genetic Operators
Members of the parent pool are paired off randomly for crossover, a random
132
mating process. A random integer k between 1 and L - 1 where L is the string length is
selected and the two parents strings are cut in two at that position and their fragments
spliced to form child strings. For example, the two strings of length L = 9
parent 1: 01101110111
(4)
parent 2: 0 1 0 0 1110 0 0 1
are mated with a crossover point of k = 5; two possible child designs are
child 1: 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
(5)
child 2: 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
Multiple point crossovers in which the two parents are cut into multiple segments are
also possible and enhance the process of gene exchange. However, multiple point
crossover can disrupt the formation of beneficial combinations of genes in substrings
that work well together (called schemata), and the performance of the algorithm might
degrade [19]. The compromise between the efficient exchange of genes and forming of
superior schemata is often reached at a two-point crossover.
Mutation serves an important task of preventing premature loss of important

genetic information by occasional introduction of random alteration of a string. As
mentioned earlier, at the end of reproduction, it is possible to have parent pools with
multiple copies of the same string. In an extreme case, the entire pool is made of the
same string. In such a case, the algorithm would be unable to explore the possibility of
a better solution. Mutation prevents this uniformity and is implemented by randomly
selecting a string location and changing its value from 0 to 1 or vice versa. Based on
small rate of occurrence in biological systems and on numerical experiments, the role of
the mutation operation on the performance of a genetic algorithm is considered to be a
secondary effect. A probability of mutation of one per thousand bits was suggested [18].
Genetic algorithms tend to generate populations where some of the members are
identical to designs from previous generations. Because the analysis of these designs is
often costly, it can be useful to keep track of all previous designs so as to eliminate the
need for re-analysis of identical designs. Suggested in [20] is the use of a binary tree
data structure, easily programmed in the C-language, for this purpose. The binary tree
provides an efficient way of storing all the relevant information about designs and of
finding whether a new design is already stored in the tree. They found that in their
study of the optimization of composite laminates, the use of the binary tree could cut
down the number of required analyses by close to one half.
3. Genetic Algorithms for Laminate Design
3.1 Coding
In specializing genetic algorithms for laminate stacking sequence design, the first
departure from the classical problem formulation is in design variable coding. Since
laminates are generally built from 0-, ± 45- and 90-deg plies, it is convenient to replace
the binary coding with a higher alphabet. In addition, for balanced laminates, we
require a +45-deg ply to be paired with a - 45-deg ply; therefore, the coding can be
simplified by using stacks of two plies each as the basic building blocks. Thus, the
three possible stacks are: O-deg coded as the integer 1, ± 45-deg coded as 2 and 90-deg
133
coded as 3. For example, the symmetric laminate (902, ± 45 2,9°2'°2'± 45 2,02)s is coded
as 3 2 2 3 1 2 2 1. The rightmost 1 corresponds to the stack closest to the laminate
plane of symmetry.
Design of a laminate entails not only the selection of the orientations for specified
thickness but also the numbers of layers in the laminate to determine the optimal
thickness. Thus, a mechanism which allows changing the length of the string
representation of the laminate is needed. This is achieved by using zeros in the string
to identify empty stacks. Naturally, a laminate cannot have void layers in its interior.
Even if the initial population does not have interior voids, some of the genetic operators
(such as mutation or the permutation operator described later) can generate such voids.
Interior voids are eliminated by moving the zero towards the exterior of the laminate
and packing the string without disturbing the order of the other plies. This procedure is
called string packing. For variable thickness laminates, care must be also given to
choose a long enough initial string to accommodate the optimal thickness in the event
that it is larger than expected.
In addition to the discrete stacking sequence variables, laminate design may
include continuous-valued design variables such as stiffener dimensions. In a genetic
coding where stacking sequence is represented by a higher order alphabet, it may be
convenient to use the same alphabet to represent also the continuous variables. For
example, in the blade-stiffened plate example problem presented in the results section,
the stiffener height is a continuous variable and is coded as a base-three integer
employing the digits 0, 1 and 2 in a string of length Lh . The length Lh of the string is
based on a desired precision X pre of the real number and is calculated using the relation
10g[(Xu - Xl) + I]
Xpre
Lh ~ ----.-10......g--:':(3:-:-)-- (6)
where Xu and Xl are the upper and lower limits on the stiffener blade height. Given a
string [Y1,Y2' ... 'Y Lh)' the corresponding blade height Hb is given as
Hb = [ (X~-Xl)
h.
H.t= L
(Yi )3i - 1) + Xl (7)
2 L3 1- 1
1 1
i=l
3.2 Permutation Operator
The standard crossover and mutation operators work well in searching the design
space for the right combinations of ply orientations. However, these operators are less
efficient for rearranging these orientations into the optimal stacking sequence. A new
stochastic operator, called permutation, was developed for this purpose (9).
Permutation inverts the order of the bits between two randomly assigned points. For
example,
Before permutation: 2 / 3 1 2 2 2 / 1 1
(8)
After permutation: 2 / 2 2 2 1 3 / 1 1
134
the laminate described by the first string is (± 45,902'02' ± 453,04)S and after
permutation it becomes (± 45 4,02,90 2,04)s' Permutations change the genes in the center
of the string more often than those at its extremities. This feature is appealing
especially for buckling optimization. The genes on the extreme left of the string,
corresponding to the outermost plies, have a dominant effect on the buckling load.
Therefore, the best values on the left side of the string are easily discovered by the
selection process. The difficulty is to find the optimum sequence going from the
middle-left to the right side of the string. Permutation helps by exploring essentially
the center of the string.
3.3 Other Implementation Improvements
In the design of composite laminates, we can run into a singular optimum problem
in that strain constraints in plies of a given orientation can be accommodated either by
increasing the number of plies of that orientation or removing them completely. When
the optimum solution has no plies of that orientation, the optimum is singular because
as we gradually reduce the number of plies of the particular orientation, the strain
constraint becomes more violated and then as the last ply is removed, the corresponding
strain constraint disappears. The problem is often associated with the plies aligned with
the load direction (typically the O-deg plies).
Continuous optimization algorithms cannot find such singular optima unless the
offending ply orientation is missing in the initial design. Genetic algorithms are likely
to find such designs because the probabilistic nature of the reproduction operators
permits occasional acceptance of inferior designs and mutation can result in the loss of
the offending ply from the laminate. Thus, if we start with a design with two plies of
the orientation to be eliminated, a mutation that eliminates one of them will be
accepted even though the laminate with only one ply is inferior to the one with two
plies. Then a subsequent mutation can eliminate the other ply. Similarly, crossover of
two parent designs each with two plies of the offending orientation can result in a child
design with none, if these plies are not in identical places in the stacking sequences of
the two parent laminates. However, the probability of these events is small, which
means that we need to let the algorithm work for many generations before it happens.
During the course of a buckling maximization design study, a buckling and

strength optimization problem was encountered [20] with a singular optimum having no
O-deg plies. They found that instead of increasing the number of generations that the
algorithm required for convergence, the singular optimum could be found by seeding the
initial population with a percentage of laminates that include no O-deg plies (referred to
as NZP designs). This solution is similar to the remedy used in continuous optimization
approaches of starting with an initial design where the offending ply is missing. They
also found that this process of seeding does not have adverse effects on the convergence
for other cases where the optimum is not singular.
4. Results
A number of features of the genetic algorithms and the improvements discussed

above are demonstrated in this section for two problems. The first problem is
maximization of failure load (buckling or strength) of a simply supported rectangular
panel under in-plane loads, see Figure 1. The stacking sequence of the panel for a
specified total thickness constitutes the only design unknown for the problem. This
problem has closed form expressions for the buckling and strength analyses, so that
millions of analyses can be easily performed. This permits us to repeat the genetic
optimizations hundreds of times for the purpose of obtaining information on their
135
reliability. The second example is the design of a blade-stiffened panel, see Figure 2, for
X
AN x
-..
-..
AN -..
y
-..
a
y
-..
-.. ~.
ANy
-.. 90
-..
,:x b .1
Figure 1 - Laminate geometry and applied loading.
N%
N%
I- 32
Figure 2 - Blade stiffened panel with a centrally located hole. (All dimensions in
inches).
136
minimum weight with primarily buckling constraints. The buckling analysis of the
panels is performed by using the analysis portion of the panel sizing code PASCO [21].
In addition to the stacking sequence of the laminates in the skin and the blade-
stiffeners, the stiffener height is also included as a design variable.
4.1 Unstiffened Panels
A simply supported laminated composite plate of dimensions a x b, see Figure 1,

with an aspect ratio of (a/b) = 4 is considered. The panel is subjected to biaxial in-
plane compressive loads AN x and ANy, where A is the load parameter. The failure load
parameter AC is the critical value of A for which either the laminate buckles or exceeds
the allowable strain limit. The laminate is made up of N = 48 plies with orientations
restricted to ± 45-, 0- and 90-deg plies. Each ply has a constant thickness t. The
laminate is assumed to be symmetric and balanced. Results were obtained for graphite-
epoxy panels [Eb= 18.5E6 psi (127.57 GPa); E2, = 1.89E6 psi (13.03 GPa); G 12 =
0.93E6 psi (6.41 Pa); tply = 0.005 in. (0.0127 cm); v12 = 0.3; and the ultimate strains
(fa = 0.008; (~a = 0.029; 'Yf~ = 0.015], with a factor of safety of 1.5 for the strength
analyses.
The laminate is optimized to maximize failure load AC for three applied load ratios
of ANx/AN y = 0.125, 0.25 and 0.5. In addition to the strain limit constraint, a limit on
the number of contiguous 0- and 90-deg plies were imposed by penalizing the objective
function. When the number of contiguous plies of the same orientation is larger than
four, composite laminates may become susceptible to matrix cracking under mechanical
and/or thermal loads.
Maximum buckling load designs satisfying the four contiguous ply constraint and
the strain failure constraints are presented in Table 1 along with designs obtained
earlier [22], based on sequential linearization. The linearized integer programming
problem was then solved using LINDO [23] which employs a branch and bound
algorithm.
The designs obtained using the genetic algorithm had slightly higher buckling loads
compared to the designs obtained by LINDO for the first two load ratios. But the
difference was less than 0.5 percent. For the load ratio of 0.5 genetic algorithm and the
LINDO converged to the same global optimum design. Also, for the first two load
ratios, the ply contiguity constraints were active. Without the ply contiguity
constraint, the first two load cases had maximum buckling loads of AC = 14977.92 and
12859.37, respectively, corresponding to [± 45 6 /Ods and [± 45 2 /90 2 / ± 45 4 /O lO]S
laminates. For a load ratio of Ny/N x = 0.5, the design without the contiguous ply
constraint satisfied this constraint anyhow.
The importance of permutation as a genetic operator for the design of composite

laminates is demonstrated in Figure 3 taken from [9]. The figure shows the effect of
permutation and mutation rates on the cost of the GA. The computational cost is
defined by the normalized price, which is the average (over 200 runs) number of
analyses to convergence divided by the practical reliability (probability of getting within
0.1 percent of the global optimum). It is observed from Figure 3 that the permutation
operator lowers the normalized price by about a factor of two as compared to mutation.
The effectiveness of the binary tree for reducing the number of analyses is shown in
Table 2. The price is the average number (from over 100 runs) of designs analyzed by
the algorithm. The elitist price is the number of analyses required when the best
137
Table 1 - Comparison of optimum designs for unstiffened panels [10J
Optimization Stacking Failure

algorithm sequence load factor AC
Load Case: N x = 1.0, Ny = 0.125

B&BL* ( ± 45 3,°2'[ ± 45,04b ± 45,02)s 13511.33
GA+ (902' ± 45 2,°2'[ ± 45,02)4)s 13514.13
Load Case: N x = 1.0, Ny = 0.25

B&BL* ( ± 45 2,9°2' ± 45 3,°4'[ ± 45,02J 2)S 12622.44
GA+ (902' ± 45 5,°2' ± 45,04' ± 45,02)S 12674.84
Load Case: N x = 1.0, Ny = 0.5

B&BL* (902' ± 45 2,9°2' ± 45,902' ± 45 6 )s 9998.18
GA+ (902' ± 45 2,9°2' ± 45,902' ± 45 6 )s 9998.18
*: branch and bound and linearization; +: genetic algorithm
NORMALIZED
PRICE
7000 ,---~__--------------------------------------,
6000
---Effect of Mutation
5000
-···-Effect of Permutation
4000
3000
2000
1000
-------
-~ .. -
0
0.02 0.033 0.046 0.06 0.073 0.086 0.1 MUTATION RATE
0.6 1 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6 3 PERMUTATION RATE
Figure 3 - Effect of mutation and permutation rates on normalized price for a 48 ply
simply supported panel subject to buckling and strain constraints.
design, which is copied into the next generation is not reanalyzed. Finally, the average
number of nodes in the tree indicates the average number of different designs per
optimization. The standard deviation of the mean indicates an estimated range of an
138
Table 2 - Binary tree efficiency: price, elitist price and number of nodes show mean
values ± one standard deviation, based on 100 runs and a population size of 8
Load case Price t Elitist price* Number of

nodes
Permutation probability = 1.0

Ny/N x = 0.125 646.2± 12 566.4± 11 453.0±9
Ny/N x = 0.25 907.0±27 794.7 ±23 631.9 ± 18
Ny/N x = 0.5 918.5±27 804.7 ±23 504.4 ± 16

Average 823.9± 15 721.9 ± 13 529.7 ± 10
tNumber of analyses to convergence, stopping at 56 generations without improvement.

*Price excluding repeated analyses of the best design.
average value out of another one hundred optimization runs. Table 2 indicates that the
use of the binary tree reduces the required number of analyses by about 30 to 40
percent. For the present problem, calculation of the objective function is based on a
simple formulae that can be evaluated very efficiently and the binary tree requires
considerable memory to keep all of designs. Hence, the binary tree is not
computationally cost-effective for this problem. However, this procedure has high
potential and wide applicability to problems which require large computation times to
evaluate the objective function.
Seeding the initial population with "no-zero-ply" (NZP) designs addresses the
problem of singular optimum designs which was mentioned earlier. With the
population size of 8, trials with two, four or six NZP designs in the initial population (as
initial seeds) corresponding to 25%, 50% or 75% of the population were conducted. The
results obtained by this NZP seedings is shown in Table 3 for a load ratio of Ny/N x =
0.5. For these results, the stopping criterion was varied so as to ensure an 80 percent
probability of obtaining a design within 0.1 percent of the global optimum. The
performance is seen to improve dramatically by seeing the initial population.
4.2 Stiffened Panels
The geometry of the blade-stiffened panel under consideration is shown in Figure 2.

The panel was designed under a combination of Nx = 20,000 lb/in. and Nxy = 5,000
lb/in. Beside the strain limits (see previous section), the panel was required not to
buckle under the applied loads and the skin and blade laminates were constrained not to
have more than four contiguous plies with the same ply orientation.
The skin and blade laminates were modelled by independent strings of lengths Ls
and Lb. As mentioned earlier, the choice of length of the string for the laminate is
important for problems in which the laminate thickness is variable. Here, string lengths
were chosen based on the continuous optimum design thickness of the skin and blade
laminates obtained previously [22], with a provision for increase in thickness of up to
20%. The stiffened panel design is represented through a concatenation of the three
individual strings representing the stiffener blade height, skin laminate and a blade
laminate Lb to form a genetic string representing of a stiffened panel design.
139
Table 3 - Initial NZP seeding and algorithm price for 80% reliabilitl
Load case Ny/N x = 0.5
Initial population Stopping Practical* Price
criterion reliability
Normal Nonzero
Permutation probability: 0.50
8 0 56 0.80 945
6 2 32 0.83 470
4 4 22 0.85 321 (147)**
2 6 16 0.80 224 (104)**
Permutation probability: 1.00
8 0 38 0.81 674
6 2 25 0.83 412
4 4 13 0.83 207 (134)**
2 6 10 0.80 138 (97)**
* Probability of getting a design within 0.1 % of the global optimum.

**Average number of nodes of binary tree.
Based on the continuous optimum design obtained in [22], the stiffener blade height
was assumed to be in the range 1.5 ~ Hb ~ 3.3 inch. Therefore, the representative
string length Lh for a desired precision of 0.0001 inch was 9. The blade height Hb was
discretized as a 9 digit ternary number representing 39 or about 20,000 values in the
range of 1.5-3.3 inch.
The size of the population was selected to be 20. The probabilities of crossover Pc
and permutation Pp were chosen (after a few trials) as 0.9. The probability of mutation
Pm was chosen as 0.003. The algorithm was allowed to execute for 125 consecutive
generations before termination. The performance characteristics and designs generated
based on studies carried out over numerous trials are comrared with the results
obtained earlier by continuous optimization and rounding-up [22 .
To illustrate the effectiveness of the algorithm, the best designs obtained from four
representative trials are compared in Table 4 ftom [24] with the baseline design from
[22] obtained by continuous optimization of ply thicknesses followed by rounding up to
integer number of plies. Note that the baseline design has a margin of 9 percent for the
buckling constraint. This resulted from the process of using rounding up as a way of
translating continuous variables to discrete ply thicknesses. In Table 4, Run A and Run
B represent buckling critical designs obtained with no constraints on the laminate
stacking sequence, except the ply contiguity constraint. Run C and Run D represent
140
Table 4 - Buckling critical stiffened panel designs using GA based design procedures
Mass Blade Ht Plies Laminate
(lbs) (in.) 8: 8kin B: Blade
Continuous variable optimum design [22J
(8)-[19J [(45 4/ -45 4/Oh/ 90]s
25.35* 1.0926 2.9800 (B)-[38] [(45 2/ -452/04)4/90/04/90]s
Discrete variable optimum designs
Run A (8)-[18] [±45/904/ ±45/02/ ±454]s
24.57 1.0048 2.6343 (B)-[40] [02/( ±45/04ls/90 2/02/(02/ ±452)3]s
RunB (8)-[18] [± 45 2/9°2/ ± 454/90 2/0 2]S
24.71 1.0076 2.6853 (B)-[40] [( ± 452 /0 2ls/(02/ ± 45 2)2/°4/9°2/°4/
±45/U2]s
RunC (8)-[18] [ ± 45/9°2/ ± 45 2/9°2/ ± 45 2/9°2/ ± 45]s
24.71 1.0047 2.6833 (B)-[40] [± 45/04 /9D..J./ ± 45 2/°2/9°2/( ± 45 2/°4)2/
902/04/ ± 45702]S
RunD (8)-[18] [ ± 45/9°2/ ± 45/9°2/ ± 453/°2/ ± 45]s
24.47 1.0190 2.8611 (B)-[38] [±45/02/ ±45/90~/ ±45/02/ ±45/
(±45/04ls/ ±45 2/0 2]s
*Buckling critical design from [22J.
cases where in addition to the contiguity ply constraint, the outermost stack location of
the skin and blade laminates was constrained to be made up of a stack of ± 45' in order
to improve the damage characteristics of the laminate. The discrete GA designs were
observed to be on an average about 3% lighter than the continuous optimum.
The discrete design procedure is capable of finding stiff-skin designs which have 0'
plies in the skin (Run A, B and D) as well as soft-skin designs which do not have 0'
plies in the skin (Run C) if they are present in the design space. The same was
observed in many of the runs, in that at least 5-10 designs in the final population of 20
had comparable performance and were made up of soft-skin as well as stiff-skin designs.
The advantage of the soft-skin design is that they can carry the design loads even if a
sizable hole exists in the center of the panel. The no-zero-ply design reported in Table
4, for example, can accommodate a hole of I-in diameter without much change in the
buckling load and without local failure near the hole below the buckling load. In
addition, Run B indicates that the design procedure is capable of finding a design that
satisfies the damage tolerance constraint on the outermost stack even if it is not
enforced. This is important because a designer may inadvertently omit some marginal
constraints or leave them out for fear that they may have a large adverse effect on the
objective function. The multiple designs obtained by the GA permit a designer to
select designs that satisfy such additional constraints.
141
A number of additional runs were conducted and the best designs of each run
which satisfied all constraints were chosen to represent the best solutions in all cases
considered. The results of numerous trials using the design procedure for buckling are
shown in Table 5 from [24] for soft-skin laminates. The best optimum design obtained
Table 5 - Soft-skin stiffened designs using GA based design procedure
Mass ,\cr Blade Ht Plies Laminate
bI
(lbs) (in.) S: Skin B: Blade
(S)-[20] [( 453/ - 45 3h/ 902]s

26.08* 0.9969 3.0400 (B)-[38] [( 45/ - 45/04)5/45/ - 45/90/04/90]s
(S)-[18] [± 45/90 2/ ± 45 7]s
24.46 1.0007 2.8606 (B)-[38] [( ± 45a/02)~/f02/902)2/( ± 45/04h/
±45/ 2/ ± 5 s
(S)-[20] [±45 1O]s
24.59 1.0109 2.6788 (B)-[38] [( ±45/0 2)4/( ±45/04h/ ±45/02]s
(S)-[18] [± 45 3/90 2/ ± 455]s
24.61 1.0034 2.6495 (B)-[38] [±45/0i<9~/~ ±45/04/( ±45/0 2h/
O2/ ±45 04 ± ]s
(S)-[18] [±45/90 2/ ±45/902/ ±45 3/90 2/ ±45]s
24.64 1.0000 2.6582 (B)-[40] i
[( ± 45 02/ ±45/04h/ ±45 3/O 4/90 2/O 2/
± 45/ 2]S
*Buckling critical design from [22].
using the genetic algorithm design procedure was found to be lighter than the
continuous optimum design by 5.7 percent. Numerous trials of the genetic algorithm
generates a wealth of design alternatives as shown in [24] indicating that GA's can yield
many designs with comparable performance for the designer to choose from. For the
stiffened panel example presented here, designs with variations of 10 to 20 percent in
blade height and total thicknesses of skin and blade laminates were found which had
weights within one percent of one another.
5. Concluding Remarks
Genetic algorithms prove to be powerful tools for the design of laminated composite
materials and easily handle the discrete nature of the stacking sequence design
problems. We can easily enforce constraints that are impossible to handle with
continuous optimization such as limits on the number of contiguous plies. The
unstiffened design example demonstrated the usefulness of the permutation operator as
well as the procedure of seeding the initial population with no-zero-ply designs.
Furthermore, genetic algorithms can yield many designs with comparable performance
for the designer to choose from.
142
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the NASA Langley Research Center under grants
NAG-1-168 and NAG-1-643.
References
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Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1975.
[2] R. B. Hollstien, "Artificial Genetic Adaptation in Computer Control Systems",

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[3] D. E. Goldberg, "Computer Aided Gas Pipeline Operation Using Genetic

Algorithms and Rule Learning", Doctoral Dissertation, The University of Michigan,
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Instruments Internal Report, Dallas, Texas, 1985.
[5] D. E. Goldberg and M. P. Samtani, "Engineering Optimization via Genetic
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482, 1986.
[6] P. Hajela, "Genetic Search - An Approach to the Nonconvex Optimization

Problem", AIAA Journal, 28, 7, pp. 1205-1210, 1990.
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Actively Controlled Structures using Genetic Algorithms", AIAA Journal, 29, 6,
pp. 942-943, 1990.
[8] E. Ponslet, R. T. Haftka and H. H. Cudney, "Optimal Placement of Actuators and
other Peripherals for Large Space Structures", in Topology Design of Structures,
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Structures, June 20-26, 1992, M. P. Bendsoe and C. A. Mota Soares, eds., Kluwer
Publishers, The Netherlands, pp. 135-144, 1993.
[9] R. Le Riche and R. T. Haitka, "Optimization of Laminate Stacking Sequence for

Buckling Load Maximization by Genetic Algorithm", Proceedings of the 33rd
AIAA/ ASME/ ASCE/ AHS / ASC Conference, Dallas, Texas, 1992.
[10] S. Nagendra, R. T. Haftka and Z. Giirdal, "Stacking Sequence Optimization of
Simply Supported Laminates with Stability and Strain Constraints", AIAA
Journal, 30, 8, pp. 2132-2137, 1992.
[11] D. K. Shin, Z. Giirdal and O. H. Griffin, "A Penalty Approach for Nonlinear
Optimization with Discrete Design Variables", Eng. Opt., 16, pp. 29-42, 1990.
[12] K. Reinschmidt, "Discrete Structural Optimization", ASCE, J. Struct. Div., 97, pp.
133-156, 1971.
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[13] K. V. John, C. V. Ramakrishnan and K. G. Sharma, "Optimum Design of Trusses

from Available Sections - use of Sequential Linear Programming with Branch and
Bound Algorithm", Eng. Opt., 13, pp. 119-145, 1988.
[14] G. R. Olsen and G. N. Vanderplaats, "Method for Nonlinear Optimization with
Discrete Design Variables", AIAA Journal, 27, pp. 1584-1589, 1989.
[15] L. Mesquita and M. P. Kamat, "Optimization of Stiffened Laminated Composite
Plates with Frequency Constraints", Eng. Opt., 11, pp. 77-88, 1987.
[16] R. T. Haftka and J. L. Walsh, "Stacking-Sequence Optimization for Buckling of
Laminated Plates by Integer Programming", AIAA Journal, 30, 3, pp. 814-819,
1992.
[17] Y. S. Shin, R. T. Haftka, L. T. Watson and R. T. Plaut, "Design of Laminated
Plates for Maximum Buckling Loads", Journal of Composite Materials, 23, pp. 348-
369, 1989.
[18] D. E. Goldberg, Genetic Algorithms in Search, Optimization and Machine
Learning, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., Reading, Massachusetts, 1989.
[19] K. A. Dejong, "Analysis of the Behavior of a Class of Genetic Adaptive Systems",
Doctoral Dissertation, The University of Michigan, University Microfilms No. 76-
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[20] N. Kogiso, L. T. Watson, Z. Giirdal and R. T. Haftka, "Genetic Algorithms with
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Code, Capability and Analytical Foundations", NASA-TM-80181, 1981.
[22J S. Nagendra, R. T. Haftka, Z. Giirdal and J. H. Starnes, Jr., "Design of a Blade

Stiffened Composite Plate with a Hole", Composite Structures, Elsevier Applied
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ON COMPUTATIONAL STRATEGIES FOR COMPOSITE LAMINATES
J. N. Reddy and D. H. Robbins, Jr.
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Texas A&M University,

College Station, Texas 77843-3123
The layerwise theory proposed by the first author is reviewed and a variable
displacement finite element model and mesh superposition techniques are described. A
simultaneous multiple model (SMM) approach that is based on the variable kinematic
theory and the mesh superposition method is also described. The objective of the
simultaneous multiple model approach is to match the most appropriate mathematical
model with each subregion based on the physical characteristics, applied loading,
expected behavior, and level of solution accuracy desired of each subregion. Thus,
solution economy is maximized without sacrificing the solution accuracy.
1. Introduction
The use of composite materials in the past has been mainly restricted to secondary,
noncritical structural components. In such cases, the main emphasis of an analysis is to
determine the overall global response of the laminated component, for example, gross
deflections, critical buckling loads, fundamental vibration frequencies and associated
mode shapes. Such global behavior can often be accurately determined using relatively
simple laminate theories (e.g., the classical laminate theory and the first order shear
deformation theory), especially for very thin laminates. However, as laminated
composite materials undergo the transition from secondary structural components to
primary critical structural components, the goals of analysis must be broadened to
include a highly accurate assessment of localized regions where damage initiation is
likely. The simple laminate theories that often prove adequate for modeling secondary
structures are of limited value in modeling primary structures for two reasons. First of
all, most primary structural components are considerably thicker than secondary
components, thus even the determination of the global response may require a refined
laminate theory that accounts for thickness effects. Secondly, the assessment of
localized regions of potential damage initiation requires an accurate determination of
the 3-D state of stress and strain at the ply level. The simple laminate theories are
most often incapable of accurately determining the 3-D stress field at the ply level.
Thus, the analysis of primary composite structural components may require the use of a
layerwise laminate theory or 3-D elasticity theory.
Regardless of whether damage prediction and assessment is desired at the ply level
or at the fiber-matrix level, the analysis must begin with the difficult task of accurately
determining the three-dimensional states of stress and strain at the ply level. The main
obstacle in determining accurate ply level stresses is the required use of a computational
model that incorporates an accurate description of the three-dimensional discrete-layer
kinematics and constitutive relations, such as a conventional 3-D finite model or the
layerwise model proposed by the author. While highly accurate, these models are
computationally expensive, thus preventing their general use in modeling an entire
laminated structure. Fortunately, unless a laminate is extremely thick, significant
three-dimensional states of stress are usually restricted to localized regions near
geometric and material discontinuities such as free edges, cut-outs, delamination fronts,
and matrix crack fronts, or in localized regions of intense loading. However, the
localization of these 3-D stress fields does not diminish their importance, for it is in
145
C. C. Sih et at. (eds.), Advanced Technologyfor Design and Fabrication of Composite Materials and Structures, 145-169.
146
these very areas where damage initiation and propagation are likely to occur.
To accurately capture these localized 3-D stress fields in a tractable manner, it is

usually necessary to resort to a simultaneous multiple model (SMM) approach in which
different subregions of the structure are described with different types of mathematical
models. The objective of a SMM analysis is to match the most appropriate
mathematical model with each subregion based on the physical characteristics, applied
loading, expected behavior, and level of solution accuracy desired of each subregion.
Thus, solution economy is maximized without sacrificing solution accuracy. While such
SMM methods are simple in concept, the actual implementation of such techniques is
complicated and cumbersome due mainly to the need for maintaining displacement
continuity across subregion boundaries separating incompatible subdomains. Currently
established methods of achieving displacement continuity between incompatible regions
include: multi-point constraint equations (using Lagrange multipliers); penalty function
methods; and special transition elements. Each of these methods are too cumbersome
for extensive use under a wide variety of operating conditions, thus discouraging the
general use of these methods.
To capture the 3-D stress fields in the local regions of a composite structure
efficiently, a hierarchical finite element modeling methodology is required. The
hierarchical model represents an integration of the variable kinematic finite elements
developed by the authors and the finite element mesh superposition technique. This
model provides a very convenient vehicle for the analysis of composite laminates using
simultaneous multiple models and overcomes the difficulties associated with enforcing
displacement continuity along boundaries separating incompatible subregions. In
addition, the integrated model provides a convenient means to add progressively higher
order effects to entire existing models as deemed necessary by previous solutions.
2. Laminate Theories
2.1 Equivalent Single Layer Theories
There are many papers on the subject of isotropic as well as laminated plate and
shell theories, and it is impossible to cite all of them. It is unfortunate that some of the
early developments in the field, especially those published by colleagues from Eastern
Europe, have not received the attention they deserve partly due to lack of accessibility,
language barriers, and limited circulation.
The equivalent single layer (ESL) laminate theories are those in which a
heterogeneous laminated plate or shell is treated as a statically equivalent, single
homogeneous layer, reducing the 3-D continuum problem to a 2-D one. The ESL
theories are developed by assuming that the displacement field is at least C1-continuous
(i.e., the function and its derivative are continuous) through the thickness of the
laminate. Upon integrating the virtual work statement (in the principle of virtual
displacements) through the laminate thickness, one obtains governing equations in two
dimensions.
The simplest ESL laminate theory is the classical laminated plate theory (or CL T)
[1-10], which is an extension of the Kirchhoff (classical) plate theory to laminated
composite plates. It is based on the displacement field (a,p = 1,2),
8ug
ua(xp,x3,t) = u~(xp,t) - x3 8x a' u3(xp,x3,t) = ug(xp,t) (1)
where (u(){)u3) is the displacement component along the Xa and x3 coordinate directions,
147
respectively (xI=x, x2=Y' x3=z), The displacement field in equation (1) implies that
straight lines normal to the x-y plane before deformation remain straight normal to the
midsurface after deformation (i.e., Kirchhoff assumption). The Kirchhoff assumption
amounts to neglecting both transverse shear and transverse normal effects, i.e.,
deformation is due entirely to bending and in-plane stretching. The classical plate
theory is intended for thin homogeneous plates; however, since typical composite
laminates have relatively low transverse shear stiffnesses, the thinness restriction is even
more stringent for the CLT.
The next theory in the hierarchy of ESL laminate theories is the first order shear
deformation theory (or FSDT) [11-20], which is based on the displacement field,
(2)
where 'h and - rP2 denote rotations about the x2=y and xl =x axes, respectively. The
FSDT extends the kinematics of the CL T by including a gross transverse shear
deformation in its kinematic assumptions, i.e., the transverse shear strain is assumed to
be constant with respect to the thickness coordinate. Inclusion of this rudimentary
form of shear deformation allows the thinness restriction of the classical laminate theory
to be relaxed somewhat. The first order shear deformation theory uses shear correction
factors (see [19,20]), which are not known for arbitrarily laminated composite plate and
shell structures.
Both the CLT and FSDT yield finite element models that are economical in terms
of the number of degrees of freedom used. However, both finite element models have
certain drawbacks. For example, finite element models of the CL T require C1 _
continuity of the transverse displacement, which complicates the development of
conforming elements and inhibits their use with other commonly used finite elements.
In contrast, finite elements based on the FSDT have the advantage of requiring only CO-
continuity of all primary variables; however, they can exhibit spurious transverse shear
stiffness (or locking) as the laminate becomes thin, as noted first in [21,22]. The
spurious transverse stiffness stems from an interpolation inconsistency that prevents the
Kirchhoff conditions (a=1,2),
_ ax
8u3
rPa - - (3)
a
from being satisfied as the span-to-thickness ratio increases (see [23-26] for additional
references and details on this topic). The spurious shear stiffness can be alleviated by
using a reduced quadrature to compute certain terms in the element stiffness matrix
(i.e., a selective integration scheme), or by using higher order elements [23]. Although
the reduced integration solution is the most economical alternative, the process allows
some elements to exhibit spurious displacement modes.
Second and higher order ESL laminated plate theories use higher order polynomials
(quadratic or cubic) in the expansion of the displacement components through the
thickness of the laminate (see [27-47], among many others). The second-order and
third-order theories introduce additional unknowns that are difficult to interpret in
physical terms. Theories higher than third order are not used because the accuracy
gained is so little that the effort required to solve the equations is not justified. In all
conventional single-layer displacement-based theories, one single expansion for each
displacement component is used through the entire thickness, and therefore, the
transverse strains are continuous through the thickness - a strain state appropriate for
homogeneous plates. However, for laminated plates, the stress continuity conditions at
the layer interfaces require CO in-plane displacement through the thickness [48-54].
148
Equivalent single layer theories adopting CO-displacement fields have been proposed in
[55-58]. Savoia et al [58-60] proposed a higher order theory based on unknown, through-
the-thickness, displacement distribution, which is particularly effective to capture the
high stress gradients in the plate boundary layers.
Despite their inherent simplicity and low computational cost, the ESL models often
provide a sufficiently accurate description of the global response of thin to moderately
thick laminates, e.g., gross deflections, critical buckling loads, fundamental vibration
frequencies and associated mode shapes. Of the ESL models, finite element models
based on FSDT appear to provide the best compromise of solution accuracy, solution
economy, model simplicity, and compatibility with other displacement-based finite
elements. However, the ESL models have several serious limitations that prevent them
from being used to solve the whole spectrum of composite laminate problems. First, the
accuracy of the global response predicted by the ESL models deteriorates as the
laminate becomes thicker. Second, the ESL models are often incapable of accurately
describing the state of stress and strain at the ply level, especially near geometric and
material discontinuities or near regions of intense loading - the areas where accurate
stresses are needed most. Finally, the ESL models cannot model the kinematics of
delamination.
2.2 Layerwise Theories
In contrast to the ESL theories, the layerwise theories are developed by assuming
that the displacement field is only CO-continuous through the laminate thickness [99-
126]. Thus the displacement components are continuous through the laminate thickness
but the transverse derivatives of the displacements may be discontinuous at various
points through the thickness, thereby allowing for the possibility of continuous
transverse stresses at interfaces separating dissimilar materials. Layerwise displacement
fields provide a much more kinematically correct representation of the moderate to
severe cross sectional warping associated with the deformation of moderately thick to
very thick laminates.
Di Sciuva [70-72] used ideas similar to those of Swift and Heller [61] and Seide [63]
to formulate a displacement-based theory, called the zigzag theory or discrete-layer
theory. The displacement field is assumed to be of the form,
UciXp,x3,t) = u~(xp,t) - x3u~,a(xp,t) + fa,(x3)</I,(xp,t)

u3(xp,x3,t) = u~(xp,t) (4)
The functions fa, and </1"'( are then determined such that the displacements and
transverse stresses are contmuous at the layer interfaces. The functions fa, are shown
to depend only on x3 and the layer stiffnesses. The resulting laminate theory contains
only five dependent unknowns, as in the first order theory or the third-order theory of
Reddy [37,43]. Thus, the discrete-layer theory is a refined single-layer theory.
The displacement-based, layerwise laminate theories investigated in [61-63,73-76]

are based on piecewise linear variation of the in-plane displacement components and a
constant transverse displacement through the thickness (i.e., the transverse shear strain
is piecewise constant, while the transverse normal strain is zero through the thickness).
Such layerwise theories will be referred to as partial layerwise theories since the
transverse normal displacement does not have a layerwise representation. Compared to
the ESL models, the partiallayerwise theories provide a more realistic description of the
kinematics of composite laminates by introducing discrete layer transverse shear effects
149
into the assumed displacement field.
Despite the success of the partial layerwise laminate models that neglect transverse
normal strain, these models are not capable of accurately determining interlaminar
stresses near discontinuities such as holes or cut-outs, traction free edges, and
delamination fronts. In modeling these localized effects, inclusion of the transverse
normal strain is important for two reasons. First of all, the transverse normal stress is
usually a significant, if not dominant, stress in these regions. Secondly, layerwise
models that neglect transverse normal strain do not satisfy traction free boundary
conditions for transverse shear stresses at the laminate edge. Examination of the
natural boundary conditions associated with the governing differential equations of a
partial layerwise theory reveals that the transverse shear stresses satisfy the traction
free boundary conditions (despite the level of refinement through the thickness).
In contrast to the partial layerwise theories, full layerwise theories use layerwise
expansions for all three displacement components, and thus include both discrete layer
transverse shear effects and discrete layer transverse normal effects. Displacement finite
element models of full layerwise theories have been developed by Epstein and Glockner
[78], Epstein and Huttelmaier [79), Reddy [80) and Robbins and Reddy [81,82). The
layerwise theory of Reddy [80) is based on the idea that the displacements can be
represented as a linear combination of products of functions of the in-plane coordinates
and functions of the thickness coordinate. The function of the thickness coordinate is
then approximated layerwise to have layerwise independent transverse strains (see
Robbins and Reddy [81)):
N .
ui(x,y,z) =
.
L Ul(x,y)c).(z)
J
(5)
J =1
In equation (5), the functions c)j(z) (j = 1,2, ... ,n) are the I-D Lagrangian interpolation
functions associated with n nodes distributed through the laminate thickness, located at
Zj (j = 1,2, ... ,n). Thus the through-the-thickness variation of the displacement
components is defined in terms of a I-D finite element representation with Co-
continuity of the interpolants. The I-D interpolants U{(x,y) are the values of the
displacement components u· on the planes defined by z = z· (j = 1,2, ... ,n), (see Figure
1). 1 J
Finite element models of the layerwise theory of Reddy were developed in [83] for
the case in which the transverse displacement is assumed to be constant through the
laminate thickness (i.e., trnsverse inextensibility is assumed) and in [81,82] for the case
in which the transverse deflection is also expanded through the thickness. For the
layerwise element (L WI) developed in [82,83], the transverse shear stresses, as
computed from the constitutive relations, represent the average transverse shear stress
within a particular thickness subdivision; however, accurate, continuous, transverse
shear stress variation through the thickness can be computed via the 3-D equilibrium
equations after having obtained the in-plane stresses accurately. These "equilibrium"
shear stresses were computed in [83,84] and proved to be a significant improvement over
the equilibrium shear stresses computed using CLT and FSDT.
The finite element models of full layerwise theories are capable of achieving the
same level of solution accuracy as a conventional 3-D finite element model, and the
entire laminate with full layerwise elements. However, the use of fulllayerwise models
150
B ut=O
5
Z) ut
3
Up
2
1 Translation
A u? ul =0
Figure 1 - Through the thickness representation of the displacement field in the
layerwise theory of Reddy.
[81,82] has two advantages over conventional 3-D finite element models. First, the
element stiffness matrices can be computed much faster for layerwise elements by
performing the in-plane and out-of-plane integration se:t>arately. Second, the 2-D data
structure of the full layerwise models developed in [81J permits much easier coupling
with conventional ESL laminate models and partial layerwise laminate models in
simultaneous multiple methods techniques discussed in the next section.
3. Multiple Methods
3.1 Introduction
The finite element models based on ESL theories, partial layerwise finite element
models, and full layerwise finite element models each have their own advantages and
disadvantages in terms of solution accuracy and/or solution economy. Used alone,
neither of these three types of models are suitable for general laminate analysis, each is
restricted to a limited portion of the composite laminate modeling spectrum. However,
by combining all three model types in a simultaneous multiple models analysis, a very
wide variety of laminate problems can be solved with maximum accuracy and minimal
cost. The traditional difficulty with this approach is the maintenance of displacement
continuity along boundaries separating incompatible subregions.
A wide variety of both simultaneous and sequential multiple methods techniques

(including global-local techniques) have been reported in the literature as evidenced in
the review by Noor [85]. All of these techniques represent an attempt to distribute
limited computational resources in an optimal manner to achieve maximum solution
accuracy with minimal solution cost. This often requires the joining of incompatible
finite element meshes and/or incompatible mathematical models. The analysis of
composite laminates has provided the incentive for the development of many different
multiple models [85-100] due to the heterogeneous nature of composite materials and
the wide range of scales of interest (i.e., micromechanics level, lamina level, laminate
level, structural component level). In general, the broad spectrum of multiple models
can be divided into two categories: the multi-step methods or sequential methods, and
the simultaneous methods.
151
3.2 Sequential Multiple Models
Most of the sequential multiple model methods reported to date are actually
global-local models [89-941 that perform separate analyses on the global and local
regions. Typically, the global region (i.e., the entire computational domain) is analyzed
with an economical, yet adequate model to determine the displacement or force
boundary conditions for a subsequent analysis of the local model (i.e., a subregion of
particular interest). The 2-D to 3-D sequential methods were employed by Vidussoni
[86], Thompson and Griffin [87], and Knight et al [88]. Knight et al [88] also performed
a 2-D to 2-D sequential analysis wherein both the global and local regions contained the
same mathematical model but the finite element discretizations were incompatible
along the global-local boundary. One of the main criticisms of these non-iterating
sequential methods is that the influence of the local region on the global region is not
accounted for. This deficiency has prompted the development of iterative sequential
methods by Hirai et al [89,90J, Mao and Sun [91] and Whitcomb [92]. The iterative
sequential methods attempt to establish equilibrium along the global-local boundary.
Whitcomb and Woo [93,94] extended the iterative sequential method to geometrically
nonlinear structures.
3.3 Simultaneous Multiple Models
A wide variety of simultaneous multiple model methods have been reported in the
literature [95-107]. These methods are characterized by a simultaneous analysis of the
entire computational domain where different subregions are modeled using different
mathematical models and/or different levels of finite element mesh discretization. The
simultaneous methods explicitly account for the interaction of the different subregions
and are thus directly extendable to nonlinear analysis. One simple type of simultaneous
multiple model prompted by composite laminate analysis is the concept of selective ply
grouping or sublaminates [95-97,101,102]. In this technique, the local region of interest
is identified as a specific group of adjacent material plies, within which accurate stresses
are desired. The local region spans the entire planar dimensions of the laminate. Each
of the material plies within the local region are individually modeled with 3-D finite
elements, while the remaining plies are grouped into one or more sublaminates and
subsequently modeled with 3-D finite elements. This ply grouping concept has the
disadvantage of requiring the use of 3-D finite elements over the entire planar
dimensions of the laminate.
Several types of simultaneous multiple model methods have been based on the
hierarchical use of multiple assumed displacement fields [103-107]. The earliest example
of employing multiple assumed displacement fields is due to Mote [103] who combined
an assumed global Raleigh-Ritz field with a local finite element field in the solution of
beam and plate problems. Dong [104] generalized the idea of combining classical
Raleigh-Ritz fields and finite element fields and surveyed applications of this technique.
Fish [105] developed, following the works in [108-110], a finite element mesh
superposition technique that combines a global finite element field with a local finite
element field. This is a fairly straightforward extension of the method due to Mote
[103]. Mote [1031, Dong [104], and Fish [105] pointed out that one disadvantage of using
multiple assumed displacement fields is that the banded nature of the system equations
is lost due to the extensive coupling between the two models. Fish and Markolefas [106]
applied the mesh superposition method to cylindrical bending of composite laminates.
Kim, Levit, and Stanley [98] used the mesh superposition method in an adaptive
refinement technique for 2-D plate finite elements. In the previously mentioned works
[98,103-106] that use some form of multiple displacement fields, the finite elements of
both the underlying mesh and the superposed mesh are based on the same
152
mathematical model, i.e., subregions differed only In the level of mesh refinement
(either h or p-refinement).
The functional interface method (a multipoint constraint approach) was used by

Aminpour et al [107] for finite element plate and shell analysis to connect two regions
that had different levels of mesh refinement. However, both regions were modeled with
the same type of 2-D plate or shell elements. While simultaneous 2-D to 3-D modeling
of plate or shell type structures can be achieved by enforcing displacement continuity
via multipoint constraint equations, this method is extremely cumbersome for general
use and thus has not been used often. Currently, most simultaneous 2-D to 3-D
modeling is done using special transition elements [99,100,111]. While the special
transition elements are more convenient than multipoint constraints, they have two
disadvantages. First, a different type of transition element is needed for each pair of
different mathematical models that need to be connected in a simultaneous analysis.
Second, in modeling composite laminates, a significant amount of transitioning (with
respect to the transverse coordinate) must be done to achieve a discrete layer 3-D
discretization.
4. Hierarchical Models
4.1 Introduction
None of the previously discussed simultaneous and sequential multiple model

methods have been capable of joining two subregions that differ in both mathematical
model type and level of mesh refinement. In response to this deficiency, a hierarchical
finite element modeling methodology is proposed by Robbins and Reddy [112-115]. In
this computational methodology, the variable kinematic finite elements idea and the
finite element mesh superposition idea are integrated. The integrated model overcomes
the difficulties associated with enforcing displacement continuity along boundaries
separating subregions that are incompatible with respect to both mathematical model
type and finite element discretization level. Enforcing displacement continuity along
subregion boundaries requires only the specification of certain homogeneous essential
boundary conditions, thus avoiding the inconvenience of multi-point constraints,
penalty function methods, or special transition elements.
The concepts of variable kinematic finite elements and finite element mesh
superposition are discussed separately in Sections 4.2 and 4.3, respectively, while the
integration of these two ideas is discussed in Section 4.4. It should be noted that the
variable kinematics models developed by Robbins and Reddy [112-115] are very general
(i.e., independent of the lamination scheme, boundary conditions, and applied loading).
4.2 Variable Kinematic Finite Elements
The hierarchical, variable kinematic, finite element is developed using a multiple

assumed displacement field approach, i.e., by superimposing several types of assumed
displacement fields in the same finite element domain. In general, the multiple
assumed displacement field can be expressed as,
(6)
where i ranges from 1 to 3 and (u1,u..2,u3) are the displacement components in the
(x,y,z) directions, respectively. The reference plane of the laminate coincides with the
xy plane. The underlying foundation of the displacement field is provided by upSL
153
which represents the assumed displacement field for any desired "equivalent single-
layer" laminate theory. The second term ufW represents the assumed displacement
field for any desired layerwise laminate theory. The layerwise displacement field is
included as an optional, incremental enhancement to the basic ESL displacement field,
so that the element can have partial or full 3-D modeling capability when needed.
Depending on the desired level of accuracy, the element may use none, part, or all of
the layerwise field to create a series of different elements having a wide range of
kinematic complexity. For example, discrete layer transverse shear effects can be added
to the element by including ut W and u~W. Discrete layer transverse normal effects
can be added to the element by including u~W. Displacement continuity is maintained
between these different types of elements by simply enforcing homogeneous essential
boundary conditions on the layerwise variables along the incompatible boundary, thus
eliminating the need for multi-point constraints, special transition elements, or penalty
function methods. Finally, up represents a simple displacement field that is piecewise
constant with respect to the thickness coordinate and is used to model the kinematics of
multiple delaminations [116).
It should be noted that the layerwise field given by equation (5) is sufficiently
general to model any of the deformation modes that can be modeled by the ESL field
given in equation (2); thus for elements that use all the variables shown in equations (2)
and (4), there will be five redundant variables that must be set to zero in order to
obtain a unique solution for the remaining variables. The ESL variables are useful for
connectivity between different element types; thus five of the layerwise variables should
be set to zero, for example, Ui = Uf = U~ = U~ = U~ = o.
A hierarchy of three distinct types of plate elements can be obtained from the
displacement field given in equation (5). The first and simplest type of element is the
first order shear deformation element (or FSD element). This element is formed using
equation (2) for u~SL while ignoring ufW and up. The second type of element is the
layerwise element (LWI) formed using equation (2) for u~SL, equation (4) for utW,
u~W and u3 for u~W, while ignoring up. If delaminations are present, then up can be
added. To remove the four redundant variables from the composite displacement field,
Ui, Uf, U~ and U~ are set to zero or simply ignored. The LWI element assumes a
state of zero transverse normal stress and thus does not explicitly account for transverse
normal strain. This is implicitly achieved by using a reduced constitutive matrix
similar to the FSD element. The LWI element provides discrete layer transverse shear
effects, unlike the simple gross transverse shear applicable to thick laminates and often
yields results comparable to 3-D finite elements while using approximately two thirds
the number of degrees of freedom. The third and most complex element is the
layerwise element (or LW2 element) formed using equation (4) for all three components
of the displacement vector. If delaminations are present, then up can be added. To
remove the five redundant variables, Ui, Uf, U~, U~ and U~ are set to zero. The LW2
element explicitly accounts for all six strain components in a kinematically correct
manner, i.e., the in-plane strains are C1-continuous through the thickness while the
transverse strains are CO-continuous through the thickness. The inclusion of the full
154
layerwise field provides the LW2 element with both discrete layer transverse shear
effects and discrete layer transverse normal effects. The LW2 element uses a full
constitutive matrix and is equivalent in accuracy to a stack of conventional,
displacement-based, 3-D finite elements.
Note that the various element types are created by hierarchically adding variables
to the basic first order shear deformation field. Since all three element types contain
the first order shear deformation variables of equation (2), these different types of
elements can easily be simultaneously connected together in the same computational
domain by simply setting certain layerwise variables of equation (4) to zero along the
incompatible boundary. The hierarchical nature of the variable kinematic elements
allows inter-element compatibility to be achieved by simply enforcing homogeneous
boundary conditions on the in-plane layerwise variables along any boundary that
separates a FSD region from a LWI or LW2 region. A significant advantage afforded
by the variable kinematic elements is that once the in-plane mesh is defined, the user
can then assign any of the three element types to any of the elements in the 2-D mesh.
Subsequent changes in the type of any element or group of elements can be performed
with minimal effort.
4.3 Finite Element Mesh Superposition
The use of hierarchical, variable kinematic, finite elements provides a convenient

means of simultaneously discretizing subregions of a single computational domain using
different mathematical models. Thus, the analyst can use the most appropriate
mathematical model for each subregion of the domain. However, the efficiency of a
simultaneous multiple model analysis based solely on variable kinematic elements is still
strongly dependent on a priori knowledge of the locations of subregions that require the
more accurate and expensive LW1 or LW2 elements. This limitation is due to the
requirement that the in-plane discretizations of adjacent subregions must be compatible
across subregion boundaries. The removal of this restriction would result in a very
general, robust composite model. In keeping with the hierarchical modeling philosophy
of the previous section, the finite element mesh superposition technique used by Fish
[105] and Fish and Markolefas [106] is chosen as the means to remove the strong
dependence of initial mesh topology upon multiple model solution efficiency.
The mesh superposition method is an adaptive refinement technique that creates

refined areas within a finite element mesh by superimposing independent, refined
meshes, called overlay meshes, on the original mesh. No changes are made to the
original mesh during the superposition process. The mesh superposition method is
adaptive in the sense that the size, shape and ultimate location of the overlay mesh can
be based on the solution obtained with the original mesh alone. The overlay mesh and
the original mesh need not have compatible discretization, thus the overlay mesh can be
used to provide enhanced interpolation capability precisely where it is most needed,
regardless of the original mesh topology.
To illustrate the mesh superposition idea, consider the two-dimensional,

displacement-based, finite element model of an elastic solid shown in Figure 2. The
original coarse mesh occupies a region RO with boundary So (i.e., the rectangle ABeD).
Assume that a solution obtained WIth the eriginal 4 x 3 mesh indicates high
displacement gradients in a subregion Rl enclosed by boundary SI (i.e., the
quadrilateral region EFGD). An independent overlay mesh is then constructed
corresponding to the subregion Rl and this overlay mesh is superimposed on the original
mesh to form a composite mesh. The total displacement field for the resulting
composite mesh is then defined as follows.
155
Global Mesh
B c
Independent
Overlay Mesh
JI
F G
fb J ...
L
f\
A E 0
Composite Mesh
B c
RO F / I , G
/ II / J
/ IRt
/ / I
/ / I ,
A E o
Figure 2 - Finite element mesh superposition showing a coarse 4 x 3 global mesh and an
independent 5 x 5 overlay mesh (shaded).
u = uO+u1 in Rl (within EFGD) (7)

and
u = uO in Ro - Rl (within ABCGFE) (8)
In equations (7) and (8), u is the total displacement field, uO is the displacement field
interpolated on the original 4 x 3 mesh, and u 1 is the additional displacement field
interpolated on the 5 x 5 overlay mesh. Note that u 1 serves as an incremental
enhancement to the global solution within region R l . A new solution is then computed
based on the composite displacement field and thus permits an enhanced representation
of the solution within subregion R l . Note that the process of forming a composite mesh
does not require altering the original mesh. An important consequence of the multiple
displacement fields is that the original mesh and the overlay mesh need not have
compatible discretizations along the boundary Sl' since CO-continuity of the
displacements across SI is imposed by prescribing homogeneous essential boundary
conditions on the additional displacement field u l :
u l = 0 on SI ¢. So (along EFG) (9)

156
Homogeneous essential boundary conditions on the ul are not required along the
boundary SI C So (i.e., along EDG) unless EDG happens to be part of a Dirichlet
boundary for the problem as a whole. By circumventing the mesh compatibility
requirement along SI' a tremendous amount of freedom is provided for the construction
of the overlay mesh, and the adaptive refinement process can proceed in an optimal
manner regardless of the original mesh topology.
To illustrate the utility of the variable kinematic finite elements, consider the
cylindrical bending of a cantilever plate by a surface bonded piezoelectric actuator
shown in Figure 3(a). The objective of the analysis is to determine the transverse
Piezoelectric
Adhesive
z , - - - - Local Region of Interest
y
Aluminum
4 in.
10 in. ----------------~
Piezoelectric thickness = 0.2 in., Actuation strain = 0.001

Adhesive thickness =0.01 in.
(a) Schematic of cantilever plate
A B
I I
D Global Region, 8 FSD elements
Local Region, 13 LW2 elements

4 layers through piezoelectric
3 layers through adhesive
4 al yers through aluminum
(b) Finite element mesh used to model the plate with a surface bonded piezoelectric
actuator
Figure 3 - Cylindrical bending of a cantilever plate with a surface bonded piezoelectric

actuator (strain induced in the actuator = - 10 - 3).
157
stresses in the thin adhesive layer near the end of the actuator. The local region of
interest, where significant 3-D stresses are expected, is shown in Figure 3(b). In order
to capture these local 3-D stresses while maintaining an overall economical solution, the
majority of the plate is discretized using FSD elements while the local region of interest
is discretized using LW2 elements, see Figure 3(b). Displacement continuity is
maintained along boundaries AA and BB by zeroing the incremental layerwise degrees
of freedom along these two lines. The size of the local region needed to accurately
compute the stresses near the end of the actuator must be determined by gradually
enlarging this region until the solution (stresses) are smooth across boundaries AA and
BB. The LW2 elements used to discretize the local region contain four layers through
the aluminum substrate, three layers through the adhesive, and four layers through the
piezoelectric actuator. The in-plane discretization is very refined near the end of the
actuator and quickly becomes coarse as boundaries AA and BB are approached. Figure
4 shows the computed transverse stresses in the center of the adhesive laver versus y.
20000
- ~z
15000
-
"00
C.
f /)
-
f/)
....
Q)
(f)
10000
5000
0
~
)
~~
-5000
-10000
3 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4
Y(in)
Figure 4 - Distribution of transverse stresses along the center of the adhesive layer near
the free edge of the actuator, as determined using a mesh of variable kinematic finite
elements.
Several points of interest should be noted. First, both of the transverse stresses
approach zero as the global/local boundary AA is approached (i.e., as y decreases
toward 3.0); this suggests that the size of the local region is sufficient to capture all of
the free edge stresses near the end of the actuator. Second, the transverse shear stress
appears to satisfy the traction free boundary conditions at the free edge of the actuator
and adhesive. Third, a significant transverse normal stress exists in the adhesive layer
near the free edge of the actuator. This transverse normal stress is of particular concern
since many adhesives are relatively weak in tension. It is also interesting to note that if
this problem is solved using FSD elements only, then both the transverse shear stress
and transverse normal stress are predicted to be zero over the entire domain.
4.4 Integration of Variable Kinematic Elements and Mesh Superposition
A hierarchical, simultaneous multiple model method (or HSMM method) is

proposed here for the broad spectrum analysis of laminated composite structures. The
158
HSMM is developed by merging the variable kinematic element concept with the mesh
superposition technique. In particular, variable kinematic finite elements are used to
form the independent overlay meshes that are superimposed on a global mesh of
conventional 2-D ESL laminate elements. In this merger, the variable kinematic
elements permit different sections of the computational domain to be described by
different types of mathematical models, while the mesh superposition method permits
the coupling of sub domains that are incompatible with respect to in-plane mesh
discretization.
By using variable kinematic elements to form the overlay meshes, any subregion
can then be overlaid with a refined mesh of FSD elements, LWI elements, LW2
elements, or any combination of these three element types. The resulting HSMM is
completely coupled and can be directly extended to both dynamic and nonlinear
analysis. This integrated method affords the analyst a tremendous amount of flexibility
and convenience. A single computer code implementing this HSMM would be capable
of analyzing a vast majority of the problems in the composite laminate modeling
spectrum.
To illustrate the potential usefulness of combining the variable kinematic element

concept with the mesh superposition technique, consider the composite plate with
central cutout shown in Figure 5. Point A occurs not only on a free edge, but also at a
Figure 5 - Laminated composite plate with central cut-out subjected to in-plane tension.
The shaded region denotes the computational domain.
sharp corner. Assume that the objective of the global-local analysis is to accurately
determine the 3-D stress field in the neighborhood of point A. Figure 6 shows how one
might go about achieving this goal by using variable kinematic elements alone. The
variable kinematic elements allow the computational domain to be described by a
hierarchy of model types, with the LW2 elements concentrated in the immediate
neighborhood of point A. However, the in-plane mesh discretization must be
compatible throughout the entire computational domain. Therefore to achieve an
economical solution, the finite element model requires a 2-D transition zone to allow
159
o ESL elements
!!i.i'l LWI elements
7~V
f'.. l -i---
V 1= f=
k
V r---- r--
)
r\ /'-
Figure 6 - Finite element mesh composed of variable kinematic elements. An

enlargement of the highly refined area shows the different element types used.
connection of the coarse and refined regions. These transition zones are troublesome for
the following reasons:
• The mesh for transition zones is more difficult to generate than the more
regularly discretized regions, thus complicating the mesh generation process.
• Transition zones often result in highly distorted elements, possibly causing

numerical difficulties.
• Transition zones often result in excessive discretization for noncritical regions,

thus wasting computational resources.
• Transition zones greatly reduce the adaptability of the model since the entire
finite element mesh has to be reformed each time the local region of interest is changed.
Figure 7 shows the approach that one might take using both variable kinematic
elements and mesh superposition. In Figure 7, a highly refined, local overlay mesh of
variable kinematic elements is superimposed on a very coarse global mesh of ESL plate
elements. Note that both Figures 6 and 7 have the same degree of refinement in the
immediate neighborhood of point a. The important difference is that the two-
dimensional transition zone is not needed in Figure 7, since the mesh superposition
method does not require in-plane mesh discretization compatibility along the global-
local boundary. Consequently, multiple localized subregions of interest can be analyzed
without ever changing the global mesh. An independent local overlay mesh can be
created for each new local area of interest.
In recently reported applications of the mesh superposition method [105,106], both

the global mesh and the superimposed local mesh use finite elements based on the same
type of mathematical model. In contrast, the proposed application of the mesh
superposition method involves superimposing an independent, overlay mesh of variable
kinematic elements on an existing global mesh of ESL laminate elements. The resulting
finite element model allows abrupt changes in in-plane mesh discretization and abrupt
changes in mathematical model type. The local overlay mesh of variable kinematic
160
r---
o ESL elements
liE! LWI elements
• LW2 elements
1=
~ ~
=
-
-
-
Figure 7 - Composite mesh formed by superimposing an independent overlay mesh of
variable kinematic finite elements on a global mesh of ESL elements.
elements can include ESL elements, LWI elements, LW2 elements, or any combination
of these three types. Displacement continuity between the global mesh and the local
overlay mesh is maintained by simply enforcing homogeneous essential boundary
conditions along the global-local boundary. This process can easily be automated, thus
providing a very convenient alternative to the traditionally troublesome transition zones
or multipoint constraints.
To illustrate the utility of combining the variable kinematic element concept with
the mesh superposition technique, consider once again the example problem shown in
Figure 3(a). Figure 8 shows the global mesh, the local overlay mesh and the resulting
composite mesh used to solve this problem. The global mesh is a coarse uniform mesh
of ten FSD elements. To capture the local 3-D stress field in the adhesive layer near
the end of the actuator, an independent local overlay mesh of thirteen LW2 layerwise
elements are used. The LW2 elements used to form the overlay mesh contain four
layers through the aluminum substrate, three layers through the adhesive, and four
layers through the piezoelectric actuator. The local overlay mesh is superimposed over
the fourth and fifth global elements to achieve the composite mesh. The composite
mesh shown in Figure 8 has the exact same interpolating capability as the mesh shown
in Figure 3. Thus, it is not surprising that the solution obtained from the composite
mesh of Figure 8 is exactly the same as the previous solution obtained using variable
kinematic elements only; therefore, the results are not repeated here. The advantage of
the present model over the previous model is that the same global mesh can be used in
the investigation of many different local regions of interest. For each new local region
of interest, an independent local overlay mesh of variable kinematic elements is formed
and superimposed on the global mesh. Since the global and overlay meshes need not be
compatible, the effectiveness of the global/local analysis is not strongly tied to the
global mesh topology.
Although the HSMM has been shown to be particularly convenient and efficient for
local stress analysis, the model can also be used to improve the analysis of global
response. For example, most of the models used to study the automatic control aspects
of structural component/actuator systems to date are simple ESL type models. While
these simple ESL models are often adequate to represent the global deformation of thin
161
Global Mesh 10 first order shear deformable elements

63 degrees of freedom
13 layerwise finite elements

4 layers through piezoelectric
3 layers through adhesive
4 layers through aluminum
Layers highly refined near adhesive,
and coarse elewhere.
648 degrees of freedom.
Composite Mesh
I I I I IIII1111 I I I I
Figure 8 - Finite element mesh superposition showing the coarse global mesh of FSD
elements, the independent overlay mesh of LW2 elements, and resulting composite
mesh.
laminates, they fail to accurately represent the manner in which forces are applied to
the structure by surface bonded or embedded actuators. By adding discrete layer shear
effects to the model in the immediate neighborhood of each actuator, one can obtain a
much more accurate representation of the shearing forces applied to the structure by
the actuator. Thus the accuracy of a forced vibration analysis can be increased with a
minimal increase in cost.
5. Conclusions
The variable kinematic elements provide a great degree of flexibility in defining the
transverse (through thickness) variation of the assumed displacement field. In addition,
the methodology is robust, economical, and accurate in providing detailed local stress
fields, determining failure modes, and modeling delaminations. The computational
procedure can also be used to gain insight into the local mechanics aspects of fiber-
reinforced composite laminates, study progressive failures, and assess the reliability of
laminated composite structures with surface mounted or embedded actuators.
The hierarchical, simultaneous multiple mode~ (HSMM) method permits selected

subregions in a composite laminate to be conveniently discretized with an independent
refined overlay mesh composed of FSD, LWl, and/or LW2 elements. Due to the
independent nature of the local overlay mesh, the integrated method allows several
different local regions of interest to be accurately and conveniently investigated
regardless of the original global mesh topology. Within the scope of composite laminate
162
analysis, the potential applications of the proposed HSMM method are numerous since
it is applicable to both linear and nonlinear, and static and dynamic analyses, and to
practical laminate problems with material and geometric discontinuities, embedded
actuators, and problems with high gradient regions or regions with 3-D stress states.
Acknowledgements
The research reported herein was supported by the Army Research Office through
Grant DAAL03-90-G-0134 and the Water Ways Experiment Station through Grant
DACA39-93-C-0036.
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SOME ASPECTS IN THE STRUCTURAL MODELLING OF COMPOSITE
LAMINATES
D. Bruno and R. Zinno
Department of Structural Engineering, University of Calabria,

Cosenza, Italy
The paper deals with the nonlinear behavior of laminated composite plates.
Material and geometrical nonlinearities are considered to analyze their bending, buckling
and postbuckling behavior. Delamination failure in plates are also discussed using a
numerical approach.
A three dimensional element with two-dimensional constraints is presented for the

linear analysis of laminated composites.
1. Introduction
The advent of new types of composite materials and their increasing use in many
branches of advanced technology has led to great interest in the development of theories
for modelling anisotropic composite structure behavior [1-3J. These materials can be
highly stressed and deformed. Their configuration change necessitates the use of
nonlinear theories for estimating the load carrying capability. The design of bimodulus
material requires special attention because the choice of elastic moduli depends on the
sign of the working strains.
Geometric and material nonlinearities are accounted for as in the moderate rotation
theory taking into account more nonlinear terms than in the Von Karman theory and
the fiber-governed model [IJ. Rotational effect is consistent with the first-order shear
deformation plate theory which is applied to analyze bending, buckling and
post buckling behavior of laminates. The formulation makes use of the variational
principle in conjunction with the finite element method where a suitable iterative
method is applied to solve the system of nonlinear algebraic equations. Discussed are
the spreading of delamination [4,5J. Comparisons are made with solutions obtained
from fracture mechanics for relative geometries.
To overcome the limitations of the equivalent single layer theories and to improve
the solution, particularly regarding the stress distribution, Layer-Wise Constant Shear
(LWCS) theories were advanced [6-9J so as to increase the degrees of freedom per node.
A new element for the analysis of laminated plates was developed [10J starting from the
formulation developed for three dimensional shell elements [11] and using the kinematic
constraints of LWCS. The objective of developing this special element is to reduce the
degrees of freedom of the conventional 3D continuum elements. With this element, the
imposition of the boundary conditions, loads, etc., has a very simple physical
interpretation and can model a variable number of layers (ply drop-off) and variable
thickness such as tapered glued-laminates.
2. Plate Model
Consider a laminate with "n" orthotropic layers and total thickness h as shown in
Figure 1. The coordinate system x· (j = 1,2,3) lies in the mid-plane n with the x3-axis
directed in the thickness direction. J
171
172
Let the displacement field be denoted by u = (ul,u2,u3) so that the strains e·· and
rotations Wij are given by Ij
e··Ij = -21 (u.l,j+uj,I'

.. ) w··
Ij
= -21 (u ..
l,j
-u·j,1.) (1)
Figure 1 - Multilayered plate.
in which comma denotes differentiation with respect to the coordinate variable. The
local rotations about the Xj (j = 1,2) axes are assumed to be greater than that about the
x3-axis such that their orders of magnitude as compared with the strains can be
summarized: for IJ«I:
eij = O(IJ 2 ), wa{3 = O(IJ 2 ), wa3 = O(IJ), for a,{3 = 1,2 (2)
where ij = 1,2,3.
2.1 Displacement and Strain Field
A consistent displacement field based on the assumptions in equations (2) takes the
form
(3)
which is consistent with the first order shear deformation plate theory. The quantity
uO (xl,x2) is the displacements of the midplane, n the normal to the mid-plane and W2
the approximate finite rotation tensor given by W2 = W+l/2W2. Here W is the
infinitesimal rotation skew tensor with W 13 = <PI and W 23 = <P2' where <PI (xl ,x2) and
<P2(xl,x2) are the rotations about the x2- and xl-axes of the line elements orthogonal to
the midplane, respectively. It follows that equation (3) becomes [12)
ul(xl,x2,x3) = uy + x3<Pl
u2(Xl,X2,X3) = u~ + x3'P2 (4)
u3(xl,x2,x3) = u~ - ! x3 [<pI+<p~l
173
The Green-Lagrange finite strain tensor approximated to the order 0(03 ) has the
following components (, = 1,2):
£U = uY,l + ! U~~l + x3('P1, 1 - 'P,'P" 1UK 1) = £Y1 + X3£h

f22 -_ u2,2
0 + 120u3,2
2 + x3 ('P2,2 - 'P,'P" 2u 0
3, 2) _
- 0
f22+ x3 f22
1
f33 = 0
(5)
2f12 = UY,2 + U~,l + UK1U~,2 + X3('P1,2+'P2,1-'P,'P"2U~,1-'P,'P,,lU~,2)
= £Y2 + x3 f12
2f13 = 'PI + u~, 1 + 'P,U~, 1 - ! uK l'P,'P, = fY3

2f23 = 'P2 + U~, 2 + 'P,U~, 2 - ! U~, 2'P,'P, = f~3
where £0 and £1 denote the constant and the linear parts of the strain tensor referred to
the thickness coordinate, respectively. From equation (5), f33 = o. This means that
the line orthogonal to the mid-plane does not change length.
2.2 Variational Formulation
The total potential energy <p of an elastic plate can be expressed as
with (1' being the symmetric second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor. In equation (6), qi
and ma denote the distributed load and couples acting on the mid-plane n, t· and C a the
distributed load and couples acting on the boundary an of the midplane. 1
The variational form of the equilibrium equation is obtained applying the

stationary condition to the function in equation (6):
Jn {(Na,8+N,83'Pa)ou~,,8 + [Na,8u~,,8-Ma,8'P,'P,,,8+Na3(1 - ! 'P,'P,)lou~,a

+ [Na3(oa,+u~,a -'P,uKa) - Ma,8u~,a'P",8lo'P,
+ Ma,8(oa,-u~,a'P,)o'P",8}dn = J n (qioui+mao'Pa)dn
+ Jan (tioui+ca°'Pa)dS (7)

where the stress resultants are defined as:
h/2
(N,M) = J (1,x3)(1'dx3 (8)
-h/2
The plate contains several laminae with fibers arbitrarily oriented with respect to the
axes Xl' x2 as presented in Figure 1. For the kth lamina of the plate, the constitutive
relation is
(9)
174
where C~k) is the fourth-order elasticity tensor given by

C (k) T C-(k)T- 1 (10)
l = (k) l (k)
where T(k) is the rotation matrix and C~k) is the lamina's fourth-order elasticity tensor
referred to the natural coordinate (1,2,3) in which 1 is the fiber direction and 3 is in the
thickness direction. Moreover, the index € refers to compressive (e=I) or tensile (€=2)
properties of the bimodular material lamina, depending on the sign of the fiber's
elongation [1].
The constitutive equations for the whole laminate can be expressed in terms of
stress resultants and displacement components. Making use of equations (5), (8) and
(9), the in-plane and bending tensors are obtained:
N = A{o+B{t, M = B{o+F{l (11)
The constitutive tensors A, B, Fare
h/2
(A,B,F) = f (l,x3,x~)Cdx3 (12)
-h/2
and not known as an a priori because they depend on the laminate deformation.
3. Delamination Model
3.1 Interlaminar Spring
Let the adhesion between layers be modelled by elastic springs with finite tensile
strength [4,5]. The spring force r is assumed to be a function of the spring elongation w
such that r(w) = k(w).w, Figure 2. The spring stiffness k(w) is given by
k if w ~ Wo
k(w) ={ (13)
o if w>wo
where k is a positive constant.
Figure 2 - Spring response.
3.2 Adhesion Energy
The delamination of layered isotropic plates containing an initial unbonded region

is considered. Assume that the delamination occurs when the limit strain energy in
tension Uo = 1/2kw~ equals the surface adhesion energy r, i.e., U o = r. It follows that
175
wo = ~2~O = ~ (14)
The total potential energy of the plate is then given by

h/2
¢, = tjJ + ~ f f 0 k(w)w2dOdx3 (15)
-h/2
In equation (15), the second term on the right is a term that represents the strain
energy of the interlaminar elastic springs.
4. Finite Element Approximations and Numerical Results
This section is concerned with the bending, buckling and delamination behavior of
laminates. The finite element method is applied by using the Lagrangian CO-elements.
4.1 Two-Dimensional Model
The region 0 of the mid-plane of the plate is divided into a finite number of
isoparametric elements. Over each element the generalized displacements
(u~,u~,u~'\Ol'\02) are interpolated as
N N N N
u~ = .
L u?f.;
I I
u~ = .
L u~.f.;
I I
u~ = .
L u03I·fl·; \01 = .
L \Oll· fi;
1=1 1=1 1=1 1=1
N
\02 = .L \02·I f I. (16)
1=1
where u?i' u~i' u~i' \Oli and \02i are the unknown values of these functions at the N
global nodes of the mesh and f· are the global interpolation functions. The governing
equations in their discretized folms are
K(v)v = f= AI (17)
where K(v) is the stiffness matrix, v the nodal values of the generalized displacements
000
( uli,u and \02i ) and f = Af- the nodal force vector with -f being a reference
i,u i'\Oli
2 3
external load and A a scalar load parameter.
Equation (17) is used to analyze the nonlinear bending and post buckling behavior
of laminated plates. Due to the strong geometrical and material nonlinearities in
equation (17), occurring in the postbuckling analysis of bimodular plates, a suitable
iterative method must be used to solve equation (17). In our analysis, we will use the
arc-length Riks method as shown in Figure 3.
Equations governing the incremental solution (~,A~) at the nth load step and at
the rth iteration can be written as [13-14]:
~ = vn-1 + Ll~ = vn-1 + 6~-1 + 6~

(18)
A~ = An _ 1 + LlA~ = An _ 1 + 6A~ - 1 + 6A~
Note that
176
(19)
and
Figure 3 - Arc-length procedure and notation for one degree of freedom system.
(20)
In equations (19), a, band c stand for
a = 6rn . 6rn
b = 26m . (llYn - 1 + Wn) (21 )
c = (Llv{;.-l+Wn). (Llv{;.-l+Wn)
The quantity K(v{;.-l) is the tangent stiffness matrix and (vn-l,An_l) the solution at
the (n-1)th load step. Moreover, equations (19) are subjected to the constraint:
(22)
where Lls n is a chosen value of the arc-length at the nth load step.
As far as the buckling analysis is concerI).ed, the total potential energy ¢ can be
expressed in the form ¢(U,A) = w(u) - APU, where w(u) is the strain energy and A a
scalar load parameter. The reference external loads are p. The variational equation
governing the buckling [15,16] with the use of equations (16) can then be written in
discrete form:
(23)
177
where AC is the buckling load parameter, Vo represents the prebuckling displacements,

vl is the buckling mode and Hij is the tangential stiffness matrix evaluated along the
prebuckling equilibrium path.
Buckling of Bimodular Plate. Consider the buckling and post buckling of bimodular
laminate with cross-ply (0"/90°/90%°); it is square in shape and subjected to uniaxial
compression N as shown in Figure 4. Refer to Table 1 for the material properties.
o
0000000
Figure 4 - Cross-ply (0"/90°/90%°) simply supported square plate under uniaxial

compression N.
Table 1 - Material properties
Aramid-Rubber Polyester-Rubber
Properties Tensile Compressive Tensile Compressive
Ed GPa) 3.5842 0.0120 0.617 0.0369

E2-(GPa) 0.00909 0.0120 0.008 0.0106
G I2 -(GPa) 0.0037 0.0037 0.00262 0.00267
G I3 -(GPa) 0.0037 0.0037 0.00262 0.00267
G 23-(GPa) 0.0029 0.00499 0.00233 0.00475
vl2 0.416 0.205 0.475 0.185
The load N is in the xraxis that is collinear with the fibers on the top and bottom
of the plate. For the bimodular material, the buckling loads depend on the elastic
constants assumed on the prebuckling path VO(A). Table 2 gives the buckling loads for
Aramid-Rubber and Polyester-Rubber material plates for the following two cases:
• unimodular material characterized by the compressive elastic constants in both
directions Xl and x2' and
• unimodular material with compressive elastic constants in the xrdirection
(uniaxial load N action) and tensile elastic constants in the x2-direction.
Influence of the elastic properties on buckling can be observed. It involves the

imperfection sensitivity and the maximum load carrying capacity of the structure. This
behavior is seen in Figure 5 where the dimensionless maximum transverse displacement
versus the uniaxial dimensionless load is plotted for a plate with an initial geometric
imperfection 11 = 6o /h, 60 being the initial central deflection of the unloaded plate.
Also, in these figures, the Cases (a) and (b) previously cited are considered together
178
with the Case (c) of bimodular material. The buckling loads obtained for Cases (b) and
Table 2 - Cross-ply (0"/90°/90%°) simply supported square plate under uniaxial (xl-
direction) compression N: dimensionless buckling loads Nc = Nca 2 /Ef h 3
Aramid Rubber Polyester Rubber

a/h Case (a) Case(b) Case (a) Case(b)
5 2.782236 4.664869 3.780956 4.685104

10 3.009045 8.925880 4.561016 8.788779
20 3.078510 11.597462 4.798797 10.034190
40 3.106815 13.011716 4.882096 10.436747
100 3.120015 13.749019 4.928847 10.634080
20,---------------------------~--70 10,--------------------------------,
,
N
,,
, ,,
,,
15 [ a/h (~)/'
/
/
/
/
(a).... /
10
(c) /
/
I a/h
II" = 0.01 I
5
0/,90/,90/,0°
Polyester-Rubber Polyester-Rubber
Figure 5 - Cross-ply simply-supported square plate under uniaxial compression Nand

with an initial geometric imperfection J.l = bo/h: Dimensionless maximum transverse
deflection W = u~max/h versus dimensionless load N = Na2 /Ef h 3 •
(c) are very close, as can be expected, while the post-buckling behavior is quite
different. For the bimodular material case, a snapping phenomenon can be observed.
In fact, when the plate buckles and bends, the fibers in the x3-direction are partially
elongated and partially shortened; then the compressive elastic action in the xT
direction comes into play and consequently the stiffness of the laminate decreases.
When the bending of the plate increases, tractions in the layers at the bottom of the
plate are activated and the structure starts to stiffen. In Figure 5(b), the influence of
the geometric imperfections on the limit point loads is shown for the same
179
W/900/900/00) plate in Case (c) of bimodular material. It can be observed that the
computed limit loads for the bimodular plate with decreasing values of the initial
geometric imperfection 60 tends toward the buckling load for the Case (b) of a perfect
structure.
Central Region Delamination. The delamination analysis for the two-dimensional

finite element model is governed by equation (16). The stationary ~ondition of the
functional in equation_(15) leads to th~ discrete e~uilibrium equation K(v)v = f where
the stiffness matrix K is given by K = K+K where K* represents the stiffness
contribution of the interlaminar elastic springs. This matrix depends on the
displacement solution v due to the nonlinear ,!Jehavior of the springs in equation (13).
Therefore, the nonlinear equilibrium equation K(v)v = v must be solved by an iterative
procedure. At the nth iteration step, the updated matrix K*(n) is assumed to be as:
K~,(n)
IJ
= E NE
N
kP(Gn )f.(Xle)f.(X2e)
1 J
(24)
e G
where Ne is the number of elements; NG the number of Gauss points of the eth
element; and p~) the Gaussian weight W G at the point (xle,x2e) for the (n-1)th step if
wn - 1 ~ w 0 while Pc: = 0 if wn - 1 > Wo'
Let a symmetric two-layered plate of length L be subjected to the uniaxial tensile

stress (j. An initial defect of length Eo has an opening fo such that f = fo/ Eo. It can be
modelled by a single layer resting on a nonlinear elastic Winkler foundation of stiffness
k(w). Refer to Figure 6 for the plate configuration. The buckling of the delaminated
plate is governed by the equations [4]:
(25)
The buckling pressure (j c corresponds to a single layer plate of length E which is the
current length of the delaminated zone. In equations (25), et = 4r /7r 2(jc while eto =
4r/7r2(jco with (jco = 47r2D/E~ being the local buckling load and D = Eh3 /12(1-1I 2).
The coefficient p accounts for the work done by the forces due to the imperfection on
buckling and 6 = w( E/2)/ E stands for the normalized central deflection of the
delaminated plate of length E. The parameter f3 depends on 6, the adhesion energy r
and geometric imperfection.
Displayed in Figure 6 are results for a plate with geometric imperfection ( = 0.01
and without if ( = O. Good agreement is found between the analytical and numerical
results for high values of the penalty parameter T = kE6/D.
Corner Delamination. A symmetric isotropic two-layer plate with an initial

square bonding defect of side Eo = OA 1 is subjected to transverse applied load F, Figure
7(a). The FEM element analysis is applied to evaluate the load deflection relationship
and the evolution of the opening front. The Finite Element mesh corresponds to the
initial square bonding de~ct of side Eo is shown in Figure 7(b) in which N~ = 10 and El
~ SA with A = (4D/k)1 4. The results obtained are shown in Figure 7tc) where the
quantities W, L* and Q are defined as
(26)
180
1.0 + - - - - - '00
---, iifjJ~Bij
~
----"-
0.8
"
" "
0.6 "
analytical solution - -
... = 10
14
0.4
finite element solution I0" 10 = '0
(,00.01) " .. = 10 6
Q2
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
Figure 6 - Dimensionless central transverse deflection w / eo versus dimensionless applied

load u/uco and delamination parameter (" = e/eo -1.
(a) Plate scheme (b) Finite Element (c) Evolution of the

discretization opening front
Figure 7 - Delamination of a two-layer square plate.

181
4.2 Three Dimensional Model
Let each layer (or subset of layers) of the laminated composite plate shown in
Figure 1 be discretized by the three dimensional elements. Pairs of points, i top and
ibottom' each given in Cartesian coordinates, prescribe the shape of the element. If
(~,1j,() vary between -1 and 1 on the respective faces of the element, a relationship
between the Cartesian coordinate of any point of the plate and the elemental coordinate
can be written in the form, Figure 8:
~
0L:=!1
-1 0 1
~= 1
~",,~--
............... <-'---,L----,--"'::;"
•
---i0" ~
o 2 dof
• 3 dof
.11-(_"/_'
·-::_-•• = -1
Figure 8 - The three dimensional Layer-Wise Constant Shear element.
+ () { x 11. }
L +L
Xl } _ (1 _ (1 _ () { x 11. }
{ x2 = Ni(~,1j) - 2 - x 2i Ni(~,1j) - 2 - x 2i (27)
~ ~ ~
top bottom
where Ni(~,1j) is a function taking a value of unity at the node i and zero at all other
nodes. The displacement {u} = {UI,U2,U3}T inside an element is given by
{u} = [x]{.s} (28)

where {.s} is the collection of the nodal {.s.} {u l i;u 2i;u3i}T. The interpolation
functions are equal for uI' u2 and u3: 1
(29)
where N is the number of the nodes and N. = N.(~,1j,(). The order of the interpolation
functions N. along the two directions oft the l surface of the plate can be chosen
independently of the order through the thickness. Linear or quadratic interpolation of
the displacements (uI,u2) and the geometry (xI,x2) are commonly used. The order of
approximation in the thickness direction corresponds to different kinematic assumptions
182
in the Layer-Wise Constant Shear Theories. Here a linear variation is used. The
quadratic element has 18 nodes. Nodes 1 to 9 have 3 degrees of freedom (uI,U2,Ug) and
nodes 10 to 18 have 2 degrees of freedom (ul and u2) as shown in Figure 8. The
variables ul and u2 correspond to the in-plane aisplacements at the interfaces between
elements (layers). The transverse deflection Ug is constant through the thickness.
Therefore, a single global node connects all the local ug-nodes that lie on a
perpendicular to the middle surface. The quadratic element has 45 degrees of freedom.
The constitutive equations for the kth layer with orthotropy referred to the global
coordinates are similar to the equations for a monoclinic material. They should be
combined with the two-dimensional reduced stiffness matrix for an orthotropic material
under plane stress to overcome the locking effect produced by the vanishing transverse
strain (fgg) as described in [17]. The inclusion of the rotation matrix leads to equation
(9). Here, only the unimodular materials are considered.
By using the principle of the virtual work, it is possible to write
¢Ie = I Ve {.se}T[B]T[D][B]{.se}dV - IV
e
{.se}T[x]T{p}dVe
- I Se {.se}T[X]T{q}dS e (30)
where Ve is the element volume, Se the elemental loaded surface area, {.se} the vector
of nodal displacements of the element, {p} the volume force vector, {q} the surface
vector, [D] the three dimensional Layer-Wise Constant Shear stiffness matrix and [B]
the linear strain matrix that consists of derivatives of the shape functions with respect
to the coordinates (xI,X2,Xg) and correlating strain and {.se} as:
{f} = [B]{.se} (31 )
The minimization for element e with respect to the nodal displacements {.se} for the
element results in
(32)
where {pe} is the equivalent nodal force vector and [K9 the element stiffness matrix.
The stiffness matrix becomes
(33)
The Layer-Wise Constant Shear constraint is satisfied by virtue of the linearity through
the thickness of the displacements ul and u2 in equation (29). The incompressibility of
the normals is imposed by omitting fgg in the expression of the linear strain matrix.
The numerical integration is performed by Gaussian quadrature. A two point rule

suffices in the ( direction, while a minimum of three or four points in both ~ and 11
directions is needed for parabolic or cubic elements respectively. Reduced integration is
used in the ~ and T} directions for the shear terms. The integration of the element
stiffness matrix is performed as a standard 18-nodes element with three degrees of
freedom per node (uI,U2,Ug) but with the appropriate shape functions .N'. described
previously, Figure 8. TEe transverse deflection Ug is constant through the tbickness of
the element as a result of the incompressibility assumption of omitting fg3 in equations
(30) and (31). Therefore, the degrees of freedom of two nodes aligned through the
183
thickness of an element can be reduced to a single degree of freedom (u3 in the bottom
for example). Otherwise, the stiffness matrix would contain a singularity and no
solution would result.
The element stiffness matrix is rearranged so that the degrees of freedom of the
surface displacements ul and u2 are described by 18 nodes. The remaining degrees of
freedom corresponding to u3-displacements are assigned to a new set of nodes (e.g., 9
nodes) called u3-master nodes in this work. The u3-master nodes are independent of the
original nodes to facilitate the assembly procedure. However, they can be any set of
nodes located at one of the interfaces of the laminate. The location of the ua.-nodes does
not affect the results. The resulting element has 18 nodes with 2 degrees offreedom (ul
and u2) per node plus nine additional nodes with 1 degree of freedom (u3)' If more than
one layer is present in the laminate, the u3 displacements must be equal because of
incompressibility condition. Hence, only one u3-master node is needed. The loads can
be defined in the global coordinate system.
The technique adopted has the following advantages:
• eliminates the need for complex bookkeeping to identify individual sets of

elements stacked to form a laminate;
• allows the front-width of the band-width optimization algorithm to take into

account the thickness direction as well as the surface direction in the search for the
optimum element or node assembly order; and
• eliminates the need for elements with a large number of degrees of freedom that
otherwise results if the assembly through the thickness is performed a priori. This is
particularly useful for implementation in commercial Finite Element Analysis codes.
The constitutive equation (9) (reduced to unimodular materials) are used to obtain
all six components of stress at the reduced Gauss points. The distribution of in-plane
stresses 0"11' 0"22 and 0"12 is linear through the thickness. The distribution of inter-
laminar stresses 0"13 and 0"23 is layer-wise constant. All components of stress obtained at
the integration pOints can be extrapolated to the nodes using the procedure described in
[18]. Selective reduced integration is used on the shear-related terms. The three
dimensional Layer-Wise Constant Shear element reduces to the First order Shear
Deformation Plate Theory when only one element is used through the thickness.
Therefore, the behavior of the 9-node Lagrangian First order Shear Deformation Plate
Theory element with selective reduced integration, free of shear locking, is also present
in the proposed element when several three dimensional Layer-Wise Constant Shear
elements are stacked through the thickness. Selective reduced integration on their
Layer-Wise Constant Shear Theory element was also used in [19] with the same
kinematic as a stack of proposed three dimensional elements. As shown in [20], the 9-
node Lagrangian element with selective reduced integration does not exhibit locking as
the plate (or, in this paper, layer) becomes very thin. This is a remarkable advantage
of the proposed elements over conventional 3-D continuum elements with full
integration.
The three dimensional Layer-Wise Constant. Shear element gives a very good
representation of all the stress components except 0"-33. without the aspect ratio
limitations of conventional 3-D continuum elements. When transverse stress 0"33. is
needed, either conventional 3-D continuum elements can be used or further
postprocessing can be done using the third equilibrium equation:
184
(34)
Quadratic interlaminar stresses that satisfy the shear boundary conditions at the top
and bottom surfaces of the plate are obtained in this work for laminated plates modelled
with isoparametric elements. An approximation of the shear stress distribution through
each layer with a quadratic function requires 3n equations for each of the shear stresses
(0"13,0"23)' where n is the number of, layers. To obtain these 3n equations, it was
proposed [21] that n equations be used to satisfy the n average shear stresses on each
layer, two equations used to impose vanishing shear stresses at the surface of the plate
(top and bottom), (n -1) equations to satisfy the continuity of the shear stresses at the
interfaces between layers and the remaining (n -1) equations to compute the jump in
0"13 3 (or 0"23 3) at each interface. The average shear stresses on each layer are
computed from the constitutive equations and the displacement field obtained in the
finite element analysis. In this work, the following equilibrium equations
80"13 __ (80"11 + 80"12). 80"23 __ (80"12 + 80"22)
8x3 - 8x! 8x2' 8x3 - 8x1 8x2 (35)
are used to compute 0"13 ..3 and 0"23 3 directly from the finite element analysis
approximation for a curved isoparametric shell element in space. The procedure
requires computation of second derivatives of the displacements (u1,u2,u3)' In this
work, the second derivatives are obtained from the shape functions used in the
isoparametric formulation [17]. Using equation (31), the expressions for the derivatives
of the stresses with respect to Xl and x2' respectively, are given by
(36)
where the matrices [B x1 ] and [Bx2 ] are used for the computation of the second
derivatives of stresses in the same way as the strain-displacement matrix [B] is used for
the computation of stresses. With the second derivatives of stresses, the parabolic
shape of 0"13 and 0"23 through the thickness with respect to the local axes can be
obtained. Then, by knowing the angle between the global axes (xDx2,x3) and the fiber
directions, it is possible to calculate the stresses in the direction of the fifiers and normal
to them, which are needed to study the failure or damage of laminated composite
plates.
Sinusoidal Load on Square Plate. Consider a simply supported (0"/90%°) square

plate LxL under a sinusoidal distributed load:
(37)
where qo is the intensity. The material properties are
E1 = 19.2 x 106 psi; E2 = E3 = 1.56 x 106 psi; G 12 = G 13 = 0.82 x 106 psi;
G23 = 0.523 x 106 psi; 1112 = 1113 = 0.24; 1123 = 0.49 (38)
Owing to the symmetry, only a quarter of the plate is modelled by a 4x4x3 mesh of
three dimensional Layer-Wise Constant Shear elements. Figure 9 shows the dimensions
and the boundary conditions adopted. Figures 10(a) and lO(b) contain the through-the-
thickness distribution of the shear stresses 0"23 and 0"13' respectively. The stresses are
normalized by the relations:
(39)
185
I·
Figure 9 - Scheme used for the computation of the stresses.
1.00 1.00
0.80 0.80
,,
\
0.60
.s:
0.60
, .s: 30lCS
30lCS
""-
N
\
""-
N 30 Exact
0.40 0.40
I
/
0.20 0.20
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50
Shear stress (yz) Shear stress (xz)
(a) Stress 0"23 (b) Stress 0"13

Figure 10 - Shear stresses: comparisons between the finite element results and the three
dimensional exact solution [22,23].
The stresses 0"23 are computed at the point xl = 0 and x2 = a, while 0"13 is computed at
the point xl = a and x2- = O. The broKen lines represent the stress distribution
obtained using the exact 3D solutions [22,23] while the smooth solid lines represent the
stresses obtained using the proposed elements. The results compare well.
Ply Drop-Off. Ply drop-off involves removing certain layers from a composite
186
laminate, i.e., a transition from thick to thin laminates. Obtaining an exact solution of
a finite element analysis of these irregular structures is a major problem. This is
because the thick part has its middle surface at a different location through the
thickness than in the thin part. By using the three dimensional Layer-Wise Constant
Shear element, this problem is overcome because, in comparison to the two-dimensional
analysis, the position of the middle surface is not important for the use of this element.
Figure 11 depicts a beam made of an isotropic material with the mechanical
properties: E = 29000 ksi and v = 0.294. The ply drop-off is modelled by removing one
u1= u2= ua= 0
5 inches
1/6p
14 ~I
1 inch
Figure 11 - Ply drop-off beam example.
element, say number 2, as displayed in the same figure. The Timoshenko beam theory
yields a value of 0.03393 inches for the total transverse displacement while the finite
element result is 0.034846 inches. The three dimensional Layer-Wise Constant Shear
result is larger than the analytical solution because the analytical solution assumes the
two middle surfaces to be coincident, which is not the case in the example.
Transverse Load on Square Plate. Finally, a simply supported square plate

subjected to a point load and a clamped square plate subject to uniformly distributed
transverse load are analyzed to compare the results with those obtained from the
commercial program NISA II. The mechanical properties of the material are the same
as those in the ply drop-off problem. The plate configuration and boundary conditions
are shown in Figure 12. The results are reported in Tables 3 and 4 for two ratios of
a/h. The elements used in NISA II are described by these parameters: NISA 3D:
brick elements with 20 nodes, NKTP = 4, NORDR = 2; NISA 2D: two dimensional
thick and thin shell elements with 8 nodes, NKTP = 20, NORDR = 2.
The exact solution, obtained by the Classical Plate Theory, is also reported [24]. It
is clear that the proposed solution is closest to the analytical one when the structure is
thin where the Classical Plate Theory is valid. When the plate is thin, the solution
obtained using the brick elements of NISA II is very different from the other two
solutions. This indicates the well known effect of the ill-conditioned equations discussed
in [11] due to the f33 different from zero. The proposed element is a solid element, but
187
mesh 6x6x(1) (aDLCS, NISA2D, NISAaD)
U1= U a= 0 on the sides parallel to x 1

u 2= u a= 0 on the sides parallel to x 2
~ ________________~I Po
I
U 1= u 2 = u a= 0 onallsides
Figure 12 - Isotropic plates used in the comparisons between NISA II and the proposed
three dimensional Layer-Wise Constant Shear elements.
Table 3 - Central deflection of a simply supported isotropic square plate under point
load. CPT solution [24J: 0.001159{Pa2)/D; D = (Eh3 )/{12{1-v2))
a/h NISA 3D NISA 2D 3DLCS CPT
100 4.06331 4.36106 4.3919 4.38133

10 5.01545e-3 5.0579ge-3 4.4028e-3
Table 4 - Central deflection of a simply supported isotropic square plate under

uniformly distributed load. CPT solution [24J: 0.00126{Poa4 )/D; D =
(Eh3 )/{12{1 _ v 2 ))
a/h NISA 3D NISA 2D 3DLCS CPT
100 0.36866 0.45717 0.48006 0.47631

10 5.13700e-4 5.68437e-4 5.6896e-4
the condition that {33 is omitted, overcoming the ill-conditioned equations. When the
structure becomes thIck, the three solutions are not very different, and the proposed
element is more deformable which takes better account of the shear effects.
5. Conclusions
Bending, buckling and post-buckling behavior of moderately thick laminated
composite plates have been analyzed. Both geometrical and material nonlinearities are
accounted for. In particular, the geometrical nonlinearity is considered by making use
of moderate rotation theory, while the material nonlinearity, due to the different
response of the material under compressive or tensile loading, has been taken into
account by using the fiber-governed model [lJ. The nonlinear algebraic system of
equations was solved using the iterative arc-length Riks method [14J. Delamination was
also discussed for layered plates.
188
A three dimensional Layer-Wise Constant Shear element was used to improve the
calculation of the stress distribution which is not satisfactory if a single-layer plate
theory is used to model a laminated composite plate. Some numerical results are
reported to show the capability of these approaches for modelling the bending, buckling,
post buckling and delamination behavior of such structures and to show the capability of
the three dimensional element for avoiding the problem of the ill-conditioned equations
and for improving the accuracy of the stress distribution.
References
[1] C. W. Bert, "Models for Fibrous Composites with Different Properties in Tension
and in Compression", J. Engng. Materials Tech., Trans. AS ME 994(4), pp. 344-349,
1977.
[2] J. N. Reddy, "A Small Strain and Moderate Rotation Theory of Elastic Anisotropic
Plates", J. Appl. Mech., 54, pp. 623-626, 1987.
[3] E. Sacco and J. N. Reddy, "On the First and Second Order Moderate Rotation
Theories of Laminated Plates", Int. J. Numer. Meth. Engng., 33, pp. 1-17, 1992.
[4] D. Bruno and A. Grimaldi, "Delamination Failure of Layered Composite Plates
Loaded in Compression", Int. J. Solids Structures, Vol. 26, 3, pp. 313-330, 1990.
[5] D. Bruno, "Delamination Buckling in Composite Laminates with Interlaminar
Defects", J. Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics, 9, pp. 145-159, 1988.
[6] J. N. Reddy, "A Generalization of Two Dimensional Theories of Laminated

Plates", Commun. Appl. Numer. Meth., 3, pp. 113-180, 1987.
[7] J. N. Reddy, "On the Generalization of Displacement-Based Laminate Theories",
Appl. Mech. Rev., 42(11), pp. S213-S222, 1989.
[8] E. J. Barbero, "On a Generalized Laminate Plate Theory with Application to

Bending, Vibration and Delamination Buckling in Composite Laminates", Ph.D.
Dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Va., 1989.
[9] E. J. Barbero, J. N. Reddy and J. L. Teply, "General Two-Dimensional Theory of

Laminated Cylindrical Shells", AIAA J., 28(3), pp. 544-553, 1990.
[10] E. J. Barbero, "3-D Finite Element Modeling of Laminated Composites by Layer-
Wise Constant Shear Elements", NDE, Vol. 10, En. An. Tech. Compo Mat.,
ASME, pp. 229-237, 1991.
[11] S. Ahmad, B. M. Irons and O. C. Zienkiewicz, "Analysis of Thick and Thin Shell
Structures by Curved Finite Elements", Int. J. Num. Meth. Engng., 2, pp. 419-451,
1970.
[12] D. Bruno, S. Lato and E. Sacco, "Nonlinear Behavior of Sandwich Plates",
Proceedings of the European Joint Conference on Engineering Systems Design and
Analysis, PD, Vol. 47-6, ASME, pp. 115-120, 1992.
[13] D. Bruno, S. Lato and E. Sacco, "Nonlinear Analysis of Bimodular Composite

Plates Loaded in Compression", ICES 92 Conference, Hong Kong, December 17-22,
1992.
189
[14] E. Riks, "An Incremental Approach to the Solution of Snapping and Buckling
Stability", Int. J. Solids Structures 15, pp. 529-551, 1979.
[15] D. Bruno and S. Lato, "Buckling of Moderately Thick Composite Plates",

Composite Structures, 18, pp. 65-75, 1991.
[16] B. Budiansky, "Theory of Buckling and Post buckling Behavior of Elastic
Structures", in Advances in Applied Mechanics, Vol. 14, edited by C. S. Yih,
Academic Press, New York, 1974.
[17J E. J. Barbero and R. Zinno, "Analysis of Laminated Composite Plates with Three-
Dimensional Layer-Wise Constant Shear Elements", submitted to Int. Journal of
Engng. Analysis and Design, 1993.
[18] R. D. Cook, Concepts and Applications of Finite Element Analysis, 2nd Edition,
John Wiley, New York, 1974.
[19] J. N. Reddy, E. J. Barbero and J. L. Teply, "A Plate Bending Element Based on a
Generalized Laminate Plate Theory", Int. J. Num. Meth. Engng., 28, pp. 2275-
2292, 1989.
[20] R. C. Averil, "On the Nonlinear Behavior of Shear Deformable Plate Elements",
Thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Va., 1989.
[21] R. A. Chaudury, "An Equilibrium Method for the Prediction of Transverse Shear
Stresses in a Thick Laminated Plate", Compo & Struct., 23, pp. 139-146, 1986.
[22] N. J. Pagano, "Exact Solutions for Composite Laminates in Cylindrical Bending",
J. Compo Mat., 3, pp. 398-411, 1969.
[23] N. J. Pagano, "Exact Solutions for Rectangular and Sandwich Plates", J. Compo
Mat., 4, pp. 20-35, 1970.
[24] A. C. Ugural, Stresses in Plates and Shells, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New
York,1981.
TRANSVERSE CRACKING IN LAMINATED COMPOSITES
L. A. Berglund and J . Varna
Division of Polymer Engineering, Lulea University of Technology,

S-951 87 Lulea, Sweden
Models based on variational analysis are compared with respect to the elastic
properties of cross-ply laminates with transverse cracks. All models use the principle of
minimum complementary energy for calculation of the stress state in a laminate element
between two cracks, as was the case with the original model by Hashin. The models are
based on assumptions of different degree of accuracy, where the most refined model was
developed by the present authors. Experimental data for the longitudinal stiffness are
compared with predictions for glass fiber/epoxy cross-ply laminates. The agreement
between model predictions and data is good provided the initial assumptions of the stress
state are sufficiently accurate.
1. Introduction
During loading of composite laminates, intralaminar transverse cracks form parallel

to the fiber direction. These cracks commonly initiate other types of damage
phenomena such as local delamination at the tip of the transverse crack and fiber
fractures in neighboring layers [1]. In addition, due to the presence of transverse cracks,
the thermo-elastic properties ol the laminate such as stiffnesses and thermal expansion
coefficients are changed [2-4]. Three layer cross-ply laminates, as illustrated in Figure
1, are suitable for studies of transverse cracking. If the outer layer has O· and the mid-
layer 90· fiber orientation, the laminate code becomes (Om/90n)s. For typical polymer
composites, the strain at failure is higher for the outer layers. During loading of such
laminates, multiple and well-defined transverse cracks are therefore formed in the 90·
plies.
The problem considered is the relationship between the elastic properties of the
damaged laminate and the density of the transverse cracks. Different approaches may
roughly be divided into two categories, the micromechanical models and the continuum
damage models [5]. In the following analysis, we use a micromechanical model and the
predictions of elastic properties are based on an analysis of the stress state between two
adjacent cracks.
One approach is to develop approximate solutions based on the shear lag model [6-
8] or on the principle of minimum complementary energy [9,10]. All these models
assume uniform tensile stress distribution across the thickness of each particular layer.
In addition, the shear lag model assumes that the transverse shear stress is active only
in a thin shear transfer layer of unknown thickness. The main problem of this approach
is to determine the thickness and shear modulus of this layer. The ratio between these
parameters are commonly used as a fitting parameter. In our view, the approach in
[9] is the most satisfactory. According to Hashin's model, based on the principle of
minimum complementary energy, the transverse sh~ar stress and z-axis normal stress
have linear and parabolical distributions respectively through-the-thickness of each
layer. Predictions based on this minimization principle are lower bounds of the
laminate stiffness. Apart from material data, all the information needed is concerned
with the geometry and assumptions about the stress distributions.
191
G. C. Sih et aI. (eds.), Advanced Technology for Design and Fabrication of Composite Materials and Structures, 191-201.
192
-- " --
· .•'. ....
2 b
1
.'• .......
.....
......
•••••••
• •• I
I· • ...' .....• • • •
• • • • • • •..
_ .• I I ••• _ d
h
--
---
\ •
•• • • • • ·:.1
' •• - • •
--
T'-- •• •
• I I ,.
••• • • • •
I
• • • X -T
~. ~
• ••
.4t • • • • •• • • ••
-
• •• I' •
,
21 0
Figure 1 - Schematic of a cracked element of a cross-ply laminate.

However, a problem with Hashin's model is that the assumptions about the stress
distribution through-the-thickness of the layers must be considered as very rough. The
predicted stiffnesses according to Hashin's model are in several cases significantly lower
than the experimental results [11].
A more refined model with the assumption of an exponential through-the-thickness
distribution and arbitrary shape parameter in the O-layer was proposed in [11]. The
shape parameter was used as an additional numerical variable in order to minimize the
value of the complementary energy. The assumptions about the stress distribution in
the 90-layer were the same as in Hashin's model. Since the solution presented in [11] is
more refined than Hashin's, the predicted stiffnesses are closer to the experimental data.
This is especially true for laminates where an accurate stress state description in the 0-
layer is critical, laminates with thin 90-layers as compared with the O-layer thickness.
The model presented in [11] is called "2-dim O-model" in the present paper.
In the present study, a nonuniform stress distribution through-the-thickness of the
90-layer is also included in the analysis based on the principle of minimum
complementary energy. The predicted elastic properties on the basis of Hashin's model
[9], the 2-dim O-model [11] and the present "2-dim O/90-model" are compared with test
data. The importance of the assumptions used in the stress analyses is discussed.
2. Theoretical Analysis
Consider an element of the cross-ply laminate with evenly spaced cracks shown in
Figure 1. The two outer O-layers are of equal thickness b, the central 90-layer is of
thickness 2d, and 210 is the crack spacing. Stress and strain characteristics in the outer
O-layer have index 2, whereas those in the 90-layer have index 1. The properties of the
layer in the longitudinal and transverse direction with respect to the fibers are indicated
by the letters L and T, respectively. Monotonously increasing tensile loading ITo is
applied to the laminate. In the following stress state analysis, the influence of ITxy , lTyz
193
and rTyy is neglected. The far-field stress is obtained by classical laminate plate theory
(CLT).
2.1 Preliminary Considerations
The conditions at the 90/0 interface and the free surfaces of the laminate element
are
rTk~lx = ±lo = rT~Jlx = ±lo = 0 (1)
rTklJlz = d = rTk2Jlz = d (2)
In order to calculate the stress state in the element in Figure 1, we use the principle of
minimum complementary energy. Let us consider all stress distributions that satisfy
equilibrium equations and all traction conditions at the 90/0 interface and the
boundaries. They form the so-called admissible stress system in the context of the
principle of minimum complementary energy. According to this principle, the stress
field that will give a minimum of complementary energy will give also the best stress-
strain approximation for the problem in question.
The complementary energy of the element shown in Figure 1 is as follows:
d H {(1)2 (1)2 (1)2

V(lo) = J JO ~ + _rTz_z + ~ _ 2 vT rTk~rT&~
o -to ET ET GT ET
+ 2(rTk~ + rT~Q)aTTrZ dx
h + t {(2)2 (2)2 (2)2
+ J J 0 ~ + _rTz_z_ + ~ _ 2 vL 0'~2)0'&~
d -to EL ET GL EL
+ 2T(rTk2~aL + rT~~aT)rz dz (3)
Here, T = T R - TO where TO is the stress free temperature and T R the test

temperature. The values aL and aT are the thermal expansion coefficients of the layer
in the longitudinal and transverse directions.
2.2 Stress Functions
In order to apply the principle of minimum complementary energy, we need some

assumptions about the stress distribution through-the-thickness of the considered layer.
The stress functions in the 90- and O-layers are chosen in the following form:
~(I) = rTbl ){[ ~2 _ IP"(x)Ef + A *)] + IP"1(x)'P2(z) }d2 (4)
~(2) = [rT b2 ) ~2 d2 _ rTbl)d2'Pl (Z)IP"(X)] + O'bl )d2 'P3(z)1P"1 (x) (5)
where x = x/d, Z = z/d are non-dimensional coordinates and O'bl ), O'b2 ) are the x-axis
stresses in the un cracked laminate, (equations (13) to (15) in [11]).
194
The stress components in the layers can then be calculated using the expressions
(k) _ 82~(k) (k) _ 82~(k) (k) _ 82~(k)
uxx - 8z2' uzz - 8x2 , uxz - - 8x8z (6)
If we consider only the terms in square brackets, the model is identical to the 2-
dim O-model described in (11). The arbitrary function <Pl (z) in the present solution is
then responsible for the nonuniform stress distribution III the O-layer. If we further
assume that
* 1- _ (h_Z)2
A = - 2h, <PI(z) = - 2 b (7)
where h = hid, b = bid, we obtain Hashin's original model [g).
In the present 2-dim 0/gO-model, the arbitrary function <P2(z) is responsible for the
nonuniform gO-layer tensile x-axis stress distribution in the vicinity of the crack. The x-
dependence of this new.stre~s term is characterized by wI(x). This function.is expect~d
to decrease very fast with dIstance away from the crack surface. The functIon <P3(z) III
combination with wI(x) is responsible for the stress redistribution in the O-layer when
the nonuniform stress in the gO-layer is present.
The expressions for the stress components obtained from equations (4) and (5) are
the following:
a) in the gO-layer
u~~ = ubI) [1 - w(x) + wI(x)<p~I(z))

u~IJ = ubI) [w'(x)z - wl(x)<p~(z))
(8)
u~~ = ubI) [ _1li1l(X)~ + A *) + Ili]'(x) <P2 (z))
b) in the O-layer
u~~ = ub2 ) - ubI)[Ili(x)<pp(z) - WI (x)<pII(z))
u~J = ubI) [w'(x)<phz) - WI (x)<pI(z)) (g)
u~~ = ubI) [ - w"(x)<PI (z) + 1li~(x)<p3(z)1

From the conditions 1 and 2 and equations (8) and (g) follow that
<phI) = 1, <PI(I) = A* +!, <phh) = <pI(h) = 0 (10)

<P3(h) = <pI(h) = 0, <p~(1) = <pI(I) = 1, <P2(1) = <P3(1) (11)
and
w( ±TO) = 1, Ili'( ±TO) = 0, wI ( ±TO) = 0, w1( ±TO) = 0 (12)

where TO = lo/d.
Thus, in order to obtain the stress state in the cracked laminate element, we first
have to calculate the constant A *, the functions w(x), wI (x) and <PI (z), <P2(Z) , <P3(z).
Certain assumptions about the shapes of the last three functions will be made later.
195
2.3 Principle of Minimum Complementary Energy

In order to use the principle of minimum complementary energy, we substitute the
stress components obtained from equations (8) and (9) into equation (3). Then the
value of the cO?lplementary energy depends on A*, 'l(x), 'l1(x), 'P1Cz), 'P2(z) and 'P3(z).
If we now consIder the functions 'PI (z), 'P2(z) and 'P3(z) as known and formally carry out
the z-integration in equation (3), we obtam
+10
V = J v('l,'l','l",'l1,'l1,'lf)dx (13)
-10
The minimization routine is similar as described by Hashin in [9] and results in the
following system of differential equations with constant coefficients
O ,T,""
C22.... + (CO02- CO11....
)'T'" + CO00 ,T,
.... - C0221.T."" .... 1 - C01
.... 1 - CR ,T." 00 '....T'1-- 0
(14)
- C022....
1.T,"" - C R.... 00.... + C 22
,T." - C01.T, 1 ,T,"" + (C 1 C1 )'T'" + C 1 ,T, - 0
.... 1 02- 11 .... 1 00 .... 1 -
and boundary conditions given by equation (12).
For the constants in this system, we have the following expressions
CO - 1
00 -
ET I CO -
+E l' 22 -
1
20
A* A*2 I
+ "3 + + 2
L
O_ET ET 0_ *1
C ll - 3G +G 13 , C O2 - - 2vT(A + 6)
T L
(15)
where
h h h
II = J ['PP(z)]2dz, 12 = J ['PI (z)]2dz, 13 = J ['PI(z)j2dz
1 1 1
h 1 1
14 = J'PI (z)'PP(z)dz, It = J ['P~I(z)j2dz, Ii = J['P2(z)j2dz
1
° °
196
1 1 1
q = J [cp~(z)]2dz, IF = J CP2(z)cp~I(z)dz, F1 = JZCP2(z)dz
°1 1
° °
F2 = J CP2(z)dz, Fa = J CP2(Z)~ + A*)dz, F4 =! + A* - CP2(1) + F2
h° °ii ii
It = J[cplI(z)j2dz, I~ = J[cpa(z)j2dz, II' = J[cpl(z)j2dz
1 1 1
ii ii h
It = Jcpa(z)cplIdz, If = Jcp!l(z)cplI(z)dz, If = JCPl (z)cpa(z)dz
1 1 1
ii ii ii
If = JcpI(z)\pl(z)dz,
IP = CPl (z) cplI(z) dz, J
= cp!l(z)cpa(z)dz IP J (16)
1 1 1
The solution of equations (14) and (12) can be rather simply expressed in terms of
trigonometrical and exponential functions. The minimum value of the complementary
energy corresponding to the obtained solution can then be expressed as
(0'11)d)2
V- V - °+ 2 ~
0 [CO22l lP lII
1 '1)
\ ~o - CO22 1P"1'1
\ ~o )] (17)
Note that the numerical values of the constants in equation (14) are dependent on
the stiIl unknown A*, CPl(z), CP2(z) and cpa(z). Therefore, the minimum value of the
complementary energy also lias such a dependence and we can continue the
minimization routine to find the most accurate stress distribution across each layer
thickness.
As a particular case, we assume the following shape of the functions
(_) 1- coshAI (Z - ii) (_) 1- coshAa(Z - ii) z2n

7'1 z --
'I'>
A·IsmhA 1b
'I'>
'7'a Z
-- A·asmhA ab '7'2 - A +-
II> -
2n (18)
with arbitrary shape parameters AI' Aa and n. The values of A and A * are fixed and
follow from equations (10) and (11)
1 1 - coshAI h 1 1 - coshAah
A*= - -+
2 Al sinhA Ib '
A= - -+---~
2n AasinhAab
(19)
By application of equations (15) to (19) and the solution of equation (14), the
minimum value of the complementary energy can be expressed in terms of the shape
parameters and crack spacing
V = V(n,A l ,Aa,lo) (20)
The minimization procedure was performed numerically.
197
The stress distribution can be used to calculate the changes in laminate properties
caused by transverse cracking. First, we consider the longitudinal Young's modulus of
the laminate. In order to obtain the longitudinal stiffness as a function of the average
crack spacing 10 or normalized crack density eflo = d/ eO' we consider the average value
of the strain in the O-layer of the laminate element
h +eO
f~) = _1_
2eOb
J dz J f~)dx (21)
d -eO
where f~2) can be obtained from the stress-strain relation. The thermal terms are
neglected in this analysis. If we keep in mind that 0"0 = EXf~) where Ex is the Young's
modulus of the cracked laminate, the calculations according to equation (21) leads us to
the expression
(22)
+10
f(to) = ~ J [\)(x) - \)l(x)]dx (23)
-10
3. Predictions and Experimental Data
In this section are presented the predictions for thermo-elastic properties obtained
by using the model in [9k the 2-dim O-model [11] and the 2-dim 0/90-model derived in
the previous section. T e predictions are compared with experimental data for glass
fib~r/epoxy cross-ply laminates. The composite material properties used in the
Table 1 - Material properties of glass fiberLepoxy
Material [2] [12] 0/90/0 0/90 2/0 0/90 4/0

** [13] [13] [13]
EL (GPa) 44 41.7 40.0 44.29 47.62 48.72

ET (GPa) 15.8 13.0 10.0 14.13 15.02 16.46
GL (GPa) 3.4 3.4 5.0 3.4* 3.4* 3.4*
GT (GPa) 5.56* 4.58 4.0* 4.8* 4.8* 4.8*
ilL 0.264 0.3 0.31 0.3* 0.3* 0.3*
liT 0.42* 0.42 0.3* 0.42* 0.42* 0.42*
O'L (10- 6 lrC) 3.8 8.0 8.0 8.0
O'T (10- 6 lrC) 16.7 20.0 20.0 20.0
ho (mm) 0.150 0.203 0.155 0.159 0.150 0.147
* The unknown values are selected from other composite systems.
**The tests performed at Linkoping University, Sweden.
198
calculations are presented for glass fiber/epoxy in Table 1. The sources of these data
are presented in square brackets.
1.0 ....- - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
GFRP [0/903]s
0.9
0.8 [] data
-tc- Hashin's m.
- 2-dimOm .
...... 2-dim 0/90 m.
0.6
0.5 +-~-.___~---r-~~~-_r_~___l
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Normalized crack density d/lo

Figure 2 - Stiffness ratio versus normalized crack density. Data by Highsmith and
Reifsnider [2].
1.00 f r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
0.95 GFRP [0/902]s
0.90
0.85
.2
~
"'0
0.80 • spec. 1
II)W • spec.2
(1)-
CD)( [] spec.3
....c:W
.... 0.75 o spec.4
:;: --- Hashin's m.
UJ -2-dimOm.
0.70 ..... 2-dim 0/90 m.
0.65
0.60
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Crack density (crImm)

Figure 3 - Stiffness ratio versus normalized track density. Data by Peters and
Meusemann [13].
199
1.1 . . , . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
GFRP [02/902]5
1.0
.
0
CCI
"'0
•••••Q
....,.....•
• spec. 1
..'..............,~... 0.
0.9 • spec.2
cn W
-.
cn- 0 0 o spec.3
CD" •.... 2-dim 0/90 m.
cW
.... ~. • • 0 -2-dimOm.
U)
0.8 ····-······~··J!l6~·.....
0.7 +--~-r--~----r-~---.-....,...J
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Crack density (crImm)

Figure 4 - Stiffness ratio versus normalized crack density. Data by the present authors.
The elastic properties are predicted from the calculated stress distribution and
equations (22) and (23). The calculated results for the longitudinal stiffness as a
function of crack density for glass fiber/epoxy laminates with different 90-layer
thicknesses are illustrated in Figures 2 to 4. Predictions based not only on the present
2-dim 0/90-model but also on Hashin's and the 2-dim O-model are compared with
experimental data. In Figure 4, Hashin's model predictions are not presented since they
coincide with those from the 2-dim O-model.
The predictions based on Hashin's model show good agreement with Highsmith and
Reifsnider's data in Figure 2. This set of data is also commonly used in the literature
for comparison with model predictions. We have found the data to show considerably
lower stiffness than expected. A likely explanation can be found in the original paper
where the authors show secondary cracks and other types of damage such as crack
branching to be present in the laminate. The model is obviously only taking stiffness
changes from idealized, straight cracks into consideration.
In the other presented cases, the predictions by Hashin's model are much lower
than data; in Figure 4, the 2-dim O-model predictions are identical to those by Hashin's
model. With the exception of data from [21, the predictions based on the 2-dim 0/90-
model are in excellent agreement with all test data.
It is a consequence of the method that predictions based on the minimum

complementary energy form the lower bound of the stiffness. Despite this, experimental
data for glass fiber/epoxy laminates tend to intersect the line for our predictions at high
crack densities (Figures 3 and 4). Since local delaminations are more likely to form at
high crack densities, this further supports our hypothesis that local delamination at the
tip of transverse cracks is the major reason why the 2-dim 0/90-model sometimes
underestimates the stiffness reduction. If so, the comparison of 2-dim 0/90-model
predictions with test data could be used to estimate the extent of delamination in a
cross-ply laminate.
200
4. Conclusions
The reduction in elastic properties of cross-ply laminates due to transverse cracking
in the 90-layer has been modeled. The stress distribution in the laminate element
between two cracks was calculated using the principle of minimum complementary
energy. The presented "2-dim O/90-model" include nonuniform stress distribution
through-the-thickness of both the 0- and the 90-layer. Models based on simplified
assumptions did, in all cases, underestimate the stiffness of the cracked laminates. In
the high crack density region, increasing local delamination at the crack tip can cause
additional laminate stiffness reduction. It was suggested to use deviations between test
data and predictions from the presented 2-dim O/90-model as a measure of the extent of
delamination at the crack tip in brittle laminates. The presented analysis shows that
the variational approach can be used to obtain very good agreement with test data if
the initial assumptions of the model are sufficiently accurate.
References
[1] R. D. Jamison, "On the Interrelationship Between Fiber Fracture and Ply
Cracking in Graphite/Epoxy Laminates", Composite Materials: Fatigue and
Fracture, ASTM STP 907, Philadelphia, pp. 252-273, 1986.
[2] A. 1. Highsmith and K. L. Reifsnider, "Stiffness Reduction Mechanisms in
Composite Laminates", Damage in Composite Materials, ASTM STP 775, K. L.
Reifsnider, ed., Philadelphia, pp. 103-117, 1982.
[3] S. E. Groves, C. E. Harris, A. 1. Highsmith, D. H. Allen and R. G. Norvell, "An
Experimental and Analytical Treatment of Matrix Cracking in Cross-Ply
Laminates", Experimental Mechanics, 27, pp. 73-79, 1987.
[4] D. L. Flaggs and M. H. Kural, "Experimental Determination of the In Situ
Transverse Lamina Strength in Graphite/Epoxy Laminates", Journal of Composite
Materials, 16, pp. 103-115, 1982.
[5] R. Talreja, "Transverse Cracking and Stiffness Reduction in Composite
Laminates", Journal of Composite Materials, 19, pp. 355-375, 1985.
[6] S. G. Lim and C. S. Hong, "Prediction of Transverse Cracking and Stiffness
Reduction in Cross-Ply Laminated Composites", Journal of Composite Materials,
23, pp. 695-713, 1989.
[7] Y.-M. Han and H. T. Hahn, "Ply Cracking in Composite Laminates", Composites
Manufacturing Technology Center, The Pennsylvania State University, Report
CMTC-8937, p. 127, 1989.
[8] N. Laws and G. J. Dvorak, "Progressive Transverse Cracking in Composite
Laminates", Journal of Composite Materials, 22, pp. 900-916, 1988.
[9] Z. Hashin, "Analysis of Cracked Laminates: A Variational Approach", Mechanics
of Materials, North-Holland, 4, pp. 121-136, 1985.
[10] J. A. Nairn, "The Strain Energy Release Rate of Composite Microcracking: A
Variational Approach", Journal of Composite Materials, 23, pp. 1106-1129, 1989.
201
[11] J. Varna and L. A. Berglund, "Multiple Transverse Cracking and Stiffness

Reduction in Cross-Ply Laminates", Journal of Composites Technology and
Research, 13, pp. 97-106, 1991.
[12] P. A. Smith and J. R. Wood, "Poisson's Ratio as a Damage Parameter in the

Static Tensile Loading of Simple Cross-Ply Laminates", Composites Science and
Technology, 38, pp. 85-93, 1990.
[13] P. W. M. Peters and H. Meusemann, "On Cross-Ply Cracking in Graphite, Glass
and Aramid Fibre-Reinforced Epoxy Laminates", Proceedings of the ICCM-VI,
ECCM-2, F. 1. Mathews, N. C. R. Buskell, J. M. Hodgkinson and J. Morton, eds.,
Elsevier Applied Science, 3, pp. 3508-3525, 1987.
SOME GLOBAL ASPECTS OF FmRE REINFORCEMENT EFFICIENCY IN
CONCRETE
P. Stroeven
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Delft University of Technology,

Delft, The Netherlands
The mechanical properties of concrete reinforced by short dispersed steel fibres is

recognized to depend as far as fibres are concerned on their volume fraction, slenderness
and type. In experiments, it is pursued to disperse the fibres "randomly" through the
mix. Analytical approaches to estimate mechanical properties are also based on
"randomness". Strict measures to prevent segregation and reorientation of the fibres
cannot be taken in practice, however, so that deviations from the ideal state should be
accounted for. Stereological principles are used for the development of structural models
representing typical categories of non-random fibre dispersions approaching conditions
met in practice. Such model concepts also allow for unbiased quantitative !i-D
estimation of actual structural parameters by image analysis. Aspects of such an
approach are discussed.
1. Introduction
Concrete is a macroscopically heterogeneous composite. When traditionally
reinforced with steel bars, it can generally be considered homogeneous and isotropic,
because dimensions of RC structures will considerably exceed those of the largest
particles in the material body. Steel fibres are of the same order of size as the largest
particles. The fibre's contributions to the mechanical properties of Steel Fibre
Reinforced Concrete (SFRC) structures are therefore also interpreted in terms of
smeared out concepts. Nevertheless, it has been experimentally shown that compaction
can induce a significant degree of anisotropic behaviour and a disproportional increase in
bending characteristics. Moreover, the amount of fibre reinforcement can manifest
relative large variations over the length of a structural element. The resulting under-
reinforced in certain sections can lead as a result to premature cracking and yielding.
A more accurate analytical formulation of composite material behaviour on which
design could be based requires the availability and application of reliable methods for
simulation of fibre systems deviating from the "ideal", isotropic uniform random (IUR)
state. Such methods should be of a geometrical-statistical (i.e., stereological) nature.
This can only be pursued in a realistic way when a sufficient amount of expertise is
acquired in relevant materials research, provided the assessment of materials behaviour
is accomplished in proper fibre morphological terms. Hence, the underlying 3-D
material structure has to be reconstructed by means of a stereological methodology in
which data extraction is based on 2-D section and/or projection images.
The relevancy of mechanical modelling is derived from insight into the mechanisms
of structural degradation of the fibre composite when loaded. Structural degradation is
initiated in most (fibre reinforced) concretes on mesolevel by partly debonding of the
particle-matrix interfaces. But it is only when neighbouring bond cracks start
coalescing through the matrix that their further growth can be inhibited by the fibres
bridging the crack. In studying such localized phenomena, one is therefore confronted
with local morphological parameters of the fibre dispersion. Fortunately, mechanical
properties associated with stages along the ascending branch of the stress-strain curve
203
204
(discontinuity, BOP) have been found quite insensitive to such local structural details.
The fibre's influences on such states can therefore be expressed in volume averages of
the appropriate morphological parameters. The result will be a law-of-mixtures
concept.
This paper will present a concise concept for both structural simulation and
quantitative image analysis (hence, for structural 3-D reconstruction) valid for steel
fibre concrete, but also applicable (sometimes with slight modifications) for other fibre
composites. Using this concept, it will be outlined how fibres controlling the growth of
a crack will be distributed for given bulk distributions of fibres. In the literature, this
phenomenon of so-called weighted information in the image plane is frequently
misunderstood. The simulation methodology will be applied to indicate the degree of
significance of fibre pull-out tests.
2. Partially Oriented Fibre Systems

It has been shown experimentally, that steel fibres tend to segregate and re-
orientate during compaction, leading to a partially oriented structure. With the z-axis
of a Cartesian coordinate system in the direction of the gravity field , as shown in Figure
1, this implies that a relatively large number of fibres will be oriented parallel to the
Figure 1 - Cartesian coordinate system {x,y,z} used throughout this paper. g indicates
the gravity field direction.
{x,y}-plane and that fibre density will be highest at the bottom side of the specimen or
structural element. As a result, anisotropic behaviour in splitting tensile mode and
disproportional increase in bending capacity was experimentally recorded [1].
Re-orientation of fibres is also caused by external surfaces, such as by the mould or

by the surface of the specimen/structural unit. A large surface area gives rise to a fibre
orientation parallel to this surface, i.e., to a local partially planar system. In case of
relatively slender elements, the result will be a partially linear one. In global terms, the
fibre structure can manifest a partially linear-planar orientation in the most general case
met in practice. The stereological methodology for simulation as well as for 3-D
reconstruction will therefore primarily focus on this system.
To characterize the overall morphological properties of a fibre dispersion, the total
fibre length, L, can be seen as a function of orientation, characterized by two
independent angles, ¢ and o. For a volume element large enough to represent bulk
properties (a so-called representative volume element, RYE), L(¢,o) can be
approximated by a continuous function. By dividing through the volume, the fibre
density is obtained as a function of orientation, i.e., Ly(¢,O). When the appropriate
205
values of Ly(~,o) are plotted in a polar figure, a curved surface is described in 3-D
space. Theoretically, it can have arbitrary shape, so that for experimental assessment
of its features random sampling would be required. Axial symmetry will sometimes be
due to specimen configuration in combination with the compaction regime. Fibre
density can be expressed in such cases in terms of a single angle,~. This will reduce
experimental efforts significantly, as will be demonstrated later.
The time-consuming character of the operations can in all cases be reduced by
making a suitable assumption as to the nature of the fibre dispersion. For engineering
purposes, it has been demonstrated sufficiently accurate in [2] to replace L"\ll~'O) by a
linear combination of linear, planar and spatial portions. Herein, the I-D, 2:D and 3-D
portions are assumed to be composed of fibres which are "randomly" distributed with
respect to location. For the respective portions, the fibres are however oriented either
in a single direction (I-D), "randomly" but parallel to an orientation plane (2-D), or
"randomly" in space (3-D). Only when the orientation axis of the I-D portion is
perpendicular to the orientation plane of the 2-D one, LV(~,8) will reveal axial
symmetry. But it will be demonstrated in what follows, that arso asymmetric cases can
readily be solved without excessive effort.
In the axisymmetric case, whereby the axis of symmetry coincides with the gravity
direction, Ly(~,O) is by definition given by a linear combination of the three portions
LYIsin~cos~ + LY2sin2~ + LY3sin~ (1)

Averaging of equation (1) over the two independent angles yields
(2)
which reveals average "efficiency" factors of I-D, 2-D and 3-D fibre dispersions to be
1/2, 7r/4 and 1, respectively. Here efficiency is conceived as the average contribution
from the respective portions when load is subjected in an arbitrary direction. Or in
practical terms: when a SFRC element would be loaded successfully in different
directions these efficiency factors indicate the average relative contributions that can be
expected coming from either a I-D, 2-D or a 3-D portion.
Next, it would be of prime importance to consider the practical case where the
loading direction is fixed with respect to that of the fibre portions. The avera~e length
of the fibre in the respective coordinate directions will be given by (see Figure 2)
LY3sin2~coso
L"Yx = L"Yy = sin~ + LY2cOS
-- 2 - L
n
2L
8 = "if 4" Y3 + "if Y2 (3)
LVz = ! LY3 + LYI (4)

Hence, the "efficiency" of the separate fibre portions in reinforcing the composite in the
three coordinate directions {x,y,z} is {O,O,!} for the I-D, {2/7r, 2/7r,O} for the 2-D and
{I/2, 1/2, I/2} for the 3-D one. Any arbitrary combination of I-D, 2-D and 3-D
portions, aiming the simulation of actual reinforcement situations, can therefore easily
be described by making use of these efficiency (i.e., projection) factors. A more
systematic derivation of the various efficiency factors for purpose of stiffness as well of
strength modelling, will be presented, however, in what follows.
206
Figure 2 - LV (t/l,9)-distribution in case of a 3-D fibre system.

3. Fibre "Stiffness" Efficiency
Provided "stiffness" contributions due to fibres can be attributed to the projected
fibre length in the particular direction, the associated "efficiency" factor will equal the
value of COSQ, in which Q is the angle enclosed by an arbitrary fibre and the direction in
which the fibre's contribution to global stiffness is examined. In case of the 2-D fibre
system, a zero-value is found in the direction perpendicular to the orientation plane
(the {x,y}-plane in Figure 3). In the plane of the fibres Q = 9. The in-plane value of
y
x
Figure 3 - 2-D fibre dispersion in a SFRC sheet and corresponding LV( t/l,9)-distribution.
the efficiency factor will be
7r/2
I cos9d9
COSQ = 01(/2 = j, (5)
I d9
o
207
The 3-D case is governed by a single solution (in which a = ¢ in Figure 3) given by
1r/2 1r /2
f f cos¢sin¢d¢dO
o 0 _1 (6)
1r/2 1r /2 - 2
f f sin¢d¢dO
o 0
It should be noted here, that the number of fibres per unit of section area, N A' will be
equal to the total length of the fibre projection perpendicular to the section area, per
unit of volume, LV' This "equality" should be conceived in terms of "estimates".
Hence, the number of fibres dispersed in this volume element should be "large enough"
to obtain reliable estimates.
3.1 Optimum Orientation
In the optimum direction, the number of fibres per cross-sectional area will amount
to for the I-D, 2-D and 3-D systems, respectively
(N Ah = (Lvh (7)
(N A)2 = j (Lvh (8)
(NAh =! (Lvh (9)

Equations (7) to (9) allow for experimental assessment of the structural morphology of
the fibre dispersion. In a partially planar simulation model, the 2-D and 3-D
components are linearly combined. In the optimum direction, it is found that
(10)
In the optimum direction of a partially linear system, the result is
(11)
Equations (10) and (11) reveal the systematic set up. For any partially linear-planar
fibre system N A is determined by the equation
(12)
in which (N Ah, (N Ah and (N Ah have the values presented in equations (7) to (9), or
the value zero. Wilen the I-D component will be ali~ned in the x-direction, parallel to
the orientation plane of the 2-D component (the {x,y}-plane), the following expressions
for the reinforcement ratio hold
(N A)x =! (Lvh + j (Lvh + (Lvh (13)
(N A)y = ! (Lvh + j (L V )2 (14)
(N A)z = ! (Lvh (15)

The particular cases of partially linear and partially planar orientation, as revealed by
equations (10) and (11), are readily derived from this more general set of equations by
successively superimposing (LV h = 0 and (LV h = O. Since the latter two portions can
208
be considered "parasitic", their relative importance is expressed by factors w defined for

the two cases by
(LV)I (LY)2
wI,3 = --r;y- and w2,3 = Ly (16)
with (Lyh + (Lyh + (Lyh = L y . Herewith, equations (10) and (11) can be
formulated in terms of "density" (Ly) and of "degree of orientation" (w)
NA ! + (* - 1)w2,3]
= Ly[l (17)
N A =! Ly[l + wI,3] (18)

Similarly, the general system in equations (13) to (15) transforms into
(N Ah = ! Ly[l + (* - 1)w2,3 + wI,3] (19)
(N A)y = ! Ly[l + (* - 1)w2,3] (20)
(N A)z = ! Ly[l - wI,3 - w2,3] (21)
Use is sometimes made of w( = WI 3 + w2 3) to define the degree of orientation in the

partially linear-planar system [3]. ' ,
3.2 Stiffness Efficiency
The stiffness efficiency of the general fibre composite IS therefore III the three
Cartesian coordinate directions governed by
'7x = ![1 + (*
- 1)w2,3 + wI,3] (22)
'7y = ![1 + (* - 1)w2,3] (23)
'7z = ![1 - wI,3 - w2,3] (24)
It can easily be checked that upon substitution of w2,3 = 1 and wI,3 = 0 in these
equations, the 2-D concept is regained. Similarly, substitution of w2 3 = 0 and WI 3 = 1
leads again to the 1-D system. Finally, taking both w-values zero, the equations
describe the 3-D system. For practical values of w2,3 and wI,3 of 0.3 to 0.4, respectively
around 0.1, the ratio of the two extreme efficiency values is about 2! Since volume
fraction of steel fibres is generally low, the fibre's contribution to Young's modulus can
be neglected for practical cases. For higher volume fractions or other fibre composites,
the stiffness efficiency factors defined by equations (22) to (24) can be used. The
general system defined by equations (19) to (21) forms the basis for 3-D reconstruction
by quantitative image analysis. The reinforcement ratio ((N A)j' in which the subscript
j refers to the coordinate direction) is experimentally determined in three orthogonal
sections whereupon fibre density and degrees of orientation are solved from the three
data sets. A more general methodological approach will be discussed in the chapter on
Image Analysis.
4. Fibre "Strength" Efficiency
The same construction principle of the previous section IS maintained for the
209
derivation of the fibre's efficiency with respect to transferring tensile stresses in a

cracked region. Short fibres can basically inhibit crack opening by shear and friction
along the embedded interfacial surface area. Perpendicular to the crack, a load
component is transferred which is proportional to cosO', 0' being the angle enclosed
between the fibre and the crack opening direction. The fibre is further sheared over the
crack edge. The appropriate load component is proportional to a coefficient of friction,
f, times sinO'. The situation is sketched in Figure 4. Hence, the average load, Pi'
,-_ -,--PI lsi n a

Figure 4 - Fibre load transfer in cracked region in concrete.
transferred by an arbitrary oriented large group of fibres perpendicular to the crack

plane is given by
Pi = PI [cosa+fsinah (25)
in which P I represents the average fibre load in a 1-D set oriented perpendicular to the
crack plane. The index i refers to the type of fibr~distribution. Assuming the load to
be solely due to a constant friction resistance (T f)' P I will be given by
- I
PI = 4 1rdlTf (26)
where d and I are the fibre diameter and length, respectively. Since N fibres supposedly
are involved in the load transfer process, both sides of equation (25) are multiplied by
N. Thereupon, equation (26) is substituted in equation (25). By defining the stress
component perpendicular to the crack plane, U " by NAP., in which A is the crack
surface area, equation (25) finally yields III 1
Uni = 1dlTf1]i Ly [coso +fsinoh = 1dlLyTfi (27)

in which 1]' is given by equations (22) to (24) for appropriate values of the index i.
1
210
4.1 Fibre Strength Efficiency
The fibre "strength" efficiency, (., can therefore be defined by

I
(i = '7i [cosO'+fsinO'h (28)

The fibres involved in equation (25) are those intersecting with the crack. This is a
subset (VVc) of the fibres distributed in bulk of the material (VV). Define a factor e,
so that e = VVc/VV. edepends on the type of fibre distribution. For the 3-D, 2-D and
1-D fibre concepts, ecan be derived in the following way
7r/2
f cos¢sin¢d¢
e3= °7r/2 =!
f sin¢d¢
o
7r/2
f cosodo
e2 = -'0"-7r"/2,.---- (29)
f do
o
=1
This is in agreement with equations (5) and (6). 50% of the fibres in the 3-D and 36%
in the 2-D dispersion are "missed" by the crack, because they are too unfavourably
oriented with respect to its path. The fibres on which the contribution to composite
strength is relying are therefore never distributed isotropic, uniform at random even
when they do so in bulk. This is an unfortunate but common mistake in the relevant
literature [4]. To be more precise, the uniform planar (2-D) distribution in bulk
transforms for the relevant sub-set of fibres intersecting with the crack into the
orientation distribution function w2(¢) = cos¢, which indeed shows the fibres in bulk
enclosing small angles with the crack plane to be more frequently missed. In case of the
uniform isotropic (3-D) system, the sub-set of fibres is governed by the orientation
distribution function w3 (¢) = sin2¢, revealing fibres to intersect with the crack plane
most frequently under an angle 7r/4! With this in mind, the averaging operation of the
goniometric functions in equation (27) can readily be executed. For the 3-D and 2-D
components, it is successively found that
7r/2 7r/2
f
cos 2 ¢sin¢d¢ f sin 2 ¢cos¢d¢
cosO' = -,o~_ _ __ 2 and sl·n - 0 _ 2
7r/2 3 0' - 7r/2 - 3
f cos¢sin¢d¢ f sin¢cos¢d¢
o o
(30)
7r/2 7r/2
f cos 2 0do f cosOsinodo
cosO' = -'0"-;-;:-_ __ = 4"7r an d-·-
SInO' = --"'0 -7-c/,-::
r 2- - -
7r/2
f cosodo f cosodo
o o
211
The projection factors derived in equations (5) and (6) are smaller than the
corresponding ones in equation (30). In the first case, averaging is accomplished over all
fibres in bulk, whereas in the second case, this is restricted to the sub-set of fibres
intersecting with the crack. The latter sets are more favourably oriented, so that the
projection factors are higher. Equation (30) allows defining the strength efficiency
factors of I-D, 2-D and 3-D systems. In the optimum direction, equations (28) yield
successively
(1 = =1
(2 = 'I2(i + ! f) --1+1
2 7r (31)
(3 = 'I3(i + if) = 1(l+f)

When the effect of shearing over the crack edge is neglected (f=O), the orthogonal
efficiency factors, ( .. , will be for the three fibre systems: {1,0,0}, {1/2, 1/2, O} and
1,]
{1/3, 1/3, 1/3}. Comparison with the stiffness efficiency factors reveals the reduced
efficiency of 2-D and 3-D fibre systems in transferring uniaxial stresses in cracked steel
fibre reinforced concrete (i.e., 2/7r --> 1/2; 1/2 --> 1/3). This decline is somewhat
compensated for when f attains a finite value.
4.2 Partially Oriented Systems

The last step involves partially oriented systems. They can be constructed easily
by superimposing portions of I-D, 2-D and 3-D systems. The most complicated
partially linear-planar fibre system could be governed by the following set of equations
(Tnx = [1 (l+f)Vf3 + ! (1 + ~)Vf2 + Vf1]aTf

(Tny = [i (l+f)Vf3 + ! (1 + ~)Vf2]aTf (32)
(Tnz = [i (l+f)]aVf3 Tf
in which a is the aspect ratio of fibres. V f indicates the volume fraction of fibres of
type i. The I-D portion is oriented in the lx-coordinate direction, and the orientation
plane of the 2-D portion coincides with the {x,y }-coordinate plane. Although not of
prime interest here, equations (32) allow to directly estimate the relative contribution of
the fibres to ultimate tensile strength (UTS). When a law-of-mixtures approach is
followed, the matrix contribution to UTS will be: V m(Tm, in which V m is the matrix
volume fraction (i.e., Vm+Vf = 1) and (Tm denotes the plain matrix strength.
Generally, a V f and V m are of the same order of magnitude. The same holds for T f and
(Tm' so that indeed the fibre contribution to UTS can be quite significant.
Equations (32) render possible defining the strength efficiency factors, (., for the
J
most general case of a partially linear-planar fibre system. Of course, the various
portions can have different mutual orientations (e.g., the I-D portion could be oriented
perpendicular to the 2-D orientation plane), this will, however, only ask for
reorganization of the appropriate terms. With the two degrees of orientation (wI 3 and
w2,3) defined as in equation (16), it is found that '
_ 1 f (2 f) 1 (33)
(x - 3 + 3 + 3 - 3 wI,3 + "6 w2,3
212
_ 1 f I I
(y - 3" + 3" + 6" w2,3 - 3" wI,3 (34)
(z = (1 + {)(1- w2,3 - wI,3) (35)

The interesting cases of partial planar and partial linear orientation are finally obtained
by successive substitution of wI,3 = 0 and w2,3 = 0 leading to
(x = (y = 1 (1+f) + ! w2,3 (36)

(z=1(1+f)(1-w2,3) (37)
(x = 1 (1+f) + 1 (2 - f)WI,3 (38)

(y = (z) = i (1+f)(1- Wl,3) (39)
For f=O and experimentally found values for w2 , 3 = 0.25 and wI , 3 = 0.1, [5], equations
(34) and (35) yield values for the efficiency factors of 0.54, 0.45 and 0.29. Even when
considering the contribution on UTS by the mortar, it should be clear that the
composite can manifest significant anisotropic behaviour (see [6])!
5. Image Analysis
For quantitative reconstruction of a fibre dispersion that can be simulated

sufficiently close by a linear combination of 1-D, 2-D and 3-D portions, it is necessary to
obtain three independent sets of information. This leads to a system of three equations
from which the three unknot fibre portions can be solved. Image analysis can be based
on sections in which the number of fibres per unit of area (N A) can be determined as a
function of the orientation of the section. Equations (13) to (15) can be applied in that
p '/~ )C. ~l
-
.........
.. .' ....... .........
...... .. .
\
.0:"-
.
'. .:. . -. .."
'
.... ..-...,.. .-. ,-

" '
'.
'
'.., .'
.... .. -.
: .' e.-
.- .....:....
:1 •.:
'. ' " .. .... .......
"
., ........ .. ..
... ..... ;
.........
'"
'. 'o,
.... . .......
'
.. ....
,\..
. .. " , ...
..
....
.. .. .:. .. . .. e._::! .... .... . .... .-: .... -: .
.. ...... .' . . .." ........ ......- ..
:- -; .... ... " :: ........ at. -,-. .... . .
.. .. .........,.:.I • - .-. ~ -.....
.. .... , .. -. .{....".....-(:.. -.......
," •••
.. .-.. ....
.,
'. : ..~. .'
..:-:-......:.: .. ..
. ........ ~".
•1 ....
:-. ...... ' .... .
.
.,~
...... • 'X
. ......... .. ..
... ,
: .. •. : : . . . . . .. -.': .. e.. ..
.. : .. .. -... .. :..........:. :.; .... : : .•..••.•,::.... .- .::.: .:.:.

...- ..:: ..
Figure 5 - Section images (lOOxlOOmm) of SFRC specimens containing 0.5 (left) and 1.5
(right) volume percentage of plain steel fibres. Sections are parallel to the direction of
the gravity field.
213
situation. Figure 5 presents examples of section images which have been subjected to
feature (fibre) counting. Figure 6 shows a prismatic specimen test-loaded in 4-point
Figure 6 - SFRC specimen fractured in 4-point bending. The front side of the specimen
was parallel to the gravity field ({ x,z })-plane) during compaction.
bending, of which the surfaces have been used for a similar purpose. Cross-sections of
such prismatic specimens have been analyzed additionally.
5.1 Methodology
Image analysis methodology is however not restricted to this approach. Suitable
images can be obtained by X-raying slices sawn from SFRC specimens or from
structural units. The projection plane reveals approximately linear features in a plane.
Examples are presented in Figure 7. The length of the fibre projections is generally
different . Nevertheless, such images contain structural information quite similar to that
of the sections. This originates from the earlier used proportionality of projected fibre
length per unit of volume (Ly) and fibre density in a section perpendicular to the
projection direction (N A) . This only leaves the quantitative image analysis problem of
measuring total length of traces in an image plane. This problem can be solved by
superimposing a series of randomly oriented test lines, whereupon the number of
intersections per unit of the test line length (PI) is determined. Due to the simulation
by a linear mixture of I-D, 2-D and 3-D porTions, it suffices to sample only in two
orthogonal directions. For thinner slices, it is also possible to count the number of fibre
projections per unit of the projection image (N:,1J
A survey of the methodological possibilities is presented in Table 1. Figure 8
illustrates the different methodological approaches. Table 1 allows for various
quantitative image analysis approaches. Either sampling solely by sections or by
projections can be pursued. In the first case, the sampling should encompass the three
orthogonal sections in the successive coordinate directions. The image analysis
214
operation is based on counting the number of fibres in the section area or in particular
Figure 7 - X-ray radiographs of sections (50x200mm) of SFRC specimens. The gravity

direction was perpendicular to the long side of the images ({x,z}-plane). From top to
bottom, parts of plain, hooked and paddled fibres are revealed in the projection plane.
Segregation is obvious.
fields inside the section area. Image analysis of the projection pattern can be based on
counting the number of projections in the three orthogonal sections. For thicker slices
of SFRC, this is not a reliable method. In that case, the method of directed secants
should be employed. It is based on counting intersections between the fibre projections
and a superimposed line grid. It can be concluded from Table 1 that two orthogonal
projection images will suffice! The choice can thus depend on specimen shape and
dimensions.
5.2 Specimen Tests
The economy of the experiment could require selecting a mixed approach. A single
"sample", in the form of a slice sawn from the concrete in either one of the coordinate
directions, can provide a section image as well as the corresponding X-ray radiograph.
The latter can be subjected to the directed secants method in two orthogonal directions.
Such operations can be performed with high speed when a semi or fully automatic
image analyzer is available. A significant problem in case of the macroscopically
heterogeneous concrete composites is the considerable size of the RVE. Large areas
215
should be scanned to guarantee reliability of the estimates. Because of practical

dimensions of specimens, this implies the production of series of "similar" ones. When
Table 1 - Quantitative image analysis methodology

Object Sample Stereological relationship
Features Sections (N A)x =! (Lvh + j. (Lvh + (Lvh
(N A)y =! (Lvh + j. (LV)2
(N A)z =! (Lvh
Features Projections (NA)x =! (Lvh + j. (Lvh + (Lvh + t LV
(NA)y =! (Lvh + j. (Lvh + t LV
(NA)z =! (Lvh + t LV
Intersections Projections (Pl,)x(O) = [! (Lvhlt
(Pl,)x(~) = [! (LV h + *(LV hlt

(Pl,)y(O) = [! (Lvhlt
(Pl,)y(~) = [! (LV h + *(LV h + (LV lIlt

(PL)z(O) = [! (Lvh + *(Lvhlt
(Pl,)z(~) = [! (LV h + *(LV h + (LV hlt
z
P" (0)
Lx
P" (.11)
Lx 2
P" (0)
Ly
P" (!I)
Ly 2
p" (OJ
Lz
p " (!J)
Lz 2
y
Figure 8 - Different methodological approaches for quantitative image analysis of SFRC

specimens.
216
the attention of the researcher is focused on density gradients (segregation, boundary

effects), the analysis will be based on strip-like field as part of the section or projection
image. Figure 9 shows an example of a study into under-reinforced boundary layers of
....Cb
-t:
Figure 9 - Distribution of fibres in the gravity direction over the section image.
Segregation and under-reinforcement at the boundaries is obvious [9,lOJ.
SFRC specimens [lJ. The number of strip-like fields should be appropriately enlarged
to fulfill the representativity requirement.
6. Mechanical Simulation by Pull Out
Estimation of mechanical behaviour on the basis of a structural model requires

morphological data as well as micromechanical ones. As far as small amounts of short
steel fibres are concerned, the prevailing mechanisms are fibre pull out, shearing of
fibres over the crack edges and plastic deformation of the fibres at the crack [7].
Damage at the place where the fibre is protruding probably reduces the amount of
plastic deformation, because after full separation, the free fibre ends at the fracture
surface are not found to be perpendicular to this surface. The remaining two
mechanisms are therefore seen as the major ones and as a result incorporated in
equations (25). The question posed here is how to experimentally simulate these
mechanism in the expression cos a + fsina, assuming the interfacial friction resistance, T f'
to be uniformly distributed along the shortest fibre end at pulling out.
6.1 Average Fibre Pull Out Load
For a conventional single fibre pull out test, the pull out load, P fl' is given by
P f1 = 7rdli Tf (40)
in which 1. is the embedment length (sometimes half the fibre length, sometimes less).
Of course/the drawback is that f=O in this set up. To get additional information on f,
it is possible to employ two (arrays of) fibres in a symmetric set up under an angle a
with respect to the pulling out direction [8J. The average pull out load per fibre is
217
obviously
P f2 = 1rdliTf(cosa + f sinO') (41)

When for f is substituted tan tPo, equation (41) will yield
P = 1rdl'T cos(a-tPo) (42)
f2 1 f costPo
The maximum load is transferred for a = tPo ~ 20°, assuming f ~ 0.35. The same
would be obtained for a symmetric 3-D arrangement of 3 fibres.
6.2 Influence of Crack

Such tests do not simply simulate, however, a tensile test on SFRC specimens
either containinLa 2-D or 3-D fibre dispersion. This should be the ultimate goal! The
average load, P 2, transferred per fibre perpendicular to the crack plane in the
orientation plane of a 2-D fibre arrangement would be
P 2 = 1rdliTr'cosa + fsina)sina (43)

The average values of the goniometric functions are, of course, the ones presented in
equation (30). Further, Ii = 1/4. Hence,
P 2 = i dirti + !) (44)
By differentiation of equation (43), it can easily be demonstrated that the maximum
fibre load is transferred for a = tPo/2 ~ 10°. This would hold, e.g., for a relatively thin
sheet. For the 3-D case, it is by analogy found that
Pa = i dlT r' cOSO' + fsina )sinacosa (45)

Again, the average values of the goniometric functions are presented in equation (30), so
upon substitution for P a, it is found that
Pa = i dirf(i + Y) (46)
The fibre load according to equation (45) has its maximum value around a = 40°.
Hence, in a thin sheet, fibres only 10° deviating from the direction of the global tensile
stress field will have optimum contribution to crack opening resistance, whereas in a
more bulky element (hypothetically reinforced by a 3-D fibre system), such
contributions are coming from fibres with a mismatch of as much as 40° from the
loading direction! This cannot be simulated simply by a 2-fibre (array) pull out test.
Even those willing to accept the challenge and aiming for a group fibre pull out test in
which the fibres are randomized as to orientation will be confronted with intefI~retation
problems. The average load would be governed by the expression given for P f2' but
averaged over the goniometric functions as presented in equation (5). Optimum fibre
contributions in this set up would com~rom fibres 20° deviating from the loading
direction! In the 3-D group fibre set up, P fa is finally given by
P fa = 1rdli T r' coSO' + fsina )sina (47)

in which the last sina-term is coming from the relative frequency of the fibres which is
zero for the fibre in-line with the loading direction and increases toward the oblique
direction. The excess of fibres with large orientation mismatch leads to optimum
218
contributions for a = 55°, which is considerably larger than in a normal SFRC specimen.
Another probability factor is involved in comparing the total loads, and - having
similar cross-sections - the transferred normal stress over the crack plane, either
artificially prepared in the 2-D pull out set up, or induced by the tensile loading in the
sheet. When in the pull out tests the same number of fibres would be involved as in the
tension test (counted in the fracture plane), the ultimate stresses will be for the two
cases
0"2(tension) = (~)2 (1 + ~)dlTfN A (48)
O"f2(pullout) = (1+f)dlTfN A (49)
where the fibres are embedded over half their length in the pull out set up. It is
obvious that with the same reinforcement ratio (N A) and orientation distribution the
expected ultimate load transfer will nevertheless be different! Steel fibre pull-out tests
offer mostly incomplete information on global composite behaviour. The best estimates
can be obtained from such test set ups when the assessment of materials behaviour is
based on the stereological notions outlined in this paper.
7. Conclusions
A complete methodological framework for structural simulation and 3-D

reconstruction on the basis of various quantitative image analysis procedures has been
presented for arbitrary distributions of steel fibres in concrete. Compaction-induced
segregation and partial re-orientation of the fibres are commonly met phenomena in
practice. Following this approach for quantitative evaluation of experiments, material
properties can be assessed as a function of fibre morphology, so that generalization of
the results can be achieved. More realistic estimation of mechanical properties of SFRC
composites can also be accomplished in this way. The methodological approach is
supported by experimental evidences of anisotropic and dis-proportionally improved
bending behaviour of concretes.
References
[1] P. Stroeven and R. Babut, "Fracture Mechanics and Structural Aspects of

Concrete", Heron, 31, 2, pp. 15-43, 1986.
[2] P. Stroeven, "The Analysis of Fibre Distributions in Fibre Reinforced Materials",

J. Microsc., 111, Pt 3, pp. 283-295, 1977.
[3] E. E. Underwood, Quantitative Stereology, Addison-Wesley, Reading,
Massachusetts, 1970.
[4] P. Stroeven, "Discussion on Paper by D. A. Gasparini, et al: Post cracking Tensile

Strength of Fibre Reinforced Concrete", ACI Mat. J., 86, 6, pp. 631-632, 1989.
[5] P. Stroeven and S. P. Shah, "Use of Radiography-Image Analysis for Steel Fibre
Reinforced Concrete", Testing and Test Methods of Fibre Reinforced Concrete,
edited by R. N. Swamy, Construction Press, Lancaster, pp. 345-353, 1978.
219
[6] P. Stroeven, "Some Structural Effects on the Tensile Properties of Steel Fibre
Reinforced Concrete", Concretes Reinforced by Dispersed Fibres and their
Application in Mining, Geotechnic and Engineering, Dum Techniky, Ostrava, pp.
32-45, 1982.
[7] A. M. Brandt, "The Optimization of Fibre Orientation in Brittle Matrix Composite

Materials", Report Stevin Lab., Delft Univ. Techn., Delft, 1985.
[8] A. E. Naaman and S. P. Shah, "Bond Studies on Oriented and Aligned Steel
Fibres", Proc. Symp. Fibre Reinforced Cement and Concrete, The Construction
Press, London, pp. 171-178, 1975.
[9] P. Stroeven, "Effectiveness of Steel Wire Reinforcement in a Boundary Layer of

Concrete", Acta Stereol., 10/1, pp. 113-122, 1991.
[10] P. Stroeven and W. Guo, "Structural Modelling and Mechanical Properties of Steel
Fibre Reinforced Concrete", Fibre Reinforced Cements and Concretes. Recent
Developments, edited by R. N. Swamy and B. Barr, Elsevier Appl. Science, UK,
pp. 345-354, 1989.
[11] P. Stroeven, "Structural Characterization of Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete",

Brittle Matrix Composites II, edited by A. M. Brandt and I. H. Marshall, Elsevier
Appl. Science, London, pp. 34-43, 1989.
FAILURE BEHAVIOR AND STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF CONCRETE MEMBERS
REINFORCED WITH CONTINUOUS FillER REINFORCING MATERIALS
K. Rokugo, H. Iwase, Y. Uchida and W. Koyanagi
Department of Civil Engineering, Gifu University,

Yanagido, Gifu, 501-12, Japan
Continuous fiber reinforcing materials (CFRM), which are made of continuous

fibers such as aramid, carbon, etc., bound with resin, are expected to be substituted for
steel bars in reinforced and prestressed concrete structures. CFRM are free from
corrosion but brittle and the Young's modulus is low as compared with steel bars. In
this paper, the features of CFRM are outlined, and then the ductile and/or brittle failure
behavior are investigated using 9-element ''parallel'' and "series" systems. The favorable
failure modes are discussed with relation to the members with CFRM.
1. Introduction
Steel bars have been used as the reinforcing materials for concrete, which behaves
brittle especially in tension. The structural design procedures for reinforced concrete
(RC) and prestressed concrete (PC) structures with steel bars are well established. In
recent years, however, rise the problems of the corrosion of reinforcing steel and
prestressing steel in concrete due to the use of sea dredged sand, diffusion of de-icing
agent, insufficient grouting, etc.
Continuous fiber reinforcing materials (CFRM), which are made of continuous

fibers such as aramid, carbon, glass, etc., bound with resin, are expected to be used in
reinforced and prestressed concrete structures instead of steel bars, because CFRM are
free from corrosion. CFRM are light and strong but brittle and the Young's modulus is
low as compared with steel bars. CFRM have no yield point and the elongation at
rupture is small. The mechanical behavior of concrete members reinforced with CFRM
is different from that of conventional ones with steel bars. In Japan, several concrete
bridges with CFRM have been constructed on trial and a state-of-the-art report on the
applications of CFRM to concrete structures have been published [1]. The preliminary
recommendations for the design and construction of concrete structures with CFRM are
offered.
In this paper, the properties of CFRM used in Japan are described. The plastic
and softening behavior among materials, members and structures are discussed. The
features of failures in statically determinate systems and statically indeterminate
systems are presented. The favorable failure modes for concrete beams with CFRM and
the control of the failure modes are discussed.
2. Applications of CFRM to Concrete Structures
CFRM are made by binding continuous fibers such as aramid, carbon, glass, etc.,
with epoxy resin or polyester resin and are formed into bars or grids. Since the role of
the resin is to bind fibers rather than to resist force, these materials are called not FRP
(fiber reinforced plastics) but CFRM recently in Japan. For good bonding with
concrete, additional fibers are winded on the outside, sand particles are glued on the
221
222
surface, or continuous fibers are braided. Several examples of CFRM bars are shown in
Figure 1.
-~ -~.... -'~ -~ - ...,.. ~ ._- - ---..-...

~ \.. "" \.. '. l •• • ,~~ 't \ . .•••••••• ~ • •
Glass CFRM
• • ,. •
. .
.', _ • L..
. .. . .... ..
Figure 1 - Examples of CFRM bars.
As seen from Table 1, the mechanical properties of CFRM are in a wide range,
because they depend on kinds of fibers in addition to the fiber contents, which is about
60% in most cases. Examples of stress-strain diagrams of CFRM are indicated in Figure
2 together with that of reinforcing steel and prestressing steel. CFRM have the
following advantages and disadvantages as compared with steel:
Table 1 - Mechanical properties of CFRM
Name of Kinds of Fiber Tensile Young's Elongation

distributors fiber content strength modulus at rupture
(%) (kgfJmm 2 ) x 103 (kgf/mm 2 ) (%)
Kajima Aramid 48 135 6.3 2.2
Shimizu Glass 35-45 57-72 3.0-3.5 2.0

Glass+Carbon 30-45 50-68 3.5-4.5 2.0
Carbon 25-45 70-100 6.0-15 1.4
Kumagai Carbon 60 155 13.5 1.2
Glass 70 160 5.3 3.2
Mitsui Aramid 65 130 6.6 2.2

Tokyo Rope Carbon 64 180 1.4 1.6
Takenaka Carbon 55-60 160-180 13-15 1.2
223
300
e
N
.g QI)
200
Carbon CFRM
C
rJO
rJO steel bar
....
aJ
Vi 100
Reinforcing ste~ bar
o 2 3
Strain (%)
Figure 2 - Stress-strain diagrams of CFRM and steel.
• high resistance against corrosion

• high strength
• light weight (1/5 to 1/3 of steel)
• nonmagnetic
• low Young's modulus (1/5 to 2/3 of steel)
• brittle: no yield point and small elongation at rupture
• difficulty in anchorage in post-tensioning PC system
The deflection after cracking and the crack width of members with CFRM tend to
be large due to the low Young's modulus. On the other hand, for prestressed concrete
members, the reduction of prestress due to creep and drying shrinkage is small.
Therefore, CFRM are suitable for prestressing bars.
The small elongation without yield phenomena requires special attention for
practical use of CFRM. When concrete members reinforced with CFRM fail in flexure,
there are two failure modes, that is, rupture of CFRM in tension or crushing of concrete
in compression. Either mode is brittle as compared with the ductile failure mode of
conventional RC members. As mentioned later, several techniques are proposed to
prevent the sudden breaking of members with CFRM. The plastic behavior at ultimate
stage often contributes to the warning of failure and the redistribution of internal forces.
However, it has not become clear how much plastic behavior is needed in what
situation. New materials may require new design concepts.
For the practical applications of CFRM to concrete structures, it is urged to

evaluate the material properties of CFRM and their corresponding testing methods, to
develop design methods for application of brittle CFRM, to devise anchorage techniques
for CFRM used in PC structures, to obtain effective methods for shear reinforcement
with CFRM, and to evaluate the durability of CFRM and structures with CFRM.
224
3. Relations of Failure Behavior Between Elements and System

The relationship between failure behavior of the portion (element) and that of the
whole (system) is investigated through analyses of simple models for better
understanding of the failure phenomena among materials, members and structures.
The kind of systems (statically indeterminate system or statically determinate
system), which is one of important factors affecting failure behavior, is illustrated in
Figure 3. A concrete bridge is considered as an example for explanation. Even though
(a) Statically indeterminate system (b) Statically determinate system

Figure 3 - Statically indeterminate system and statically determinate system.
the whole bridge is simply supported (statically determinate system), the bridge
generally consists of plural girders, which are put in parallel and connected with cross
beams (statically indeterminate system). It would be possible to consider that the
girder consists of many blocks along the axis (statically determinate system). In the
tension side, concrete and reinforcing bars are placed in parallel (statically
indeterminate system). The reinforcing bars can be divided into portions along the axis
(statically determinate system).
Figure 4 shows mechanical behavior (load-displacement diagram) of the parallel or
series systems, which consists of 3 elements A, B and C. The load-displacement
diagrams of the elements are different as indicated in the figure. The load-displacement
diagrams of the parallel system (statically indeterminate system) are obtained by
summing up the loads of the three elements at given displacements. In the series
system, the displacements of the three elements for given loads are piled up. When a
displacement of one element of the series system exceeds the peak, the other two
elements are unloaded. The values of the load and the displacement of the system at
the ultimate (the peak of the system is called ultimate, hereafter) are given in the
bracket [J.
The results of the 3-element parallel systems (statically indeterminate systems)
can be derived from the energy absorption capacity of the system that can be summed
from each element. When all elements behave as an elasto-plastic body, the ultimate
load of the system is equal to the summation of strength of each element, Figure 4(e).
When the elements have softening region after the peak, the ultimate load of the system
225
~
А
О 8eries
В
с
Element Parallel system system
4 (а)
8 (е) 8 (i)
F А (2,2) F [6. 6] F
В (4,2)
С (6,2) li and F at l!eak
4
[12. 2]
5 10 О 10 20 О 10 20
15 15 15
4 (ь)
8 (!) 8 (i)
F А (2,2) F F
В (4,2) [4. 4.8]
С (6,2)
4
[12. 2]
:
..: ..-... ........
",
20 О 20
15 15
4 8 (g) 8 (k)
(с)
F F [4. 6] F
[7. З. 1]
5 10 20 О 20
15 15 15
4 8 8 (1)
(d) (Ь)
F F [4. 6] F
[6. 1. 1]
15 10 О 10 20 О 10 20
15 15
Figure 4 - Behavior of 3-element systems and their elements.

226
is the summation of strengths of elements if displacements at the peak coincide with

each other, Figure 4(g), but the ultimate load becomes lower than the summation if the
peak displacements are not equal, Figure 4(f). Plastic behavior of the elements is
important so that the strength of each element contributes to the ultimate load of the
system. However, if the element displacements at the peak are in the same level, the
plastic deformations are not necessary to be large.
The results of the 3-element series systems (statically determinate systems) can be
summarized as follows:
• The strength and the energy absorption capacity of the weakest element govern
those of the system, Figure 4(k) and Figure 4(1).
• As seen from Figure 5, which indicates the transition of the deformation in each
element on the hardening region before the ultimate of the system, deformations
of all elements increase (dispersion of deformation). On the softening region
after the ultimate, only the deformation of the weakest element increases and
that of the other two elements decreases (localization of deformation).
4.------,
4 F
F A
B
2
b c
a b c
Transition of deformation
o
Figure 5 - Localization and dispersion of deformation.
To be emphasized from the comparison of results of the series systems and the parallel
systems is that the statically indeterminate system is preferred than the statically
determinate system, because the former would not result in global collapse of the
system if one of the elements fails.
4. Failure Mode and Structural Design of Concrete Members with CFRM
Three types of load-displacement diagrams A, Band C of beams in flexure are

illustrated in Figure 6. The characteristics represented by the diagram A are superior
to those of B and C in the following aspects:
• The ultimate load is the highest (large load carrying capacity).

• The displacement at the ultimate is the largest (large ductility).
• The toughness (area under diagrams) is the largest (high toughness).
• The initial stiffness is the largest (high stiffness).
• The curve turns at point "a" before the ultimate. This gives warning of the
coming ultimate load point (warning).
• The beam does not break, and consequently beam portions may not suddenly fall
down (prevention of breaking).
227
i
i
i c
i
i
i
!Diagram C
i
.
omg"m A ~
I a ............ . . . . . . . a
j ,~ __ .DIagram B
;',' ~"' ...
,.' " ....... ~d
i ,
I:"',' X : Breaking
!,
o~------------------------------
Displacement, is
Figure 6 - Comparison of load-displacement diagrams.
The ultimate load and the ductility should be chosen considering the economical
aspects, the balance of the performances, etc. The warning through the turning of the
curve is not always necessary but is valuable in many cases. The prevention of breaking
is not essential. This is not necessary when the breaking never occurs because the
failure of another part precedes or when the dropping of broken portions does not cause
serious damage. Moreover, the prevention of breaking may be not easy to be achieved
in the actual cases of large members because of the own weight.
For conventional RC beams in flexure, there are minimum and maximum limits for
tensile steel ratios so that the deflection increases with a slight increase of load after the
yield point, which warn us of the coming ultimate. Moreover, steel reinforcing bars
have a large elongation at rupture (10% or more in Japan) and a high ratio of tensile
strength to yield strength (about 1.3 in Japan). The large hardening portion of steel
contributes to the dispersion of deformation (rotation) along the beam axis.
It is desirable to establish design methods to control the failure behavior of

members with CFRM. The induction of prestress to members by tensioning CFRM
seems to be one of better solutions to control the failure mode. In PC beams, the
cracking load increases and the load-displacement curve turns at the cracking point
before the ultimate. The favorable shape of the load-displacement diagram should be
reflected, for example, on the safety factor concerning the design of members.
Figure 7 shows typical load-displacement diagrams of RC and PC members with

CFRM reported by Sekijima et al [2J. One-way slabs were reinforced (RC, specimen
FPS-1) or prestressed (PC, FPS-5) by grid type CFRM, which were made of glass fiber
and polyester resin. The induced prestressing force to the pre-tensioned PC slab (FPS-
5) was about 50% of the ultimate load of CFRM. The load of RC slab (FPS-1)
suddenly dropped when each crack opened. Due to the prestressing force, the cracking
load increased by 50%, the ultimate load increased by 10%, and the displacement at the
ultimate was reduced to one-third. In all cases, CFRM broke. Advantages of PC
members for CFRM are such that the deflection and the crack width are reduced,
sudden drop of load after cracking is prevented, and shape of load-displacement diagram
becomes favorable.
228
1IIIIIIIIil}~
I FPS-l (RC)
zs
(( 'f .j \ zs
I
I I FPS-5 (PC)
~
r( \
D$
I I
100 500 200 Sl,
I
i::::
zs zs
I::i:} (c) Crack map
50 I I 15@100=1500 jQ..i! 1001100 I ~ 1'3

~'-._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.:.016=00'-- I 300 I
(a) Slab specimen
o 1 2 o 10 20 30
Strain (%) Displacement (mm)
(b) Load-strain diagram of CFRM (d) Load-displacement diagrams of slab specimens
Figure 7 - Load-displacement diagrams of RC and PC members with CFRM [2J.
Several measures to prevent the breaking of beams have been proposed. The
amount of CFRM is increased to change the failure mode from rupture of CFRM to
crushing of concrete. This method is usually expensive. CFRM for prestressing and
steel bars for reinforcing are used together in a PC member. If CFRM break, it
becomes a RC member. This member is not nonmagnetic nor free from corrosion.
CFRM are placed in several layers and even in the compression side. After the rupture
of CFRM of the outer layer in the tension side, the remaining CFRM can support some
load. It is doubt that this method is effective even for actual large members with large
own weight.
As mentioned above, the prevention of breaking of members with CFRM is

possible but not complete. From the view point of ultimate behavior of a whole
structure, statically indeterminate structures with a certain degree of redundancy are
recommended rather than structures consisting of simple members, because the
breaking of one member does not directly cause the failure of the whole structure.
5. Conclusions
Discussions on the failure behavior are important when brittle materials such as
CFRM are applied to concrete structures. The features of CFRM and of concrete
members with CFRM are described.
229
The relations of load-displacement diagrams of elements and those of the whole

system are investigated using 3-element "parallel" and "series" models and hence the
following can be concluded:
• In order to fully contribute the strength of each element onto the ultimate load
of the parallel system (statically indeterminate system), the plastic behavior is
necessary for each element. However, when the displacements at the peak are in
the same level, small magnitude of plastic deformation is enough.
• In the series system (statically determinate system), the deformation disperses
on the hardening region before the ultimate but localizes on the softening region
after the ultimate.
• From the view point of ultimate behavior of a whole structure, the statically
indeterminate system is superior to the statically determinate system, because
the failure in one element does not directly provoke the failure of the whole
system.
The favorable failure behavior is discussed dealing with the shape of load-
displacement diagrams of beams in flexure. The use of CFRM as prestressing bars in
PC members is recommended, since the shape of the load-displacement diagram
becomes favorable due to the high cracking load. The prevention of breaking of
members with CFRM is not easy. The members with CFRM is recommended to be
used as a part of the statically indeterminate structures with a certain degree of
redundancy, because the breaking of one member does not directly cause the collapse of
the whole structure.
References
[1] JSCE Subcommittee on Continuous Fiber Reinforcing Materials, "Application of

Continuous Reinforcing Materials to Concrete Structures", Concrete Library, No.
72, 145p., 1992.4 (Japanese)/Concrete Library International, No. 19, pp. 89-130,
1992.6.
[2] K. Sekijima, M. Futagawa and H. Okamura, "Study on Prestressed Concrete with

FRP Grid Tendon", Proc. of the Japan Concrete Institute, Vol. 10, No.2, 1988
(Japanese).
INTERFACE STRUCTURE ANALYSIS AND FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR OF
INORGANIC COMPOSITES
M. Ferraris, C. Badini and P. Appendino
Dipartimento di Scienza dei Materiali e Ingegneria Chimica, Politecnico di Torino,

corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Torino, Italy
The chemical-physical structure of interfaces and the morphology of fracture

surfaces have been investigated in several inorganic matrix composites: metal matrix
composites (MMC:Ti-6AI-4V/SiCfibers and Mg/Cfiber ), glass-ceramic matrix
composites (GCMC:[TiO.j-Si02-CaO-B203/Tiparticle) and ceramic matrix composites
(CMC:SiC/SiC/iber)' Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Energy dispersion
spectroscopy (EDS), Auger electron spectroscopy (AES), Vickers micro-indentation and
fracture surface examination, have been used to characterize the materials. A
correlation between the chemical-physical structure of interfaces and the failure mode
have been attempted for the most significant samples.
1. Introduction
There are several new or less new potential applications for inorganic matrix
composites: e.g., in automotive and aerospace industry for MMC, in the fabrication of
biocompatible prosthetical devices for GCMC, in the thermo-nuclear fusion technology,
aerospace and energy implants for CMC. The main problems for their massive use are
a high production cost and a still not optimized reliability. That means a very
specifical use in particular fields where cost is not the main problem and composites
have been designed and tested especially for such applications.
The design of a composite is the key for its success: this new approach to material
science requires a deep knowledge of the correlations between physical-chemical
characteristics and mechanical behaviour of the materials.
A central role is played by the interface between matrix and reinforcement: at this
critical point physical and chemical interactions at the interface deeply affect the
mechanical properties of the composites.
An interface can be designed [1] as strong or weak depending on:
• the structure (metal, glass or ceramic) and the chemical composition of matrix
and reinforcement, both responsible for diffusion processes and interfacial chemical
reaction.
• the fabrication technology of the composite [2,3].
• the shape of the reinforcement (long fiber, whisker, platelet, ribbon or particle).
• which properties of the composite is expected to be optimized (e.g., stiffness,

tensile or compressive strength, toughness, wear resistance, [4].
231
G. c. Sih et al. (eds.), Advanced Technology for Design and Fabrication of Composite Materials and Structures, 231-240.
232
A huge work of modellization and theory has been done in this field [5-12]; on the
other side, quite few has been done to correlate models with interfacial chemistry.
Some examples have been proposed, but for very specifical cases.
The aim of this work is to give some specific examples of interfacial

characterization and modification for inorganic matrix composites, with particular
emphasis on the chemical-physical behaviour of the interfaces before and after thermal
treatments or matrix modification.
2. Experimentals
Table 1 shows the composition of the inorganic matrix composites here studied;
there are three different combinations of matrices and reinforcements:
Table 1 - Composition of the inorganic matrix composites
MMC GCMC CMC
Matrix Fibers Matrix Particles Matrix Fibers

Ti-6Al-4V SiC Sica-CaO- Ti SiC SiC
B2 3
Mg(AZ90) C Ti0 2-Si0 2- Ti
CaO-B 20 3
2.1 MMC
Here, two ductile matrices have been reinforced with ceramic long fibers to
improve stiffness and tensile strength of the metal matrices; composites have been
prepared by diffusion bonding (BP, DWA) [13]. SiC fibers have been double coated by
a carbon and a TiB2 layers to limit the growth of reaction layers.
Samples have been investigated as received and after heat treatments under
vacuum at 400°C (Mg-matrix), 600, 700 and 1000°C (Ti-matrix). Fracture surfaces have
been obtained by a conventional tensile machine. AES (Thin Film Analyser-Phisical
Electronics Model 4200) have been used to study the interfaces in MMC.
2.2 GCMC
In this case, two brittle biocompatible glass matrices have been reinforced with
ductile metal particles (30% volume Ti) to improve their toughness (49Si0 2-49CaO-
2B 20 3; 2Ti0 2-47SiO T 48CaO-3B 203.' % molar). These composites have been prepared
in our laboratory by sintering and ceramising, under Ar atmosphere, a mixture of
previously melted and powdered bio-glasses and titanium particles. The addition of
Ti0 2 into the glass (2% molar) is ~xpected to modify the interface matrix/particle [14].
Several Vickers micro-indentatipns (500-1000g) have been made on the glass-ceramic
matrix, on the Ti particles and. at their interfaces.
2.3 CMC
Brittle matrices reinforced with brittle fibers can switch the catastrophic fracture
III a quasi-ductile one: in this particular case, SiC (Nicalon) long fibers produced by
233
chemical vapour deposition (CVD), have been liquid phase infiltrated (LPI) with
polymers, then pyrolyzed to obtain SiC of suitable density. These SiC/SiC composites
have been prepared by Dornier especially for thermo-nuclear fusion a~plications.
Fracture surfaces have been easily obtained by impact on surface notch [15]. Each
composite have been cross-sectioned, polished and observed by SEM (Philips 525M) and
EDS (Philips EDAX 9100) in the range of the interface.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1 MMC
Figure 1 shows a typical fracture behaviour of an as-received SiC fibers reinforced

Ti-6AI-4V composite: SiC fibers are firstly debonded from the matrix and then
Figure 1 - Fracture surface of an as-received SiC fibers reinforced Ti-6AI-4V composite.
themselves subjected to fracture. In this case, the metal matrix have to be improved in
terms of strength and stiffness by the ceramic fibers: that means, the interface between
matrix and fibers have to be strong enough to transfer loads, but not so strong to give a
catastrophic fracture for the composite. In order to obtain this subtile compromise at
the interface, SiC fibers have been CVD coated by an internal carbon- and an external
TiB 2-layer. The former is expected to provide the debonding, the latter the adhesion
matrix/fiber.
An experimental evidence of these points is shown in Figure 2 where the cross-

section of a fracture surface shows three different zones: uncoated SiC fiber, debonded
C-coating and TiB2 bonded to the matrix (from EDS and AES microprobe analyses)
[16J.
Both the layers can be regarded as a barrier against the diffusion of Ti into the
fibers and Si and C into the matrix. The diffusion gives rise to the formation of brittle
silicides and carbides and the subsequent embrittlement of the whole composite. Figure
234
Figure 2 - Cross-section of a fracture surface of an as-received SiC fibers reinforced Ti-

6Al-4V composite with three different zones: uncoated SiC fiber, debonded C-coating
and TiB2 bonded to the matrix.
Figure 3 - Fracture surface of a SiC fibers reinforced Ti-6Al-4V composite after heat
treatment at 700·C: brittle fracture at the interface.
3 shows the efficiency of the barrier up to 700·C: AES and EDS microprobe analyses
through the interface reveal the presence of a thin layer of Ti boron-carbides. The
fracture behaviour is still ductile for the matrix, but becomes brittle at the interface
(see the continuous crack around the fiber).
235
When the thermal treatment exceeds (lOOO·C), Figure 4, the fracture becomes
brittle for fibers, interfaces and matrix: the formation of brittle phases (especially Ti
silicides and carbides) travels through matrix and fibers for 50-70 microns. The
diffusion barrier is not effective at these temperature any more [16J.
Figure 4 - Fracture surface of a SiC fibers reinforced Ti-6AI-4V composite after heat
treatment at lOOO·C: brittle fracture of the composite.
C fibers reinforced Mg AZ91 (8-9 AI, 0.3 Si, 0.5 Zn, balance Mg, wt%) is a typical
.low density-hie:h stiffness MMC for aerospace application. Figure 5 shows an etched
Figure 5 - C fibers reinforced Mg AZ91: etched cross-section of an as-received sample.

236
cross-section of an as-received sample: several whitish precipitates are visible at the
revealed a high concentration of Al (22.4 wt%), °

interfaces fiber/matrix and at the matrix grain boundaries. AES and EDS analyses
and C in these zones. The formation
of Al and Mg oxides and carbides at the interface is then already possible during the
preparation of the composite. Due to the brittleness of these interfacial precipitates, a
brittle fracture at the interface is expected for these composites: Figure 6 shows a
typical fracture surface for an as-received composite. Completely naked C fibers (from
Figure 6 - C fibers reinforced Mg AZ91: fracture surface of an as-received sample.
AES and EDS analyses on the pull-out surface of fibers) suggest a fracture mode where
the brittle precipitates are bonded to the matrix and the C fibers are pull-out without
any coating. The fracture behaviour of the matrix is still ductile and the fracture starts
at the interface.
When the composite is heat treated (400·C, in vacuum sealed silica tubes), the
growth of the brittle precipitates increases towards fibers and matrix; the fracture mode
changes abruptly and becomes brittle for the matrix too. The carbides-rich interfacial
zone exceeds 20-40 microns. The mechanical properties of the composite are expected
to fail at these temperature [17].
3.2 GCMC
Several cracks have been produced by micro-indentation at the interface Ti-glass

ceramic of the two kinds of composites. The crack propagation is strongly affected by
the interface quality:
• when the matrix does not contain Ti0 2, its adhesion to Ti particles is poor; Ti
particles have an unavoidable thin Ti0 2 coating which is soluble into the glass matrix
during the sintering at the softening point. After that, Ti particles are in direct contact
with the glass surface, giving rise to a poor bond and a weak, if not absent, interface.
When the crack arrives through the matrix at the interface, a propagation to the Ti
237
particle is impossible. The particle acts like a pore, without any connection to the
matrix: the crack is partially deviated, but its fracture energy is still enough to
propagate into the composite .
• when the matrix already contains Ti0 2, the dissolution of other Ti0 2 (from the
surface of Ti particles) is thermodynamically unfavored and kinetically slowed. The
interface between the Ti0 2 coated Ti particles and the matrix is continuous and strong:
the crack arrives at the mterface where is stopped. A certain amount of energy is
consumed to break the interface, Figure 7. If the fracture energy is strong enough, the
Ti particle can crack by absorbing energy, Figure 8 [14].
Figure 7 - Crack propagation in a Ti0 2-Si0 2:CaO-B 20 3/Ti articles composite: crack
stops at the mterface. p
As any absorption of fracture energy improves the toughness of the material, the
Ti0 2 containing biocomposite is expected to have a better toughness than the other
one: this feature is particularly useful in the field of biomedical applications for
prosthetical devices.
3.3 CMC
Figure 9 shows a fracture surface for an as-received SiC-matrix/SiC-fiber composite
(SiC/SiC): this is a typical example of ductilisation of brittle materials by pull-out and
debonding between matrix and fibers. The interface must be weak enough to allow the
two energy-consuming processes: the absence of any reaction layer at the interface
between the two kinds of SiC (CVD and LVI) can be observed on the SEM micrograph.
When an oxidation occurs, silica and silicon oxy-carbides grow at the fiber-matrix
interface: that means a stren&thening of fiber-matrix bond and results in a general
embrittlement of the composite lI8].
238
f
Figure 8 - Crack propagation in a Ti0. 2-SiO .
CaO-B t
. 0 3 /Ti par t IC
stops mto a I partlc e.
' 1es composite: crack
Figure 9 - Fracture surface of an as-received SiC/SiC composite.

239
4. Conclusions
As shown for several inorganic matrix composites, simple morphological

observations of fracture surfaces and crack propagation can give important information
connected to the interfacial structure of the composites.
A strong interface does not automatically mean a good choice for a given material:
it works for ductile particles-reinforced GCMC, if toughness has to be improved. On
the contrary, a weak interface has to be designed to allow the pull-out and the
debonding in a ceramic fibers-reinforced CMC, to be improved in toughness. For
ceramic fibers-reinforced MMC, where the stiffness has to be improved, the interface
must be strong enough to allow the load transfer, but not too much to avoid the
embrittlement of the whole material. A physical-chemical study of the interface is a
powerful tool to understand the mechanical properties of the composites.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Fiat Research Center (Torino) for SEM/EDS facilities,
Istituto Ricerche Scientifiche e Tecnologiche (Trento) for AES measurements, Joint
Research Center (Ispra) for supplying SiC/SiC composites and the colleagues for their
help in preparing this manuscript.
References
[1] Engineered Interface ill Composites, Materials Research Bulletin, No.4, Vol. 16,
April 1991.
[2] Fabrication of Particulate Reinforced Metal Composites, ASM International, Metal

Park, Ohio, J. Masounave and F. G. Hawel, eds., 1990.
[3] Metal Matrix Composites: Processing and Interfaces, Academic Press, San Diego,
California, R. K. Everett and R. J. Arsenault, eds., 1991.
[4] Mechanical Behaviour of Metal-Matrix Composites, The Metallurgical Society of

AIME, Warrendale, Pennsylvania, J. E. Hack and M. F. Amateau, eds., 1983.
[5] Introduction aux Materiaux Composites. 2-Matrices Metallique et Ceramiques, R.

Naslain, ed., 1979.
[6] Metal Matrix Composites: Mechanism and Properties, Academic Press, San Diego,
California, R. K. Everett and R. J. Arsenault, eds., 1991.
[7] S. V. Nair, J. K. Tien and R. C. Bates, "SiC-Reinforced Aluminium Metal Matrix

Composites", Int. Metals Reviews, 30, pp. 275-290, 1985.
[8] Y. L. Klipfel, M. Y. He, R. M. McMeeking, A. G. Evans and R. Mehrabian, "The

Processing and Mechanical Behaviour of an Aluminium Matrix Composite
Reinforced with Short Fibres", Acta Metall. Mater., 38, pp. 1063-1074, 1990.
[9] S. Ochiai and Y. Murakauri, "Theoretical Prediction of Tensile Strength of Fibers

as Function of Thickness of Brittle Zones on Fiber Surface", Metall. Trans. A, 12,
pp. 1155-1161, 1981.
240
[10] T. Kyano, I. W. Hall and M. Taya, "Work of Fracture of Unidirectional Metal

Matrix Composites Subjected to Isothermal Exposure", J. Mater. Sci., 21, pp. 1879-
1888, 1986.
[11] S. Ochiai and K. Osamura, "A Computer Simulation of Strength of Metal Matrix
Composites with a Reaction Layer at the Interface", Metall. Trans. A, 18, pp. 673-
679, 1987.
[12] J. K. Shang and R. O. Ritchie, "On the Particle-Size Dependence of Fatigue-Crack
Propagation Thresholds in SiC-Particulate-Reinforced Aluminium-Alloy
Composites: Role of Crack Closure and Crack Stopping", Acta Metall. 37, pp.
2267-2278, 1989.
[13] M. Ferraris, C. Badini, F. Marino, F. Marchetti and S. Girardi, "Interfacial
Reactions in a Ti-6AI-4V Based Composite: Role of the TiB2 Coating", J. Mater.
Sci. 28, pp. 1983-1987, 1993.
[14] M. Ferraris, P. Appendino, C. Badini and F. Marino, "Preparation and
Characterization of Glass-Ceramic Matrix Composites", to be published in
Ceramica Acta, 1993.
[15] M. Appendino Montorsi, R. Delorenzo, M. Ferraris and E. Verne, "Advanced

Ceramics for Nuclear, Biomedical and Automotive Applications", Proceedings of
C.I.E.C. 4 - Interregional Colloquium on Ceramics, Salou April 15-16, 1993, Spain,
pp. 163-168.
[16] C. Badini, M. Ferraris and F. Marchetti, "Thermal Stability of Interfaces in Ti-
6AI-4V Reinforced by SiC Sigma Fibers", submitted to J. Mater. Sci.
[17] M. Ferraris, C. Badini, A. Ferri and P. L. Antona, "Composites Magnesium-
Carbone: Caracterisation de l'interface Fibre/Matrice", submitted to "Revue de
Metallurgie" .
[18] M. Ferraris, C. Badini, M. Appendino Montorsi, P. Appendino and H. W. Scholz,

"Joining of SiC/SiC Composites for Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors", to be
published in Journal of Nuclear Materials.
ADVANCED FmRE COMPOSITES WITH ENGINEERED INTERFACES
Y.-W. Mai
Center for Advanced Materials Technology, Department of Mechanical and

Mechatronic Engineering, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
The damage tolerance of advanced fibre composite laminates can be significantly

improved by smartly engineering the physical, chemical and mechanical properties of the
interfaces between fibre and matriz and between individual plies. It is shown that the
most effective method for unidirectional fibre composites is to apply an appropriate
thermoplastic surface coating to the fibres, either intermittently or fully. Transverse
impact fracture toughness can be enhanced by several times without little loss of
strength. Micromechanics analysis is given to explain these toughness results. The
effects of the coating on the stress distributions on the fibre-matriz interface are
analysed using finite element method. For angle ply composites, interleaving between
plies with perforated thin plastic films has proven to be a very successful technique in
improving the damage resistance against edge fraying and delamination around
discontinuities. Examples on boron, carbon and Kevlar fibre composites are given to
demonstrate the applicability of these toughening techniques.
1. Introduction
Advanced fibre composites are traditionally used in weight critical applications

because of their high specific strength and specific modulus. However, there is now an
increasing demand for high specific fracture energy absorption in applications where the
structures may be subjected to collisions and multiple impacts. An effective method to
deal with this technologically important problem is to start on the fundamental level of
design of materials with which the components are made. The most important
parameter in the design of fibre composite laminates is the interfacial strength (or
toughness) between fibre and matrix and between individual plies. Generally, to have a
high composite strength, the interface has to be strongly bonded. But to have a large
composite fracture toughness, the interface should be weak. There have been many
experimental techniques developed over the past two decades to manufacture both high
strength and high toughness composites. Useful reviews on this subject have been given
in [1,2]. Table 1 taken from [3] summarises the main methods and the resulting effects
on toughness and strength relative to the control composites. Methods (1) to (3) are
concerned with fibre-matrix interfaces and the application of thermoplastic coatings on
fibre surfaces; methods (5) and (6) deal with the interlaminar interfaces using
thermoplastic thin films interleaved between the plies. In these lecture notes, recent
developments on the modification of fibre-matrix interfaces by thermoplastic coatings
and of interlaminar interfaces with perforated thin plastic films, along with past
findings, are presented to show how composite laminates with high toughness can be
made without any significant loss of strength. Examples are given on boron, carbon and
Kevlar fibre-epoxy composites.
Finally, the evaluation of fibre-matrix interfacial properties using the single fibre
pullout test is described and the effects of the thermoplastic coating on the stress
distributions in the fibre-matrix interface are studied using finite element method.
241
242
Table 1 - Comparisons of toughening methods for fibre composites, {after [3])
Toughening Composite % increase % decrease Test Reference

method system in in method
toughness* strength*
1. Intermittent Boron-epoxy 550 25 Compact tension [9)

bonding resin (100% and quasi-static
polyurethane crack
coated fibres) propagation
(80% poly- 400 nil Compact tension [9)
urethane coated and quasi-static
fibres) crack
propagation
2. Silicone Carbon-epoxy llO nil Izod compact [ll)

rubber (fibres fully
coatings coated)
3. Rate Glass- polyester 150 NA Izod compact [12)

sensitive resin (fully
viscous coated fibres)
coatings
4. Non- Brass sheets Depends NA Double-cantilever- [25)

fracturing on crack beam and quasi-
core/sheath length static cracking
elements
5. Delamina- Carbon-epoxy 170 nil Charpy impact [26)

tion pro- resin (full
moters nylon films
intercalated
between plies)
6. Intermit- Boron-epoxy 170 15 Compact tension [19)

tent (perforated and quasi-static
bonding Mylar films) cracking
Carbon-epoxy 250 25 Compact tension [19,20)

resin (per- and quasi-static
forated Mylar cracking
films)
* Comparisons are made with control samples. NA = not available.

2. Fracture Toughness of Fibre Composites
To improve the fracture toughness of a fibre composite in which the crack

propagates transversely to the fibres, it is necessary to understand where the various
sources of energy absorption processes come from. Harris [4] has given a description of
the sequential fracture events under increasing load and these include the following
fracture mechanisms with their associated equations.
243
2.1 Fibre-Matrix Debonding
Debonding occurs in the fibre-matrix interface when the strain energy release rate
of the fibre exceeds the interfacial toughness (Rd ). Thus
(1)
where Vf is fibre volume fraction, 0' r1 is debond stress, ed is debonded length and E f is
fibre Young's modulus. This equation is concerned wIth fibre-matrix debonding in
Mode II shear. If the bond strength Tb is sufficiently smaller than the matrix tensile
strength O'm' tensile debonding may occur at the fibre-matrix interface ahead of the
crack tip as originally observed by Cook and Gordon [5]. This mechanism not only
blunts the propagating crack tip but it also augments th fibre pullout length.
2.2 Post-Debond Friction
After fibre-matrix interfacial debonding, the fibre and matrix move relative to each
other giving rise to post-debond friction work (R d)' If 6.< is the differential strain of
fibre and matrix, then p
(2)
where Tf is the frictional shear strength at the interface and d is the fibre diameter. 6.<
R:: ff because in brittle matrix composites, <f > > <m (which is the matrix fracture
strain).
2.3 Stress Redistribution
When a fibre is stressed to failure over the debonded length, it relaxes back and
regains its original diameter. In so doing, the strain energy stored in the fibre is
redistributed to the matrix. The fracture toughness (Rr) due to this stress relaxation
mechanism is:
(3)
where O'f is the mean fibre fracture strength and ec (= O'f/2Tb) is the critical transfer
length of the fibre.
2.4 Fibre Pullout
The fractured fibre does not fail at the crack plane because of weak spots on the
fibre length. Assuming the fibre pullout length is epo and the frictional shear stress Tf is
constant, then the fibre pullout toughness (Rpo) becomes:
(4)
Because epo is often difficult to measure, it is desirable to express Rpo in terms of ec '
Hence
(5)
if L = ec and epo = ec /4. For fibre composites whose fibre length L < ec , then L is used
in equation (5). For fibre composites with L > ec ' equation (5) has to be multiplied by
244
(fc/L).
The toughness mechanisms described above may act singly or cooperatively for any
one system of composites. Marston et al [6] have suggested a total fracture toughness
(Rt) theory by including R r , Rpo and Rs which is the sum of the fracture energies
required for the creation of new surfaces including the interface R d , the matrix Rm and
the fibre R f Thus
Rt = Rr V f'"f {lT~
+ Rpo + Rs = ~ ( Tf lTf) }
-6- 4Tb + Ef + Rd/2 + (1- Vf)Rm (6)
where
(7)
It is assumed that ed ~ ec and Rf is neglected. Equation (6) only works if the
toughening mechanisms assumed in the expression all co-exist. Otherwise, only those
terms that are relevant to the fracture processes can be included in the expression for
Rt ·
The significance of the toughness equations given above points to those parameters
that must be suitably designed in order to maximise the particular toughness
mechanism. For example, as R t in equation (6) shows, the interfacial bond strength Tb
has to be low to enhance the total fracture toughness. But it is also realised that for
high composite strength
(8)
Tb has to be high. Therefore, to optimise toughness and strength, Tb has to be smartly
designed. Many techniques on fibre surface treatment such as ion implantation, plasma
treatment, electrolytic oxidation, etc., are only aimed at increasing the fibre-matrix
bond strength and hence are not useful for promoting fracture toughness. Also,
equation (6) shows that the frictional stress Tf at the debonded interface and the
interface debond toughness Rd should be increased for high R t .
In the following sections, it will be shown how both high toughness and high
strength composites can be obtained by appropriately engineering the interfacial
mechanical properties and how these properties may be determined independently from
single fibre pullout experiments.
3. Optimisation for High Fracture Toughness in Brittle Fibre-Brittle Matrix

Composites
In unidirectional fibre composites, to obtain high transverse fracture toughness with

little loss of strength, it is necessary to choose an optimum value of Tb so that IT c is
maximised by keeping the term lT~/4LTb as small as possible. So, if Tb is low, the
finite length L of the fibre must be large to enable sufficient length for stress transfer
between matrix and fibre to take place. Obviously, if Tb is kept too low, it is impossible
to have extremely long fibres exceeding the finite size of the component. A compromise
is therefore often required for Tb which can be cleverly engineered by altering the fibre-
matrix interface properties by putting a thermoplastic surface coating on the fibre.
245
In angle ply composite laminates, since high normal and shear stresses are
developed at the edges and around discontinuities or cutouts, fraying and delamination
often occur leading to low toughness of the composite. Suitable methods may be
developed by controlling the interlaminar interfacial strength so that shear stresses can
be transferred effectively between the plies and yet high fracture toughness mechanisms
can be encouraged. The intermittent interlaminar bonding concept is a useful method
to achieve this aim.
3.1 Fibre Coating and Intermittent Fibre-Matrix Interfacial Bonding Concept
An effective method to improve the fracture toughness R t of a composite laminate

is by the application of a polymer coating either intermittently or fully along the fibre
length (see Table 1). Intermittent bonding produces repeated regions of low (coated)
and high (uncoated) interfacial strength (or toughness), Figure 1. The low strength
Initia! low-strength
crack source
High-
strength
load
Figure 1 - Schematic of a composite with intermittently bonded fibers .
(high toughness) regions serve to blunt the advancing crack tip and promote long fibre
debond and pullout lengths. The high strength (low toughness) regions enable the rule
of mixture strength to be maintained albeit over a longer fibre length, Figure 2. Thus,
Figure 2 - Intermittent bond geometry and critical shear transfer length.
if a composite is laid up randomly with respect to weak and strong regions, both high
strength and high tou!5hness can be obtained. This concept has been demonstrated by
several investigators l7-9]. The experimental device used to make intermittently
246
bonded fibre composites has been described in [3,10]. Basically, it makes use of a
filament winding machine in which the fibre passes beween two rubber rollers before
being wound on the drum. The rollers can be opened and closed by electronic control
and are wetted with the coating fluid so that the fibre in turn becomes uncoated and
coated along its length. The frequency of operation determines the relative
coated/uncoated lengths.
Fully coated fibres can be obtained by closing the rollers of the filament winding
machine. However experimentally, it is more conveniently made by wetting the fibre
tows in a solution of the coating fluid, and after drying, they can be impregnated with
the resin to make fibre composites in the usual way. Thermoplastic coatings using
silicone rubber, silicone vacuum fluid (SVF), polysulfone, polybutadiene, latex polyvinyl
alcohol (PV AL), anhydride and acrylonitrile copolymers [11-17] have been successfully
applied to carbon, glass and Kevlar fibre composites to obtain high fracture toughness.
Thermoplastic coatings have advantages over other forms of fibre coatings in that they
would form a micro-ductile layer at the fibre-matrix interface to relax the residual
stresses caused by the matrix shrinkage during curing of the composite. However, even
though the mechanics of how the coating works has been obtained, the selection of an
appropriate coating material for a given composite system is largely a trial and error
exercise. Several general rules have been suggested based on past experiences. These
are: (a) a high viscosity coating is required if the coating remains fluidic or rubbery at
the interface after curing (e.g., silicone vacuum fluid on carbon fibre); (b) if the
interface coating becomes a rigid layer after cure (e.g., polyurethane on Kevlar fibre) it
should be more ductile and compliant than the matrix, and it should have a high
frictional strength but a weak interfacial bond strength; (c) the coating thickness should
be thin compared to the fibre diameter so that the flexural and intralaminar shear
strengths would not severely suffer; and (d) a certain degree of chemical reaction
between matrix and coating is desirable and the coating should preferably form and
remain a discrete layer. Surface analysis techniques could prove useful to understand
this phenomenon and there is already some work performed on polyvinyl alcohol coated
'carbon fibre composites using the XPS method [18].
3.2 Intermittent Interlaminar Bonding Concept
As mentioned earlier, angle-ply composites develop high normal and interlaminar

shear stresses at edges and discontinuities during loading. Hence, edge fraying and
delamination initiation easily occur. A simple method to increase delamination energy
absorption and hence control damage is to apply a two-dimensional version of the one-
dimensional intermittent fibre coating technique [19,20] to interlaminar interfaces. This
means that thermoplastic thin films with perforations can be interleaved between the
plies before the composite laminate is made. Therefore, there are regions of high
interlaminar shear strength through the perforated areas and regions of low shear
strength in the film. When a crack is propagating transverse to the thickness of the
composite laminate, Figure 3, in the weak regions, delamination takes place resulting in
crack front bifurcation and sub-crack propagation along the interlaminar interfaces.
These mechanisms encourage large fracture energy absorptions [19,20]. In the strong
perforated regions, delamination is discouraged and shear stress transfer is permitted
between plies so that a large interlaminar shear strength can be maintained. There is a
delicate balance between fracture toughness and strength here because excessive
delamination by increasing the relative amounts of perforated areas is undesirable and it
causes unacceptable reductions in composite stiffness and both compressive and
interlaminar shear strengths.
247
load
carbon filaments
t
strong bond interface
weak bond interface

initiating crack in filament
blunted interlaminar crack
j~
load thickness of one lamina
Figure 3 - Intermittent interlaminar bonded composite showing blunting mechanism
and sub-crack delamination.
This interlaminar intermittent bonding technique is less effective when the crack
propagates along the interfaces between the plies. In this situation, the plastic film
should be replaced with a tough layer of material with a low modulus but a large
fracture strain. Good bonding between the interleaving material and the plies is
preferred because the aim is to increase the delamination toughness. This topic will not
be discussed in these notes and interested readers may refer to [1,2].
4. Experimental Results and Discussion
Experimental results are given for boron, carbon and Kevlar fibre composites to
illustrate the effectiveness of the fibre coating technique to engineer desirable fibre-
matrix interfaces with a thermoplastic layer for high transverse fracture toughness. For
demonstration of the intermittent interlaminar bonding technique with perforated
plastic films interleaved between the plies, examples are given for boron and Kevlar
fibre composites. Fracture toughness measurements are measured from either Charpy
sharp notch specimens or standard compact tension specimens whereby the total work
to fracture is divided by the ligament area. Also given are strength and cyclic fatigue
properties where available.
4.1 Boron Fibre-Epoxy Resin Composites
Unidirectional and angle ply (0/ -45/0/+45/0) boron-epoxy composites with

0.2 - 0.25 fibre volume fraction were made in which the fibres were coated with a
polyurethane varnish. Strength and toughness tests were conducted in dry and wet
conditions. Wet condition refers to the water-saturated specimens (the content of which
depends on the ratio C of the coated length to the repeated length, Figure 2, on the
fibre). To simulate flight missions, the composites were also tested at the frozen and
thawed conditions. For the angle l?ly composites, interleaving layers of a thin Mylar
film with about 10% perforations (01) were inserted between adjacent plies. In all these
composites, the repeated distance over which the fibres were intermittently coated was
50mm.
248
The tensile strength and fracture toughness results are given in Figures 4 and 5 for
both unidirectional and angle-ply composites. For the wet uncoated samples (C=O),
there is a 50% drop in tensile strength compared to the dry samples, but for the fully
coated samples (C=1), there is hardly any change in the strength. The influence of
freezing and thawing on strength is negligible when compared to the presoaked wet
samples. Theoretical predictions of the unidirectional composite strength, Figure 4(a),
compare well with the experimental data and details of the calculations have been given
elsewhere [21]. The parameter T is the ratio of the shear strengths in the coated to the
uncoated regions. Hence, in the dry samples, the polymer coating has reduced the bond
strength to only 5% of the original value. However, in the wet samples, T = 1.35 and
this means that the coated regions have a larger bond strength than the uncoated
regions. Why this is so is not entirely clear although the discrete interlayer formed at
the fibre-matrix interface is directly responsible for this result. Separate experiments on
...
(01 0 '-------:0.2:;------:.:':
.•- - - ...
'':-----..-"-.----',.• Ibl a '---~O.2;----;O;;';A----:o.:7.---::'0..:------...l")
PERCENTAGE COATING C PERCENTAGE COATING C
Figure 4 - Tensile strengths of (a) unidirectional and (b) angle-ply boron fibre-epoxy
composites. (Vf = 0.25, • dry, .. soaked, • frozen/thawed).
l/
300 3 ••
II: II:
••
U)
ffi200
I
Z
J:
C)
:::>
• f:?
W w
/
.~
II: II:
~ o ~
~100 o U 100
~ .~:
.
0
IL
• ____ 0 WET THEORY •
~~•
~.
.:' • -- 0 WET THEORY
101 0
I ~0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 Ibl. '------:' '-.--0'-
•.::-,- - •. •.•=---.....--',.
PERCENTAGE COATING C PERCENTAGE COATING C
Figure 5 - Fracture toughness of (a) unidirectional and (b) angle-ply boron fibre-epoxy
composites. (Vf = 0.25, • dry, 0 soaked, 0 soaked and non-straight crack path, ..
frozen/thawed, • frozen/thawed and non-straight crack path).
249
the frictional shear strength show that for the wet samples, Tf = 2.75 MPa for C = 1
and 0.50 MPa for C = O. The fracture toughness results, Figure 5, show very clearly
the dramatic effect of the polyurethane coating. There is a 600% toughness increase in
the unidirectional composites and a 400% improvement in the angle-ply composites in
the dry condition at C = 1.0. However, in the wet condition, there is less toughness
improvement achieved but the results are still quite remarkable. Theoretical toughness
curves are also superposed in these figures and there is reasonable agreement with
experimental results [21].
The effects of the Mylar inlays with 10% perforations on the tensile strength and
fracture toughness of the angle-ply composites are given in Figures 6 and 7. Increasing
500
til
a... 400
6- Theory I
o (I)
~I/.
Intermittent interlaminar
~ 300 f3 200 bonded composite~o
Z
Z I
w (!)
a:
~ 200
:::>
~ 100
- .
_______ - - -t_/ 0' /
~ Intermittent interlaminar W
en bonded composite. a = 0.1
a:
:::> - - O - O < n composite
ffi
~
100
I-
a: 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
u..
PERCENTAGE COATING C
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Figure 6 - Tensile strength of angle-ply Figure 7 - Fracture toughness of angle-ply

boron fibre-epoxy composites boron fibre-epoxy composites
with intermittent interlaminar with intermittent interlaminar
bonding. bonding.
the perforated area a clearly leads to decreasing strengths and this reduction is more for
a higher C value. The fracture toughness, on the other hand, for all values of C, is
increased by having the perforations on the Mylar inlays. Prediction of the toughness
using equation (6) alone is inaccurate because the terms related to Rpo and Rd have to
be multiplied by the ratio of the number of 0' plies to the total number of plies. In
addition, the ± 45' plies fail with considerable delamination between adjacent plies.
Two additional terms need to be included in the toughness. equation, i.e.,
Rds = a~~m * (number of interfaces) (9)
and
Rdpo = [T D 2/3tcJf * (number of interfaces) (10)
Rds refers to the fracture of the matrix resin in the perforated regions and R dpo is the
frictional work to pullout the delaminated "saw teeth". Here, D is the delaminated
area, Tf is the interply frictional stress and tc is the laminate thickness. Using a = 0.1,
250
Rm = 500 J/m2, Tf = 10 MPa for C = 0 and Tf = 2 MPa for all other C values, fc =
3.45 mm, d = 140 JIm, Ef = 380 GPa, T{ = 3 MPa, O"f = 3.45 GPa, and from
experiments, D ~ 4 mm independent of C, the total fracture toughness can be
calculated from the sum of equations (6), (9) and (10). This predicted curve is shown
in Figure 7 and the agreement is good.
All the toughness results given in Figures 5 and 7 confirm that the fibre coating
technique and the interlaminar bonding method do increase the fracture toughness of
the boron fibre composites.
4.2 Carbon Fibre-Epoxy Resin Composites
Unidirectional carbon fibre-epoxy resin composites (~f = 0.50) in which the fibres
are fully coated with a polyvinyl alcohol (PV AL) coating fiave been tested for strength
and fracture toughness (based on the Charpy impact samples) over a range of
temperatures. There is very little loss of flexural and interlaminar shear strengths
between the coated and uncoated composites. However, as Figure 8 shows, at low
ooE
::,
200
Ne~2oo
• PVAL coated ::, • PVAL coated
~
I
Ul o Uncoated fibres ~
Ul Ul o Uncoated fibres
w
!3Z
z 150
;
150
:t
Ii ~
C) :t
::;) C)
0 ::;)
t- O
w 100 t- 100
II: W
f
::;) II:
~
t- ::;)
0 t-
0
~ ee
IL 50
~ II: 50
t-
~
IL
0 t-
ee
Q.
0
~ ~
0 ~ 0
-80 -40 0 40 80 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
TEMPERATURE (t) MAXIMUM FIBRE PULL-OUT LENGTH (mm)
Figure 8 - Variation of impact toughness Figure 9 - Correlation of impact with

temperature for CFRP. toughness with maximum fibre
pullout length for CFRP.
temperatures (less than O°C) the coated composites have a 300% increase in toughness
compared to the uncoated samples. But with increasing test temperature, this
improvement is gradually reduced. Because the major source of fracture energy comes
from fibre pullout, the toughness results are mere reflections of the dependence of the
fibre pullout lengths with temperature. This is confirmed in Figure 9.
The influence of the perforations on the fract,ure toughness of the angle ply carbon
fibre composites (0/ -45/0/+45/0/+45/0) is demonstrated in Figure 10. When a = 1,
there is no Mylar thin film between the plies and when a = 0, there is a full film.
These results indicate that the maximum toughness is obtained at Cl" = 0.2 and the
improvement over the control composite is a remarkable 300%. The theoretical curve
predicted from equations (6), (9) and (10) agrees quite well with the data using Tf = 10
251
MPa, d = 10 pm, Ef = 215 GPa, O"f = 2.3 GPa, ec = 0.2 mm, D increases from 2 mm at
a = 1 to 5 mm at a = O.
Again, the toughness results obtained in Figures 8 and 10 support the toughening
concepts advanced in this work. There are certainly concerns about the effects of the
thermoplastic coating on cyclic fatigue, compressive strength and interlaminar
toughness. Figure 11 gives a plot of the normalised residual tensile strength of the
PV AL coated carbon fibre composite with elapsed cycles at 85% of the notched strength
0"0. Comparisons with the uncoated composite and the silicone vacuum fluid (SVF)
coated composite show that SVF is not the proper coating to use and that there is no
difference between the PVAL coated and uncoated fibre composites. Unfortunately, as
140
"'f 120
t
6----
g
~ 60
R ________ --------....
/~
Tj
l,' ~ Theory
t
~ ~-_/
~ -~--- p.....---;~~.--~
cc
=>
~cc
U. 20
1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

PERCENTAGE COATED AREA a
Figure 10 - Variation of fracture toughness of angle-ply carbon fibre-epoxy composites
with the interlaminar bonding parameter a.
2.0
Figure 11 - Normalized residual net section strength versus elapsed cycles for CFRP.
( • ) SVF-coatedj (0) Estapol-coatedj and (Il) uncoated fibres.
252
'i 1.5
~
o Uncoated fibres
w • PVALcoated
a:
::l
....
~
a:
IL
IL
o
lII:
a:
~ 0 .5
u
ii:
oW
11.
(f)
246 8
CRACK EXTENSION (mm)
Figure 12 - Specific fracture work for delamination in CFRP with crack growth .
expected, the compressive strength does suffer some 30% reduction. This is probably
the price one has to pay for with this toughening technique. Also, it is interesting to
note that the Mode II specific work for delamination has not been weakened by the
presence of the thermoplastic coating on the fibre, Figure 12. The method of analysis
and the details of the delamination experiments have been given in [15] .
4.3 Kevlar Fibre-Epoxy Resin Composites
Kevlar fibre composites are made with both the intermittent bondin~
(polyurethane varnish Estapol) and thermal plastic coating (fully coated with PVAL)
techniques. The effects of temperature and strain rate on the impact fracture toughness
of the KFRP with Vf = 0.05 are shown in Figures 13 and 14. At both high
N" 40
--
E
~ 3S
a:
en lO
en
~ 2S
I
g20
o
I- IS
W
a:
o~S
::l 10
IL
'60 ' 40 -20 0 20

TEMPERATURE (0C)
Figure 13 - Variation of fracture toughness with temperature for KFRP. (Uncoated:

A C = 0, Estapol coated: 0C = 0.41, 0C = 0.63, ElC = 1.0).
253
~ 60
E
....,
----
C 50
a:
en
f3 40
Z
J:
g 30
~ 4-
: - - - -$---~----------$
UJ 20
a:
::::l
I-
~ 10
ff
001 01 10 100 1000 10,000
STRAIN RATE (min-')
Figure 14 - Variation of fracture toughness with strain rate for KFRP. (k. uncoated,
0C = 1, SVF-coated, BC = 1, Estapol coated).
temperatures and low strain rates, the polyurethane coated samples have much larger
toughness values than the uncoated composites. These results are mirrored by the
dependence of the fibre pullout toughness and the fibre fracture energy with these two
test parameters [3,10]. Notice that SVF has no influence on the toughness with respect
to test temperature, Figure 15, and strain rate, Figure 14. The appropriate selection of
a coating fluid to give the optimum interfacial properties is hence required if this
coating technique is to work.
~ 40
E
---- 35
6
a:
en 30
(J)
~15
:t:
g 20
oI- 15
UJ
a:
~ 10
~ 5
LL
-60 -40 -20 20 40

TEMPERATURE (0C)
Figure 15 - Variation of fracture toughness with temperature for uncoated ( 8) and

SVF-coated KFRP (0).
For all C values of the polyurethane intermittently coated KFRP, hygrothermal

ageing at 20 ± 2°C reduces the fracture toughness compared to the control dry samples.
These experimental results are shown in Figure 16.
254
~40
~------7
'-
~ 35
a:
en
en
~
30
25
r---
. __ .--f--f-·_·--f
g:x: 20
o
I- 15
W
a:
::J 10
t;
~ 5
IL
0·2 0·4 0·6 o·a 10

Figure 16 - Variation of impact toughness with fibre coating parameter C for

polyurethane-coated KFRP hygrothermally aged at 20 ± 2"C. (E1 dry, 0 wet).
The beneficial effect on toughness has also been reported for the PV AL coated
KFRP with V f = 0.50. As shown in Figure 17, the impact fracture toughness is larger
than the uncoated composites at all temperatures from - 50"C to 80"C. These PV AL
coated composites also retain their Mode II specific fracture work for delamination as
the uncoated composites, Figure 18.
400 ~3
Ne
N~ 0 Uncoated fibres
">
• •
I
~ PVALcoated :!!. PVALcoated
UJ 0 Uncoated fibres w
UJ a:
w 300 ::J
z b2
!I ; i
J: c(
CJ a:
::J IL
~
0 IL
I- 200
w 9 0
a:
::J
I-
0 ~ ~ ~ ()
(:::,
6 ~
a:
~1
c(
a: 100 0
IL ii:
I- 0
0
c(
w
0..
0.. UJ
~ 0 0
-80 -40 040 80 0 2 4 6 8
TEMPERATURE tC) CRACK EXTENSION (mm)
Figure 17 - Variation of impact toughness Figure 18 - Specific fracture work for

with temperature for KFRP. delamination in KFRP with
crack growth.
255
5. Evaluation of Fibre-Matrix Interface Properties

The fibre-matrix interfacial properties as indicated in equation (6), Le., the
interfacial fracture toughness R cl , the bond strength T.h and the frictional shear strength
Tf' are important in evaluating the total toughness ot-the composite. Quite often, it is
assumed that Tf is uniform along the debonded length. This is certainly not true
because of the fibre Poisson contraction as it is being stretched. As a result, the
interfacial friction is non-uniform. Thus, the coefficient of friction at the debonded
interface JI and the reduction in fibre clamping pressure q* from the original pressure
due to fabrication qo now becomes important. It is necessary to develop a theoretical
model to allow experimental measurements of R d , Tf' Tb' P. and qo. One such model
has been given [22] and later modified [23] based on a single fibre pullout test as shown
in Figure 19 (but with the coating thickness t = 0).
Essentially, it is required to obtain the maximum debond stress U d and the initial
frictional stress after complete debond ufr as a function of the embedded fibre length L.
Without going through the complicated mathematical analysis, it can be shown that
[23]:
U d = ue + (0' - ue)[l- exp( - .\L)] (11)
ufr = 0'[1- exp( - .\L)] (12)

where .\ = Jlk/d, 0' = -qo/wk. For practical composites, w = 1 and k =
(O:lIf+rllm)/[o:(l-lIf) + 1 + 11m + 2r], 0: = Em/Ef.and r = d 2 /(4b 2 _d 2). The crack tip
deoond stress ut. is related to Rd and the ratio 01 the debonded length e to L. Direct
determination of p. and qo can be obtained from knowledge of the initial slope of the ufr-
(J
I Fibre
FE-System L I Coating
I
I Matrix
~
d/2
[---I
--11- t
1 -I b
Figure 19 - Schematic of the single fibre pullout test and the FEM model.
L cur~e which gives .\0' and the plateau v<l:lue of either th~ ufr-L curve or U d-L .curve, ~.
Knowmg ud(L), 0' and.\, ue can be determmed from equatIOn (11) and from which Rd IS
256
evaluated. The procedure for doing these mathematical manipulations is given in [23].
What may be more useful to do here is to show the effects of the fibre surface
coating on the stress distributions at the fibre-matrix interface of the composite. A
finite element analysis is computed for the single fibre composite shown in Figure 19.
Here it is assumed that d = 100 I'm, b = 500 I'm, L = 200 I'm, the coating thickness t
can be varied in the FEM program, Ef = 230 GPa and 11.1 = 0.2 for the carbon fibre, Em
= 3 GPa and II = 0.4 for the epoxy resin matrix, and tor the PVAL coating, IIC = 0.35
but Ec is varief.1 The applied stress CT is assumed to be 10 MPa at the fibre end. Figure
20 shows the normalised interface shear stress distribution along the normalised fibre
length for t = 5 Jim and Ec/Em = 0.5. Obviously, when the PVAL coating is present,
the interface stress is reduced but it is higher at the fibre/coating interface than at the
coating/matrix interface. Interestingly, the maximum shear stress occurs at a small
distance away from the fibre entry to the matrix material. These results support the
beneficial effect of having a thermoplastic coating on the fibre surface so as to delay
fracture initiation. The maximum interface shear stresses are plotted as a function of
Young's modulus ratio EcfEm and coating thickness t in Figures 21 and 22. With
increasing EcfEm , the maximum shear stress at the interface for a 5 Jim coating has an
almost linear increase. This means that a more compliant coating is preferred in order
to obtain a more significant reduction in the interface stress. Also, as the coating
thickness increases, the maximum interface shear stress decreases quite sharply at the
beginning until a critical thickness below which there is no more reduction. This
observation points to the existence of an optimum coating thickness, which is about 15
Jim in this fibre composite, to give the lowest stress concentration at the interface. The
relaxation of residual radial stresses at the fibre-matrix interface due to the PV AL
coating has been given elsewhere [24]. For simplicity, these results are reproduced in
Figure 23. Here, CT~ and CTt are the radial stresses at the fibre/coating and
coating/matrix interfaces, respectively. For Ec/Em = 0.33 and the different coefficients
of thermal expansion Q c of the coating investigated (10, 70, 130 x 10 - 6 rC), both CT~
and CTt decrease with coating thickness but a larger Q c is preferred because of the greater
reduction in the residual radial stresses.
en
en 0.5
w
a:
I-
en
a: 0.4
<I:
w Fibre/Coating
:I:
en
w 0.3
(J
<I:
u.. Coating/Matrix
a:
w
I- 0.2
~
0
w
en 0.1
::::i
<I:
:E
a: 0
0
z 0 2 3 4
NORMALISED AXIAL DISTANCE, zja
Figure 20 - Interface shear stress distribution normalised by CT for PV AL-coated and

uncoated CFRP.
257
(J)
(J)
0.5
w
....a:
(J)
a: 0.4
~
w
::t:
(J)
w
0.3
(.) ~ ~ Fibre/Coating
~
a: -" " - Coating/Matrix
w 0.2
....
~
:5 0.1
::J
:5
~
:5 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
YOUNG'S MODULUS RATIO, EJE m
Figure 21 - Variation of maximum normalised interface shear stress versus Ec/Em for
PV AL-coated CFRP.
~ 0.5.------------------------------------,
w
a:
....
(J)
a: 0.4
.-----. ----------
Fibre/Coating
~
::t:
w 03
(J)
.
~ +'+
ffi
....
~
0.2
~ CoatIng/M_
~ 0.1
:5
+-------+
~ O+-~~~~~~~~~~~~~
:5 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
COATING THICKNESS, t (pm)
Figure 22 - Variation of maximum normalised interface stress versus coating thickness t

for PVAL-coated CFRP.
It appears from these numerical results that a good coating is one which will have a
low Young's modulus, a high thermal expansion coefficient and an optimum thickness.
The PV AL coating applied to the carbon fibres would seen to have satisfied all these
requirements and hence resulted in a high toughness fibre composite material.
258
1.2
C/'J
C/'J
w 1
a:
I-
C/'J
0.8
....I
<C 0.6
C 0.4
<C
a:
....I 0.2
<C
c
~
0
C/'J
w -0.2 Increase in IX c
a: Ec/Eut = 0.333
-0.4
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
COATING THICKNESS, tja
Figure 23 - Variation of residual radial stress normalised by O"~ for t = 0 with coating
thickness for Q c = 10, 70 and 130 x 10 - 6/"C in CFRP.
6. Conclusion
By cleverly engineering the fibre-matrix interface with an appropriate

thermoplastic coating, high toughness and high strength unidirectional fibre composites
can be designed. Experiments conducted on carbon, boron and Kevlar fibre composites
support that this is an effective method of toughening. The fracture toughness
characteristics with temperature and strain rate for the PV AL and polyurethane coated
fibre composites is a direct reflection of the response of the interfacial properties with
these two testing parameters. Finite element analysis shows the requirements of a good
coating in terms of thickness, Young's modulus and thermal expansion coefficient of the
coating. The intermittent interlaminar bonding concept is also shown to work well with
angle-ply composite laminates to promote high fracture energy absorption capability.
These experimental techniques open up new ways to design damage tolerant fibre
composites for crashworthy engineering applications.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to acknowledge the continuing support of this research project
by the Australian Research Council. Many of the experimental results and original data
in these lecture notes are taken from past and present research students and colleagues:
A. G. Atkins, F. Castino, B. Cotterell, D. K. Felbeck, J. K. Kim, R. Lord and L. M.
Zhou.
259
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INTERFACE PROPERTY TAILORING FOR PSEUDO STRAIN-HARDENING
CEMENTITIOUS COMPOSITES
V. C. Li, H. C. Wu and Y. W. Chan
Advanced Civil Engineering Materials Research Laboratory,

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Michigan,
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-2125
It is well known that interfaces in composites play an important role in determining

composite properties. In this paper, the role of interface properties on pseudo strain-
hardening properties of brittle cement matrix composites is briefly summarized. An
example of interface tailoring by plasma treatment on polyethylene fibers and its effect
on composite behavior is described.
1. Introduction
Materials like cement are considered brittle. Brittle materials typically have
tensile strength much lower than their compressive strength. With low ductility and
fracture toughness, they are also prone to fail by fast fracture. Fiber reinforcement in
brittle matrix composites are therefore directed towards enhancing tensile strength and
strain, and fracture resistance.
Many studies have been conducted on the fracture resistance of fiber reinforced
cement and concrete, and this property has been enhanced steadily over the years. The
increase in tensile strain capacity, essentially achieved by modifying the failure mode
from quasi-brittle to ductile, however, has remained a theoretical possibility until recent
years. In the past, this concept of pseudo strain-hardening has been demonstrated in
real material systems only with continuous aligned fiber reinforcement, or with large
volume content of fibers. Both requirements restrict practical applications due to cost
and fabrication obstacles.
However, recent advancements in micromechanical theory has led to the design of

pseudo strain-hardening cementitious composites with only a few percent by volume of
discontinuous fibers [1,2]. A variety of fibers, including steel, polymer and carbon, can
be utilized. One of the most ductile composites has been designed with 2% of
polyethylene fibers. This composite has achieved a ductility of 4% and a fracture
energy of 35 kJ/m 2 • This type of composite is now poised for a variety of applications
in the building, construction and transportation industries.
2. Role of Interface
With respect to fracture resistance, fiber/matrix interfaces are designed for high
energy absorption by frictional sliding. Excessive bond tends to reduce the composite
fracture energy because of fiber rupture [3-5]. For composite ductility via pseudo strain-
hardening, fiber/matrix interfaces are designed for high load transfer across matrix
cracks. For this reason, good bonding property is the objective.
Good bonding property leads to the following composite enhancements:
• Low fiber volume fraction to reduce cost and improve processibility

261
262
• High strain capacity or ductility
• High tensile strength
The theoretical treatment of these subjects can be found in [1,2,6].
3. Interphase and Interface
In fiber reinforced composites, there are two different failure modes when fibers are
pulled out from matrix. Adhesive failure occurs following the exact interface between
fiber and matrix, whereas adherend failure takes place within the matrix. For fiber
reinforced cement-based composites, a distinctive layer of interphase zone is typically
observed [7,8]. This zone is considerably weaker than the bulk matrix due to large CH
crystals and higher porosity as reflected in microhardness tests which show that the
weakest point in the interphase zone is about 30 Jim away from the fiber surface [8].
This weak zone may be diminished or even removed by control of packing density and
hydration around fiber interface. Silica fume and superplasticizer are found to be very
effective [8,9]. Depending on fiber types and matrix constituents, either adhesive or
adherend failure can occur in fiber reinforced cementitious composites. Hence proper
strategy should be employed towards enhancing interfacial bonds or strengthening the
interphase zone. In our previous investigation, polyethylene and steel fiber composites
all exhibit adhesion-type failure. Clean fiber surface with little or no matrix residue
after being pulled out are observed. This implies that interphase densification may not
be effective in such composites [10,11]. For these composites, therefore, research should
be directed towards improving bond strength through interface modification.
4. Interface Property Modification by Plasma Treatment
Interface property modification can be achieved by a variety of techniques. These

include, e.g., fiber deformation techniques such as twisting, crimping, pitting or button-
end creation, surface coating such as use of coupling agents, and surface modification
techniques such as chemical oxidation, corona treatment and plasma treatment. These
surface modification techniques are directed towards improving interfacial strength, and
have been employed with various degrees of success in polyethylene fiber reinforced
epoxy and PMMA composites. The most significant improvement in adhesion has been
accomplished with cold gas plasma [12].
A plasma is generated by exciting gas molecules with a source of electrical energy.

When this energy is applied to the gas, electrons are stripyed from the molecules,
producing a mix of highly reactive disassociated molecules [12. Hence the mechanism
for surface modification of polymer fibers in a gas plasma is the removal of hydrogen
atoms from the polymer backbone followed by their replacement with polar groups.
The presence of polar or functional chemical groups on· the fiber surface enhances
reactivity with the resin matrix, thus promoting excellent adhesion [12,13]. The
selection of reaction gases and process conditions such as generator power and reactor
pressure provides opportunities for tailoring fiber surface chemistry and reactivity most
adequate for a given matrix.
Various gases, ammonia, air, nitrogen, argon, and carbon dioxide have been
employed in production of polyethylene/epoxy or polyethylene/PMMA composites [14-
17]. In general, it is found that the interfacial bond strength can be readily doubled
with only a few minutes' fiber exposure to plasma. Prolonged exposure does not
improve further. In addition to excellent adhesion, plasma treated fibers also exhibit
significantly enhanced pull-out energy in single fiber pull-out test.
263
In the present research, a radio frequency discharge plasma surface treatment

system is utilized to create the plasma for fiber treatment. High modulus polyethylene
fibers were plasma treated with argon gas at a flow rate of 40 mlJmin and power level of
58 W for 5 minutes. Subsequently, the treated fibers were mixed with cement paste to
form the composite in an identical manner as previous polyethylene fiber reinforced
cementitious composites without the plasma treatment. Two types of specimens were
prepared. Direct pull-out specimens were prepared to study interfacial bond properties.
Uniaxial tension coupon specimens were prepared to study uniaxial tensile response of
the composite.
5. Interface Properties
Fiber pull-out tests were conducted by pulling individual fibers out of cement
matrix bases. The test setup and specimen configuration of the fiber pull-out test are
shown in Figure 1. A fiber sample is partially embedded in the dog-bone shape
Load Cell
Loading Fixture
Specimen
Protruded End
Fiber
Hydraulic Grip
Figure 1 - Single fiber pull-out test setup.
specimen. The dog-bone shaped specimen is held by the loading fixture connected to a
load cell. On the other end of the specimen, a hydraulic grip is used to hold the
protruding fiber such that no slip between the grip and the fiber may happen. The
pull-out test is conducted using a uniaxial hydraulic MTS testing machine which applies
a constant displacement rate to the fiber grip. ·A computer data acquisition system is
employed to collect data during the tests, including the applied load P obtained from
the load cell and the displacement of the fiber grip by measuring the cross-head
movement. The displacement of the fiber protruded end u is obtained by subtracting
the elastic stretch of the fiber free length between the matrix base and the fiber grip
from the measured cross-head displacement. The elastic stretch of the fiber free length
264
at any given applied load, in turn, is calculated based on the initial fiber free length,
fiber cross-sectional area, and fiber elastic modulus. In general, the interfacial bond
rroperties are interpreted based on these P-u curves obtained from the pull-out tests
[18].
In preparation of the test samples, specimens were demolded 24 hours after casting
and were cured in a water tank till testing. Fiber pull-out tests were conducted at the
age of 28 days. The matrix was composed of Type I Portland Cement with a
water/cement ratio by weight of 004. At least 6 specimens were tested for plasma
treated and non-treated samples.
Figure 2 shows typical P-u curves from pull-out tests of plasma treated and non-
treated spectra fibers. Fibers have embedment length of 12 mm. Generally, the pull-
2.0
1.6
--
Z
1.2
~ 0.8
0.4
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
u (mm)
Figure 2 - Pull-out curves of plasma-treated and untreated spectra fibers.
out curves include a linear portion corresponding to the debonding process at the very
beginning and a non-linear portion, which covers most of a pull-out curve, representing
the pull-out process. The concave-downward shape of the nonlinear branch indicates a
slip-hardening behavior of fiber pull-out caused by the abrasion effect. Due to the
abrasion effect between fibers and cement matrix, fiber surface is damaged and stripped
into small fibrils. These small fibrils in turn contribute to the resistance against the
fiber from being pulled out [19,20). Due to this mechanism, the average frictional bond
thus increases with the pull-out distance.
Comparing the features of these pull-out curves in Figure 2, it is obvious that the
fiber sample with plasma treatment has a much higher frictional bond and consumes
much more energy during the pull-out process than does the non-treated fiber. Figure 3
summarizes the initial frictional bonds from the result of a series of pull-out tests. The
average initial frictional bonds are calculated from the load at full debonding which, in
this case, refers to the onset of the nonlinear branch of a pull-out curve divided by the
265
1.2 I I
Spectra fiber/Cement matrix o

1.0 !-
0.8 -
0.6 i- -
0.4 - Mean value of frictional bond: -

Plasma treated fiber - 1.02 MPa
I Untreated fi¥r - 0.54 MPa
0.2
Non-treated Plasma treated
Figure 3 - Effect of plasma treatment on frictional bonds of spectra/cement.
initial fiber/matrix contact area 1I'd:rlf' where Ef and df are the fiber embedment length
and fiber diameter, respectively. As shown in the figure, the mean of the frictional
bond of non-treated spectra fiber has been enhanced by approximately 100% due to
plasma treatment, increasing from 0.54 MPa to 1.02 MPa.
Besides, in the pull-out curve of plasma treated fibers, there is a slight load drop
following the fully debonded stage. According to Leung and Li [21], this load drop
implies that, in the debonding stage, this particular fiber/cement system has a higher
elastic bond strength than the frictional bond, whereas, for the non-treated fiber which
does not exhibit such a load drop, the debonding process is basically frictional-control.
According to the result obtained from fiber pull-out tests, the plasma treatment
has a definite effect in enhancing the bond property between spectra fiber and cement
matrix. Due to the increase in surface reactivity, plasma treated fiber samples exhibit a
much higher adhesion to cement material and alters the characteristics of fiber
debonding. The frictional bond in the pull-out process is found to be doubled.
6. Composite Properties
The composites under investigation consist of Type I cement (c), silica fume (sf),
water (w), and high modulus polyethylene fibers. The mix proportions are as follows:
c:sf:w = 1:0.2:0.27 by weight. Short fibers were mixed with other constituents together
to form a 3-D reinforcement. The length Lf and diameter of such fibers are 12.7 mm
and 38 J-lm respectively.
Direct tensile tests were performed using coupon specimens of dimensions of 304.8
x 76.2 x 12.7 mm separately. Aluminum plates were glued onto the ends of the
266
specimens to facilitate gripping. All specimens were four weeks old at testing. The
detailed specimen preparation and testing procedure can be found elsewhere [6J. The
tensile behavior of composites reinforced with plasma treated and non-treated
polyethylene fibers can be determined from these direct tensile tests.
As shown in Figure 4, the effect of plasma treatment on composite tensile

properties is clearly demonstrated. For a composite with two volume percent fiber
..-
CIS 4
--
~
~ 3 ....."""-
\1,f(lt I,(V '" \
t)
2 I without plasma trealment
"-
"-
00 2 4 6 8 10 12
e(%)
Figure 4 - Tensile stress/strain curves of cement paste reinforced with polyethylene fiber
with and without prior argon plasma treatment (Vf = 2%).
reinforcement (non-plasma treated), a pseudo strain-hardening behavior is observed

with composite ultimate strength and strain of 3.2 MPa and 3.5%. This behavior is
distinctly different from brittle failure of plain cement marix, or quasi-brittle of
ordinary fiber reinforced cement composites [6]. The plasma treated fiber composites
exhibit even higher composite strength and strain, namely 5.8 MPa and 7%. These
represent 81% and 100% increase in strength and strain respectively. The composite
ultimate strength is found theoretically proportional to interfacial bond strength [1,22].
Using this theoretical relationship, and information on fiber volume fraction, aspect
ratio and experimentally determined ultimate strength, the bond strength was found to
be 0.57 MPa in the composite with untreated fibers, and 1.10 MPa in the composite
with plasma treated fibers. These numbers are derived from the average of 2 and 5
tests for plasma treated and non-treated fiber composites, respectively. In addition,
higher interfacial bond strength contributes to more efficient stress transfer leading to
high cracking density (number of cracks per unit length). Hence high composite
ultimate strain due to higher bond strength can be expected [23]' and is found in this
study as shown in Figure 4.
7. Conclusions
In both single fiber pull-out tests and composite tests, plasma treatment of
polyethylene fibers was found to be effective in improving interface bond properties
between these fibers and a cementitious matrix. In both cases, the plasma treatment
leads to an increase of approximately 100% in frictional bond strength. It can therefore
267
be confirmed that the enhancement in composite properties, namely ultimate strength

and strain in such pseudo strain-hardening cementitious composites, derives from
plasma treatment of fibers. This is in lieu of using higher fiber volume fraction, or
using longer fiber length, which leads to processing difficulties of the composite.
Optimization of bond properties by interface modification, such as the present

plasma treatment, can lead to low cost low fiber volume fraction high performance
cementitious composites.
Acknowledgements
Portions of this work have been supported by a grant from the National Science
Foundation BCS-9202097, and a grant from the National Research Council SHRP-91-
ID036 to the University of Michigan. The ACE-MRL gratefully acknowledges these
supports.
References
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Random Fiber Composites", ASCE J. of Engineering Mechanics, Vol. 118, No. 11,
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Reinforced Brittle Matrix Composites", J. Applied Mechanics Review, Vol. 45, No.
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Wendt, H. Liebowitz and N. Perrone), Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp. 653-661, 1970.
[4] V. C. Li, Y. Wang and S. Backer, "A Micromechanical Model of Tension-Softening

and Bridging Toughening of Short Random Fiber Reinforced Brittle Matrix
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Engineered Cementitious Composites with Discontinuous Random Steel Fibers",
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Cement Interface", J. Mater. Sci., 20, pp. 3610-3620, 1985.
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Microstructure of the Interfacial Zone in Portland Cement Mortar", J. Amer.
Ceram. Soc., 70, 10, pp. 738-743, 1987.
[9] Y. W. Chan, "Fiber/Cement Interfacial Properties and Morphology Evaluation",

Ph.D. Thesis, The University of Michigan, in progress, supervised by V. Li, 1993.
[10] V. C. Li and Y. W. Chan, "Effect of Interphase Densification on the Microstructure

and Bond Strength of a Steel Fiber Reinforced Cementitious Composite",
submitted for publication in J. American Ceramic Society, 1992.
268
[11] M. Glavind, "Evaluation of the Compressive Behavior of Fiber Reinforced High

Strength Concrete", Ph.D. Thesis, Technical University of Denmark, 1992.
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Treatment of Spectra Fiber", SAMPE Quarterly, Vol. 19, No.4, pp. 55-59, 1988.
[13] D. N. Hild and P. Schwartz, "Plasma Treated Ultra-High Strength Polyethylene

Fibers. Part I: Characterization by Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis",
to appear in J. Adhesion Sci. Tech., 1993.
[14] J. R. Brown, P. J. C. Chappell and Z. Mathys, "Plasma Surface Modification of

Advanced Organic Fibers", J. Mater. Sci. 27, pp. 3167-3172, 1992.
[15] D. A. Biro, G. Pleizier and Y. Deslandes, "Application of the Microbond

Technique", J. Mater. Sci. Lett. 11, pp. 698-701, 1992.
[16] Z. F. Li, A. N. Natravali and W. Sachse, "Ammonia Plasma Treatment of Ultra-

High Strength Polyethylene Fibers for Improved Adhesion to Epoxy Resin", J.
Mater. Sci., 27, pp. 4625-4632, 1992.
[17] D. N. Hild and P. Schwartz, "Plasma Treated Ultra-High Strength Polyethylene
Fibers. Part II: Increased Adhesion to Poly (methylmethacrylate)", to appear in J.
Adhesion Sci. Tech., 1993.
[18] V. C. Li and Y. W. Chan, "Determination of Interfacial Debond Mode for Fiber
Reinforced Cementitious Composites", accepted for publication in ASCE J.
Engineering Mechanics, 1993.
[19] Y. Wang, V. C. Li and S. Backer, "Modeling of Fiber Pull-Out from a Cement
Matrix", Int. J. of Cement Composites and Lightweight Concrete", Vol. 10, No.3,
pp. 143-149, 1988.
[20] Y. Wang, V. C. Li and S. Backer, "Analysis of Synthetic Fiber Pull-Out from a

Cement Matrix", Materials Research Society Symposia, Volume 114: Bonding in
Cementitious Composites, (eds. S. Mindess and S. Shah), pp. 159-166, 1988.
[21] C. K. Y. Leung and V. C. Li, "New Strength Based Model for the Debonding of
Discontinuous Fibers in an Elastic Matrix", J. of Materials Science, 26, pp. 5996-
6010, 1991.
[22] V. C. Li, "Post Crack Scaling Relations for Fiber Reinforced Cementitious
Composites", J. of Materials in Civil Engineering, Vol. 4, No.1, pp. 41-57, 1992.
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Random Fiber Reinforced Brittle Matrix Composites", in preparation, 1993.
EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF THE FRACTAL DIMENSION OF
DISORDERED FRACTURE SURFACES
A. Carpinteri, B. Chiaia and F. Maradei
Department of Structural Engineering, Politecnico di Torino,

10129 Torino, Italy
The results are presented of an experimental post-mortem investigation on concrete

fracture surfaces of specimens broken in direct tension. Four numerical methods are
implemented and applied to digitized profiles in order to extract their fractal dimension
D. On the other hand, not a unique value of D can be defined for each profile but a
continuously decreasing fractal dimension with increasing scale length. This implies that
the effect of microstructural disorder on the mechanical behavior becomes progressively
less important at larger scales, whereas it represents the fundamental feature at smaller
scales.
The values provided by this analysis are then related to the renormalized fracture
energy of the material, in order to explain the well-known size effect on the nominal
fracture energy. The multifractal {self-affine} nature of the fracture surfaces of
disordered materials produces a dimensional increment with respect to the number 2.
Variations in the fractal dimension of fracture surfaces produce variations in the
physical dimension of toughness and not, as asserted by some authors, in the measure of
toughness.
1. Introduction
A fractal space is a mathematical domain with a non-integer dimension. This is an

old concept, recently reintroduced and systematized by Mandelbrot [1], Falconer [2] and
other authors, which presents a wide field of applications in modern technology. For
example, the weight of several spongy objects does not increase proportionally to the
volume, because they present a non-constant classical density, understood as mass over
volume, although it is possible to define a constant <:: universal ~ density, understood as
mass over length raised to the fractal dimension of the space occupied by the object.
This dimension is comprised between 2 and 3.
The fractal view of solid mechanics could be considered as one of the most
important examples of transcending the bounds of classical continuum mechanics [3].
In the present century we have had more than one such conceptual revolution,
according to Popper. Quantum Theory and Catastrophe Theory could be mentioned
among the most general, even if Griffith's [4] and Irwin's· [5] ideas should not be
overlooked in the field of strength of materials, where surface energy and, especially, the
stress-intensity factor are non-conventional quantities having unusual physical
dimensions.
The two concepts of fractals and fracture are intimately related: the word itself
"fractal" [1] comes from the Latin "fractum" which means "broken". Fractal Geometry
deals with highly disordered morphologies, just like rough interfaces or microcracked
structures. All fractal microstructures have in common that they are not in
thermodynamical equilibrium, and that a high input of energy is required for their
creation: the evident occurrence of the above circumstances in the phenomenon of
fracture leads us to analyse the fracture surfaces of disordered materials as fractal
269
C. C. Sih et al. (eds.), Advanced Technology/or Design and Fabrication o/Composite Materials and Structures, 269-292.
270
shapes. Recent physical theories [6] show that the natural fractal surfaces arise as a
joint consequence of randomness (due to the geometrical and constitutive disorder of
the microstructure) and optimality (that is, optimal energy expenditure). In the
framework of critical phenomena [7], the universality of the behavior at the critical
point means self-similar scaling over a broad range of length scales. Self-similarity
implies that a (statistically) similar morphology appears in a wide range of
magnifications of the fracture surface. This means that the fractal microstructures are
characterized by a low degree, and not by the absence, of order, in the sense that two
subsequent points on the surface are not completely uncorrelated. The fractal
dimension D is then a way to quantify this "order behind chaos", that is, a measure of
the correlation in the surface topology.
Experimental evidence of self-similarity (multifractality) over a broad range of

scales has been often reported in the recent literature: fractured surfaces of steel [8],
molybdenum [9], natural rocks [10] and concrete [11] were shown to share fractal
properties, at least between an upper scale bound, related to the macroscopic dimension
of the object, and a lower scale bound which could be set, depending on the material
microstructure, equal to the smallest grain size or to the atomic size of particle.
The fractal nature of the fractured surfaces of these materials produces a

dimensional increment with respect to the number 2. The mechanical interpretation of
the fractal dimension D being greater than 2 could be that the dissipation of energy
during the development of a fracture surface is something intermediate between surface
energy dissipation (which is the L.E.F.M. hypothesis [4,5]) and volume energy
dissipation (which is the classical approach of Strength of Materials theories, Limit
Analysis and Damage Mechanics).
The systematic error that has been repeated in measuring mechanical properties of
disordered materials, such as concrete and rocks, is that of considering reference areas
and volumes with the ideal integer dimensions of 2 and 3 respectively. If this error is
made in the scale range over which the fractal properties hold, it will be physically
impossible to measure constant material properties, unless we abandon integer
dimensions of the fracture surface after stress relaxation or at final rupture. Defining
new mechanical properties with physical dimensions depending on the fractal dimension
of the damaged material microstructure, represents the so-called renormalization
procedure, already utilized in the statistical physics of random processes [7]. In this
way, it is possible to obtain the so-called < universal ~ properties, i.e., scale-invariant
material constants.
Some authors have recently endeavoured to link the fractal dimension of the
fracture surface to fracture toughness K IC [12,13J. This attempt has not been
successful, in particular because the physical dimensions of K IC were not assumed to
vary with the fractal dimension of the surface. A variation in the physical dimensions
of fracture toughness (and hence of fracture energy), together with an analogous
variation for tensile strength [14], turns out to provide an attenuation of the structural
scale-effects due to the dimensional disparity between strength and toughness: for a
very disordered material the attenuation is complete and any scale effect vanishes [15J,
both tensile strength and fracture energy being [forceJ x [length]-l. 5. Similar
attenuations were emphasized and analyzed by one of the authors for strain-hardening
materials in the presence of cracks [16J and for linear elastic materials in the presence of
re-entrant corners [17].
271
2. Fractal Nature and Self-Affinity of Fracture Surfaces
A classical example of fractal set, with dimension larger than the topological one, is
the von Koch curve (Figure 1). Let EO be a line segment of unit length: the subset El
-------------------------EO
Eoo
Figure 1 - von Koch curve.

consists of the four segments obtained by removing the middle third of En and replacing
it by the other two sides of the equilateral triangle based on the removed segment. We
construct Ek by applying the same procedure to each of the segments in Ek _ l' and so
on. The sequence of polygonal curves Ek approaches the von Koch curve as k tends to
infinity. The length of the von Koch curve tends to infinity as (4/3)k does for k->oo.
The fractal dimension of the curve is 1.262, the dimensionality increase of 0.262 being
due to its tortuosity. The curve could then be measured only as a length raised to
1.262. This number can be interpreted as the "tendence" of the fractal set to fill the
embedding space, which, in the case of the von Koch curve, is the bidimensional plane.
Extrapolating to the three-dimensional space, a fractal "surface" has a fractal

dimension which is comprised between 2 and 3, depending on its capacity to fill the 3D
space. In order to determine the fractal dimension, it is much easier to deal with
profiles instead of surfaces, since the computational effort is drastically reduced in terms
of data storing memory and computational time. An important theorem from Fractal
Geometry [2] comes to assist us: the fractal dimension of the intersection of two fractal
sets with dimensions Da and Db is bounded as follows:
(1)
where d is the dimension of the embedding space. It can then be said that, if D is the
dimension of the fracture surface, a linear profile scanned as intersection of a vertical
plane with the surface will have fractal dimension D' $ D - 1. In the sequel the equality
272
sign is assumed to hold in the last relationship and thus, once the fractal dimension D'
of the profiles has been determined, the fractal dimension D of the fracture surface is
simply given by: D = D'+1. It is worth noting that, due to the digitization of profile
heights, a dimension lower than D will be always measured, since some degree of
irregularity is missed. In addition, it would be convenient to measure the profiles
im~ediately after breaking the specimens, in order to avoid the smoothing effect of
erosIOn.
A fundamental concept related to the scaling properties of fracture surfaces is self-

affinity. The classical mathematical fractals are self-similar over an infinite range of
scales. In the case of natural fractals, self-similarity means that statistically similar
morphology is obtained under uniform scaling of all the coordinates. Many natural
fractals, however, show a different kind of scaling law: reliefs, landscapes and fracture
surfaces reveal statistically similar morphology only if the lengths are rescaled by
direction-dependent factors. Mandelbrot [18] defined this non-uniform scaling law as
self-affinity.
A mathematical self-affine fractal can be described by a function z(x) with the

following property: if the x-coordinate is multiplied by a scaling factor s, the z-
coordinate must be scaled by a factor sH:
(2)
where H is called the "self-affinity exponent". The main feature of self-affine profiles is
the presence of two different fractal dimensions: the so-called "local" dimension and the
"global" dimension, due to the presence of a threshold scale, the "crossover length" t c,
which is a characteristic of the profile and is determined by the statistical condition:
(3)
The crossover length tc separates two distinct regimes of scaling behavior, depending on
the length scale L at which the fractal is considered: at L<tc the non-Euclidian nature
of the fracture surfaces is revealed (fractal or disordered regime) whereas, at L>t c , the
homogeneous regime, corresponding to a macroscopically Euclidian behavior, is the
governing regime. It can be demonstrated [18] that the global dimension of a self-affine
profile is Dg = 1.
From a physical point of view, this means that, observing a mountain chain or a
profile from a large distance or, which is the same, measuring it at large scales, a
smooth curve is obtained. Since no fractality can be revealed, Dg = 1. On the other
hand, at small scales, the profile clearly shows its fractal nature and the local non-
integer (fractal) dimension can be determined as:
(4)
When applying the standard methods in order to determine the fractal dimension of the
profile, the local dimension is the one we are interested to: thus only scales smaller
than the crossover length must be investigated. On the contrary, if we measure the
profile at scales greater than t c , a dimension very close to one is obtained. This could
be the reason for many anomalously low values of the fractal dimension that have been
reported in the literature.
273
0=1.9
D=1.7
D=1.5
D=1.3
(a) D=l.1 (b)
Figure 2 - (a) Computer generated self-affine fractals and (b) digitized concrete profiles.
Computer-generated mathematical self-affine fractals (Fractional Brownian
Motions) are shown in Figure 2(a) [191, with their fractal dimension at the right end. A
deep similitude arises when comparing them with digitized concrete profiles, Figure
2(b): it can be argued, by means of a rough visual comparison, that the fractal
dimension of natural profiles could fall in the range 1.1 :5 D :5 1.5.
3. Experimental Determination of Fractal Dimension
There are many definitions of the fractal dimension of an object, including

Hausdorff dimension, Bouligand-Minkowski dimension, Box dimension and others.
Therefore many techniques can be developed, starting from these definitions, in order to
extract the fractal dimension of a fracture surface or profile. Although they are all
equivalent in the continuous domain and in the limit to the smallest scales, they differ
substantially when discretized and applied to digitized data. Moreover, the assumption
that the fracture profiles of disordered materials can be better represented by self-affine
fractal models rather than by self-similar models, gives rise to drawbacks in some of the
techniques.
In this section, besides a compared description of the principal methods usually

applied for the determination of the fractal dimension of profiles, the results are
presented of an experimental post-mortem investigation on concrete fracture surfaces of
specimens broken in direct tensile tests.
A laser profilometer (3 mW semiconductor, Illb class) has been used to scan the
surfaces along several parallel profiles. A servo-controlled mechanism slowly moved the
profilometer along an horizontal guide (X-direction) by means of a driving belt, while
an automatized, computer-controlled, data acquisition system read the profile elevations
(Z-coordinate) at every step, with a vertical precision of ± 0.01 mm. The profiles were
discretized with an horizontal interval equal to 0.2 mm, providing 500 points for a
profile of length 10 cm. The system can be considered a semi-automatic device (Figure
3), since the increment in the direction of the V-coordinate was obtained by means of a
micrometric screw controlled by a transducer with a sensibility equal to 0.01 mm. The
profiles were digitized along the two main horizontal directions, in order to average out
the undesired effects of an eventually present highly correlated macrocrack.
274
4Z
Figure 3 - Laser profilometer for the digitization of profiles.
Almost 70 profiles, from different specimens, were analyzed. Four numerical

methods have been implemented by Fortran codes and applied to the digitized profiles
in order to extract their fractal dimension. In the last section the values provided by
this analysis will be related to the renormalized fracture energy of the material, in order
to explain the well-known size effect on the nominal fracture energy of concrete.
4. Divider Method
This method, also referred to as the "yardstick" or the "compass" method, comes
from the early intuition of Richardson [20J who observed that, in the case of natural
islands, not a unique value of the coastline length is obtained when measuring the
perimeter by different ruler's lengths, but a power-law relation of coastline length versus
yardstick length can be determined. Mandelbrot [1] pointed out the fundamental
properties of this non-standard scaling law:
10gL(r) ~ (l-D)logr (5)

where L(r) is the length of the fractal set measured with a yardstick of length r, and D
is the fractal dimension.
The application to fracture profiles basically consists in the following steps:
(a) choose a yardstick length ri;
(b) "walk the compass" along the profile and count the number N· of steps needed
to cover the entire profile or, equivalently, measure the total approxin\ate length Li =
Niri (Figure 4);
(c) repeat the operation with subsequently smaller yardstick lengths (Figure 5).
A limit definition holds:
(6a)
275
(6b)
where Dc is the so-called "compass dimension".
Lres
Figure 4 - Divider Method (first step).
15
Figure 5 - Divider Method (second step).

From an operative point of view, instead of dealing with a limit, a linear regression
IS performed with the bilogarithmic data logNi versus logri or logLi versus logri'
obtaining respectively the slopes a or /3. From equations (6a) and (6b), it follows:
a = -Dc (7a)
/3 = I-Dc (7b)
276
It is worth noting that a residual length Lres is often present at the end of the
profile: it could be neglected if much smaller than the yardstick or, better, added to the
approximate length or, finally, avoided, if an appropriate sequence of yardsticks is used.
In Figure 6, the application of the method to a concrete profile is presented. Note

that the points corresponding to the smallest scales are not significant, since, when the
2.04
2.03 '.
' ....
'
2.02
...l 2.01
. .' .
01) '"
..Q
2.00
1.99
1.98
-1.0 -0.5 0.0 log r 0 .5 1.0 1.5
Figure 6 -Application of the Divider Method to a concrete profile.
yardstick's length becomes comparable to the digitization interval (i.e., 0.2 mm),
discreteness effects come into play, and no fractality can be revealed. Therefore, those
points will not be considered in the sequel. With reference to Figure 7(a), linear
3.6,--- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - , 2.02 , , - - - -- - - - - - -- - - ,
.... - y = 3.5715 - 0.0924x
-.. ....
l .S "-
2.01
:.
• to ' - ! '\ '\
-l 3.4
• o oo·~ ~:
~
......
co 2.00
.2 : . : '( ' ~ J
3.3 .2
,, '
1.99
3.2 D = 1.0924
(a)
J·h'='
.o------,O"".S,--...:I-o:...
g-r- '7I.'; ""o-------;'o.s 1.980.'2-- ...0.,.
.• -""'
0."'"
6- ...0....
8- -.1....
0 - '1... 1.6
. 2--.1"':0.4---7
log r
Figure 7 - Divider Method. (a) monofractality versus (b) multifractality.
regression provides Dc = - 0< = 1.09, which results a too low value. It can be argued
that this is due to the crossover length problem. Some authors [21] proposed to
multiply the profile elevations by 100 or 1000 in order to by-pass the crossover
threshold. In our case, performing the dividers analysis on the transformed profile (z*
= z x100), yields Dc = 1.21, which is a more reasonable value: in any case further
investigation is required in order to confirm that fractality is not altered by the
aforementioned transformation.
277
On the other hand, Figure 7(b) clearly shows a nonlinear fitting of L· versus
yardstick length and more precisely, a continuously decreasing fractal dimenston with
increasing scale. Thus, a non-linear fitting of bilogarithmic data yields a more realistic
interpretation of the fractal behavior of fracture surfaces. The asymptotic limit for the
largest scales is therefore Dc=l, which corresponds to macroscopic homogeneity and to
the global dimension of self-affinity theory. Regarding the small scale behavior (fractal
or disordered regime), an upper bound value of Dc, corresponding to the highest
influence of disorder, should be present. A deeper resolution in the data digitization is
nevertheless required, in order to investigate on the fractal regime at the smallest scales:
a limiting local value of Dc = 1.39 has been revealed by our analysis.
A Modified Divider Method has been proposed by Brown [22]. In this case (Figures
8 and 9), the scale at which the profile length is measured is a "projected scale".
v V
""".L'c .;:;/
V ~ ~
f-- S1-
Figure 8 - Modified Divider Method (step 1).
.,.. ,-v ~
-
"
V'" ~
..;/
/
I~
"'" ........ =I /
S
I
Figure 9 - Modified Divider: Method (step 2).
Equally spaced intervals (s.) are generated horizontally, and the approximate length of
the profile is computed Iby summing the distances rj between two subsequent
intersections on the profile. The same procedure is repeated with subsequently smaller
278
intervals, a dyadic sequence being preferable in order to avoid residual lengths: s1' sd2,
st/4, st/8 and so on. As usual, a linear regression 10gLi versus logsi yields the fractal
dimension from the slope of the best-fitting line. A drawback when using a dyadic
sequence is that the divider rapidly reaches the digitization precision: only a few points
can then be plotted in the bilogarithmic diagram, so that the best-fitting could be
elusive [23].
The same experimental fractal trends can be recognized by means of the Modified
Divider Method, as is illustrated in Figure 10. Note that only a few representative
2.04 . -------------
2.03
2.02
....l
OJ) 2.01
..s
2.00
1.99
1.98 L....,~~~~~~~~~~~_~~
-0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
log s
Figure 10 - Application of the Modified Divider Method to a concrete profile.
points can be plotted in the bilogarithmic diagram, due to the dyadic scaling of the
measuring grid, and therefore a weaker fitting can be performed.
5. Minkowski-Bouligand Method
This method, sometimes referred to also as the "Cantor Method" [1], comes from
the original definition of "covering dimension" due to Bouligand [24]. If E is the fractal
set, i.e., the profile, and we denote by Bt(E) a disk of radius t centered on a point of the
profile, the so-called Minkowski cover (also, from the fractal literature, the "Minkowski
sausage") is defined as the union of all the disks centered on E with radius t, that is, the
set of all the points within a distance t from the profile (Figure 11).
If IE(t)b is the area of the cover, the Minkowski-Bouligand dimension for the
profile is defined as follows:
D (E) = lim 2 _ log 1E(t) 12 (8)
MB £-+0 logt
Taken the profile, the Minkowski cover with radius t· is generated and the
corresponding area IE(ti)12 is computed. The same procedJre is then repeated with
subsequently smaller radii (Figure 11) and the fractal dimension is obtained from the
slope of the best-fitting line in the bilogarithmic plot of logIE(fi)12 versus logfi'
279
# 7
•• p -LUi
Figure 11 - Minkowski sausages with increasing diameters.
~r
V
--......
.1'0.
V -
£1
Figure 12 - Box-Counting Method (step 1).
1-1- I-H- - 1---

I
'-I--
.r' Ir'
Jr... lr-Y r- ,.. '"'T'
9:I
~ I-
il"
~ E2
~~ -
E3 1--1--
r-r-
I-I--
f--
I
- - -
(a) (b)
Figure 13 - Box-Counting Method (steps 2 and 3).
6. Box-Counting Method
This method comes from the Minkowski-Bouligand definition of covering

dimension, with the difference that, instead of a "sausage", a "generalized cover" with
square grids is used. If E is the fractal profile, N (E,{) is defined as the smallest number
of boxes with linear size { needed to cover E (Figure 12). If the limit:
280
3.0 1.4,---------------,
- y = 2.0685 - 1.1578x
2.5 D = 1.16 1.2
~ 2.0 ~
>< ~ 1.0
0
~ ~
1.5
:i :i
OJ) OJ) 0.8
.2 1.0 .2
0,6
0.5
(a) (b)
0.0 .7 -~0.8:---::0.';;"9-;-;1.0:--"7
0't·'-::- .2:--"71.73 ----;1,-;
·1.0 -05 1.0 15 1 ----C1;"':;
1.7" .4--11..\
0.0 log £ 0,5
log £
Figure 14 - Application of the Box-Counting Method to a concrete profile.
·
I1m 10gN(E, e) - D
f-+O 10g(l/t) - b
(9)
exists and is finite, then Db is called the box-counting dimension of E [25]. In analogy
with the Minkowski-Bouligand dimension, if IE(e)b is the area of this generalized cover,
(IE(e)12 = N(E,e) .(2), the following relation holds:
= 2 _ lim log I E( e) I 2
D (10)
b {-+O loge
From an operative point of view, the box-counting method is implemented through
the following steps:
(a) a square grid of linear dimension e· is generated in order to cover the profile
(Figure 12); 1
(b) the number Ni(E,ci) of boxes needed to cover the entire profile (or their total
area IE(ei)b) is determined;
(c) the same procedure is repeated with a smaller box size e· + I' and so on, with
subsequently smaller grid sizes, Figures 13( a), 13(b); 1
(d) a linear re~ression with the bilogarithmic data (logN. versus logc. or,
equivalently, logIE(c·)l2 versus logc.) is performed, and the fractal dirhension is obtltined
from the slope of thJ best-fitting lirle, Figure 14( a) .
This method is much more stable than the yardstick method, since the strong
oscillations around the main trend are not present, and the data generally show much
less scattering. The best results are obtained by computing N·1 or IE(c·)12
1
with different
origins of the grid, and then averaging out in order to extract a more objective value.
In Figure 14, the application of the method to a concrete profile is presented, where
the main discreteness effects have been previously depurated. Note the stability of the
method, with respect to the dividers algorithm. Although the crossover length problem
is still present, almost no oscillation can be revealed at large scales. A fractal dimension
of 1.16 is provided by linear regression of the logarithmic data, Figure 14(a), whereas,
for the same profile, the compass method yielded 1.09. It could easily be shown that
both diagrams, 10gNi versus logei and logIE(ei)1 2 versus logci' provide the same results.
281
A nonlinear fitting of the same data is shown in Figure 14(b), yielding a more
reliable interpretation of the fractal behavior: Db continuously decreases with
increasing box size. All the examined profiles showed the same behavior, which can
thus be considered as an universal property of these multifractal sets.
7. Statistical Methods
The methods previously illustrated are all derived from a deterministic approach.
The Variogram Method and the Spectral Method, on the other hand, come from a
statistical approach. The profile is considered as a randomly varying quantity in space,
and its fractal dimension is obtained by the stochastic analysis of this behavior. These
last methods are rigorously proved only for self-affine profiles, since the fundamental
relations between the statistical quantities and the fractal dimension can be obtained
only on the basis of the self-affinity hypothesis. The classical statistical quantities, in
the case of discretized profiles, are:
11 = ft E
•
1
z·1 (mean of surface elevations) (lla)
(1"2 = ft E •
(z.1 -Il? (variance of surface elevations) (llb)
1
where n is the number of digitized points and z· is their elevation. Since the simple
statistical parameters do not provide any informltion about the correlation among the
profile elevations, no relation with the fractal dimension can be obtained from 11 and (1"2.
On the contrary, the "semivariogram function of surface elevations", r, shows a power-
law scaling of the heights incremental variance versus the correlation distance:
(12)
where:
hi = idx = correlation distance;
zi = incremental data;
n = total number of points;
r(hi ) = incremental semi variance.
Recalling the scaling of self-affine profiles:
«zi -z/> ~ (Xi _Xj)2H (13)

the following power-law is provided [26]:
r(h) ~ h2H (14)
yielding:
Dv = 2-H (15)
282
Operatively, the Variogram Method consists in computing 'Y(h) for subsequently

smaller h, and then performing the linear regression of the logarithmic data (recalling
that only small lags are reliable). From the slope a of the best-fitting line the fractal
dimension is provided:
(16)
The most important method among the statistical ones is the Spectral Method,
that comes from the spectral analysis of random noises.
We define as a "noise" the unpredictable changes of a quantity V varying in time,

Figure 15. It has been demonstrated [27] that the power spectrum S versus frequency f
log Sef)
1/f O
time
'----___l.o,g f
log Sef)
time
'-------\-__l.og f
Figure 15 - Power spectrum of random noises (from [19]).
shows a power-law behavior:

S(f) ~ f- f3 (17)
where the exponent f3 increases with the increasing of correlation in the noise, that is,
with the decreasing of randomness.
The white noise, Figure 15(a), is the most random, in the sense that it is
completely uncorrelated: the position of a point is completely independent of that of
the other points. Its power spectrum shows a constant intensity at all frequencies (like
a white light) and therefore (3 = O. On the contrary, the Brownian motion which,
mathematically, is the integral of a Gaussian white noise, shows many more low
frequency (slow) than high frequency (fast) fluctuations, Figure 15(c), and is the most
correlated of the three noises (f3=2). The position of each point depends on the position
of all the other points, and mainly from that of the surrounding ones.
283
The fracture surface can therefore be considered as a randomly varying quantity

z(x,y) in space. In fact, the phenomenon of fracture is not completely random nor
completely correlated. The local breaking rule obviously depends on the (randomly
distributed) material properties, but also on the surrounding stress-strain state which
becomes increasingly important as the external load increases (i.e., when the critical
load is approached). The post-critical behavior, in particular, corresponds to an highly
correlated development of the fracture surface. Thus, the spectral analysis can be used
in order to extract the degree of correlation of the fracture locus, over the whole spatial
frequency spectrum.
The application of the Spectral Method to fracture profiles, in order to extract their
fractal dimension, basically consists in the following steps:
(a) creation of a vector Z of equally-spaced (~x) profile heights:
z(O)
z(~x)
Z= z(2~x) (18)
z(L)
(b) perform the Discrete Fast Fourier Transform of Z, in order to obtain the vector
F of complex coefficients in the frequency domain. This implies the decomposition of
the profile trace into the sum of many sine and cosine terms, each with its own
amplitude and frequency:
al +ib l
a2 +ib 2
F = FFT(Z) = a3 + ib 3 (19)
an +ib n
(c) determination of the power spectral density S(f). Physically, S(f)df is the
contribution to the total power from components in the profile with frequencies between
f and f+df. Note that, for the symmetry with respect to fmax /2, only one half of S(f)
has to be considered in the sequel:
(al + b l )2
(a2 + b 2)2
S(f) =t F· conj(F) =t (a3 + b 3)2 (20)
(an + b n )2
(d) plot the bilogarithmic data logS(f) versus log (f) and then fit the data by linear
regresSlOnj
(e) from the slope {3 of the best-fitting line, the fractal dimension can be obtained:
284
5-13
Ds = -2- (21)
The above relation between the "spectral" dimension Ds and the spectral slope {3 could
be demonstrated, starting from the self-affinity hypothesis, by means of the 2-point
autocorrelation function [27].
It is worth pointing out that, generally, this method provides an overestimation of

fractal dimensions less than 1.5, while an underestimation is given if the dimension is
greater than 1.5. In any case, for the relationship between spectral slope and fractal
dimension to yield reliable results, the slope must lie in the range 2 ~ 13 ~ 3, giving
fractal dimensions between 1 and 1.5. If 13 > 3, we have to consider Ds = 1, meaning
that the profile is differentiable or, in other words, that it is not a fractal, whereas, if
{3 < 2, overhangs may be present in the profile, which are missed by the spectral
analysis.
On the other hand, since stationarity is a fundamental assumption in Fourier

theory, the profile traces have to be detrended before taking the transform, otherwise an
anomalous overestimation of D is provided [28]. The detrending of the profile is simply
obtained by minimizing the variance of surface elevations, Figure 16. Beyond these
14,----------------------------, 6,----------------------------,
- y = 7.6815 - O.059124x
12
10
~ 8
6
20 40 60 80 100
mm mm
Figure 16 - Digitized concrete profile prior to detrending (a) and detrended profile (b).
slight drawbacks, the main advantage of the stochastic methods is that the crossover
length problem results obviously much less important than in the case of deterministic
methods.
An application of the Spectral Method to a digitized profile is shown in Figure 17,

where the logarithmic data 10gS(f) versus log(f) have been correlated by means of a
linear regression, Figure 17(a), and a nonlinear least-squares fitting, Figure 17(b). The
fractal analysis was performed on a detrended profile, yielding, in the case of linear
fitting, a slope {3 = 2.58. The corresponding fractal dimension is therefore given by Ds
= 1.21. Note that the same profile, prior to detrending, provided Ds = 1.48, which is
clearly an inconsistent value.
The nonlinear regression, Figure 17(b), confirms the multifractal nature previously
recognized by means of the deterministic methods. In fact, a continuously decreasing
spectral slope 13 with increasing frequency can be evidenced, thus implying a
continuously decreasing fractal dimension Ds with increasing wavelength '\, that is, with
increasing scale length (,\ = l/f).
285
8 8
-y = 6. 1144 - 2.5787)(
7
..
6 D =(5 - ~)/2 = 1.21
~=
• 6
'. Ja-.,." .
4
C C5
<n2 <n
~
.2
0
.-24
-2 2
(a) (b)
-4 1
·0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
log f log f
Figure 17 - Application of the Spectral Method to a concrete profile.
8. Size Effect on Nominal Fracture Energy: An Explanation Based on Fractal

Geometry and Renormalization Group Theory
We can detect an evident mechanical consequence of the fractality of the fracture
surface, considering the size effects on fracture energy gF' Since Hillerborg's proposal
for a concrete fracture test was published as RILEM Recommendation [29], several
researchers have measured a fracture energy gF which increases with the specimen sizes
and, more specifically, with the size of the un cracked ligament. Such a trend has been
systematically found, and in each case the authors of the papers describing these
experiments have tried to provide various empirical or phenomenological explanations,
without, however, endeavouring to interpret their findings in a larger conceptual
framework.
The remarkable observation that a characteristic feature of phase transitions is a

discontinuous (catastrophic) change of the macroscopic parameters of the system
undergoing a continuous variation in the system state variables, leads us to set the
phenomenon of fracture of disordered materials into the wide framework of critical
phenomena [30,31].
Furthermore, a very strong relationship between critical phenomena and fractals

can be easily recognized. The physicists have often observed a power-law dependence of
the main physical quantities during the experiments on systems exhibiting a phase-
transition [32] and it should be noted here that any power-law distribution is
mathematically equivalent to a fractal distribution. This implies a deep analogy: the
common inherent rule is self-similarity which is behind this non-standard scaling in both
cases. The above scale-invariance forms the basis of the Renormalization Group
Theory, which has been successfully applied to the analysis of continuous phase-
transitions, and has provided the calculations of the critical exponents, which confirmed
to be non-integer numbers. The two theories are thus so intimately related that we
could assert that Fractals are the geometrical aspect of Renormalization Group Theory.
From this point of view, if we wish to understand the experimental observations, it

is necessary to abandon the classical thermodynamic concept of surface energy of an
ideal solid, and to assume the energy dissipation to be occurring in a fractal space of
dimension a = 2+dg, with 2 ~ a < 3 and, therefore, 0 ~ d g < 1. This represents an
attenuation of fracture localization due to material heterogeneity and multiple cracking.
286
Let us consider two bodies, geometrically similar and made up of the same
disordered material, Figure 18. IT the ratio of geometrical similitude is equal to band
i
1 I
I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I
.... J.-- -?' .......1---- -;:::..:;'"
~ ~
~ 14
b
~I
Figure 18 - Geometrically similar bodies loaded in tension.

the renonnalized fracture energy gF is assumeg to be a material constant and to have
the physical dimensions [force] x [length]- (1 + g), we obtain:
g* _ W1 _
W2 (22)
F - 12+dg - b2 + dg
WI and W 2 being the energies dissipated in the two bodies respectively.
On the other hand, the apparent fictitious fracture energies are respectively:
g~) = ~1
:i
(23a)
I
g~) = (23b)
where the latter, according to equation (22), becomes:
d
g~) = g~)b (I (24)
We can write the relationship between fracture energies related to different SIzes In
logarithmic form:
(25)
Equation (25) represents a straight line with slope d g in the Ing F versus lnb plane,
Figure 19.
An alternative way of explaining the increase of the fracture energy with specimen
size is that of considering a sequence of scales of observation [15]. IT the total energy W
dissipated by fracture is invariant with respect to the scale of observation, we have:
287
W = OlA l = 02 A2 =···=On-lAn-l = OnAn = On+lAn+l

= ...=OooA oo (26)
L-______________ ~ lnb
Figure 19 - Size effect on nominal fracture energy.

where the first scale of observation could be the macroscopic one, with OlA l = OFA, A
being the cross-sectional area, and the asymptotic scale of observation could Be the
microscopic one, with OooAoo = OFA *, A* being the measure of the fractal set
representing the irregular fracture surface. From the equality between the extreme
members of equation (26) we get:
gF = gF(1) (27)
and therefore:
gF = OF(b2~dO) (28)
with b equal to the characteristic dimension of the cross-section. From equation (28)
we can get a generalization of equation (25):
(29)
Renormalization group relations analogous to equation (29) have been proposed by
Wilson r33] in quantum field theory and statistical mechanics, as well as by Barenblatt
[34] in the intermediate asymptotics description of turbulence and blasting.
On the other hand, if the pioneering work of Griffith [4] is revisited by considering
a fractal crack of projected length 2a, the fundamental relation of energy balance
becomes:
1 +d g
E 2
d(1I"a2 ) = 2gFd(a ) (30)
and therefore:
11" E ada = 0F(l+dg)adgda

2
(31)
From equation (31) we get:

I-dQ
o-27ra = (l+dO)OpE (32)
which represents the renormalized critical condition:
288
(33)
The generalized stress-intensity factor Kj presents the following physical dimensions:

3+dO
[F][L]--2- (34)
When dg=O, we find again the classical relations of Griffith and Irwin. When d g=l, as
a limit case, we find that the stress singularity vanishes and Kj assumes the physical
dimensions of stress [15]. Similar dimensional transitions have been analysed by one of
the authors for strain-hardening materials in the presence of cracks [16] and for linear
elastic materials in the presence of re-entrant corners [17].
The same trends of equation (25) have been found in recent experimental studies.
Tensile testing performed at the Politecnico di Torino has provided a plot slope equal to
0.38, Figure 20(a), which allows a constant (universal) energy parameter to be obtained
InQF
InQF 5.00
-2.0 y=3.08+0.38x y=3.52+0.48x

corr=0.990 corr=0.987
4.75
-2.5
In b 4.50 In b
-3.0
0 2 3 4 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
(a) (b)
Figure 20 - Experiments results at (a) Politecnico di Torino and (b) ISMES.
in the case where the dissipation is considered as occurring in a damaged space of

dimension 2.38. Tensile testing at ISMES-Bergamo, Figure 20(b), has provided a plot
slope very close to the LEFM singularity 1/2, namely 0.48, and thus a fractal dimension
2.48, which implies a very disordered material.
9. Conclusions
The fractality of the fracture surface has obtained confirmation from all the four
methods proposed, over a wide range of scales. On the other hand, not a unique value
of the fractal dimension D can be determined, but a continuous variation of D with the
observation scale emerges clearly. More precisely, an increase of the fractal dimension
with decreasing scale length has been revealed by all the four methods, Figures 7(b), 10,
14(b) and 17(b).
The self-affinity theory states that two dimensions can be determined for each
profile: the (non-integer) local dimension, in the limit of scales tending to zero, and the
global dimension, corresponding to large scales, which is equal to 1 (or, equivalently, for
289
a fractal surface, equal to 2). Our results confirm the latter asymptotic limit
(homogeneous regime) for increasing scale lengths but, generally, it appears more
consistent to deal with a continuous variation of the fractal dimension against the scale
length (geometrical multiJractality) than to consider only two limit values of the fractal
dimension, Figure 21.
1.20 r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
1.16
c::
.9
'"c:: 1.12
e
CI)
is
J 1.08
1.04
1.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Observation scale length (mm)
Figure 21 - Geometrical multifractality.
A strong physical correspondence with the geometrical trend can be emphasized.

The effect of microstructural disorder on the mechanical behavior becomes progressively
less important at larger scales, whereas it represents the fundamental feature at smaller
scales. In fact, since the microstructural morphology of a disordered material is
obviously the same, independently of the macroscopic specimen dimensions, the
influence of disorder on the mechanical properties of the material strictly depends on
the ratio of the size of the largest heterogeneities (e.g., grains, aggregates, fibers, etc.) to
the macroscopic size of the specimen.
If these results are extrapolated to the problem of size effects, it can be said that,
for large structures (i.e., large when compared with the microstructural characteristic
size), the disordered (damaged) microstructure is somehow homogenized, that is, it
behaves macroscopically as an ordered microstructure (homogeneous regime).
Therefore, the scale effect should vanish in the limit of structural size d tending to
infinite, where an asymptotic value of fracture energy can be determined. On the other
hand, for small specimens (i.e., small when compared with the microstructural
characteristic size), the effect of the disordered microstructure becomes progressively
more important, and ~F decreases with decreasing size, ideally tending to zero. In the
bilogarithmic diagram the slope locally represents the fractal increment d~ which can be
assumed as a measure of the variable influence of disorder on the mechanical behavior.
In any case, if the monofractality of the fracture surfaces is supposed to hold,

averaging over the four methods the values of D obtained by linear regression of the
logarithmic data, the mean results from different fractured specimens (all cast from the
same concrete mix) yield:
D = 2.12 + 2.36 (35)

290
The dimensional increment d g, in the monofractal hypothesis, is therefore comprised

between 0.12 and 0.36. The last value is thus in a very good agreement with the slope
of the fracture energy versus size bilogarithmic diagram, Figure 20(a), previously
described by Carpinteri [14J. This confirms the validity of the fractal approach to the
phenomenon of fracture in disordered materials and, particularly, to the size effects on
nominal fracture energy.
Acknowledgements
The present research was carried out with the financial support of the Ministry of
University and Scientific Research (MURST) and the National Research Council
(CNR).
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Company, New York, 1982.
[2J K. Falconer, Fractal Geometry: Mathematical Foundations and Applications, John

Wiley and Sons, Chichester, 1990.
[3J P. D. Panagiotopoulos, "Fractal Geometry in Solids and Structures", Int. J. Solids

and Structures, 29, pp. 2159-2175, 1992.
[4J A. A. Griffith, "The Phenomenon of Rupture and Flow in Solids", Philosophical

Transaction of the Royal Society, London, A221, pp. 163-198, 1921.
[5J G. R. Irwin, "Analysis of Stresses and Strains near the End of a Crack Traversing a
Plate", J. Applied Mechanics, 24, pp. 361-364, 1957.
[6J P. Bak, C. Tang and K. Wiesenfeld, "Self-Organized Criticality", Physical Review

A, 38, pp. 364-374, 1988.
[7J K. G. Wilson, "Problems in Physics with Many Scales of Length", Scientific

American, (Italian Edition), 23, pp. 140-157, 1979.
[8J B. B. Mandelbrot, D. E. Passoja and A. J. Paullay, "Fractal Character of Fracture

Surfaces of Metals", Nature, 308, pp. 721-722, 1984.
[9J H. Sumiyoshi, S. Matsuoka, K. Ishikawa and M. Nihei, "Fractal Characteristics of

Scanning Tunneling Microscopic Images of ~rittle Fracture Surfaces on
Molybdenum", JSME International Journal, 35, pp. 449-455, 1992.
[10J S. R. Brown and C. H. Scholz, "Broad Bandwidth Study of the Topography of

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[11J V. E. Saouma, C. C. Barton and N. A. Gamaleldin, "Fractal Characterization of

Fracture Surfaces in Concrete", Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 35, pp. 47-53,
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[12J T. J. Mackin, J. J. Melcholsky, Jr., D. E. Passoja and Y. 1. Tsai, "Scaling

Concepts Applied to Brittle Fracture", Proceedings of Symposium W, 1990 Fall
Meeting of the Materials Research Society, Boston, pp. 33-36, 1990.
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[13] Q. Y. Long, L. I. Suqin and C. V. Lung, "Studies on the Fractal Dimension of a

Fracture Surface Formed by Slow Stable Crack Propagation", J. Applied Physics,
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[14] A. Carpinteri, "Fractal Nature of Material Microstructure and Size Effects on

Apparent Mechanical Properties", Mechanics of Materials, to appear.
[15] A. Carpinteri and B. Chiaia, "Fractals, Renormalization Group Theory and Scaling
Laws for Strength and Toughness of Disordered Materials", Proceedings of the
PROBAMAT Workshop, NATO ARW930521, Cachan, 1993.
[16] A. Carpinteri, "Plastic Flow Collapse Versus Separation Collapse (Fracture) in
Elastic-Plastic Strain-Hardening Structures", Materials and Structures, 16, pp. 85-
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[17] A. Carpinteri, "Stress-Singularity and Generalized Fracture Toughness at the

Vertex of Reentrant Corners", Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 26, pp. 143-155,
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Deadly Quarrels", General System Yearbook, 6, pp. 139-187, 1961.
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292
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and Concrete by Means of Three-Point Bend Tests on Notched Beams", Draft
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of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids, 37, pp. 567-582, 1989.
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Critical Phenomena, John Wiley & Sons, London, 1977.
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Consultant Bureau, New York, 1979.
DAMAGE CHARACTERIZATION, DAMAGE GROWTH VALIDATION AND
REPAffi CONSIDERATION OF ADVANCED AIRCRAFT COMPOSITE
STRUCTURES
C. Campolo and F. Cipri

Alenia Aeronautics - Defence Aircraft Division,
Corso Marche 41, 10139 Torino, Italy
Aircraft components made from composites are subject to impact damage during
service. Their performance and structural integrity would be affected and need to be
assessed for establishing the allowable damage limits. One of the damage tolerant
criteria is to allow no growth of the damaged region during the life of the aircraft.
Considered also are repair methods for reinforcing damaged composite parts.
1. Introduction
Advanced composites are being used as primary structures in military and
commercial aircrafts because of their high strength-to-weight ratio. Their superior
damage tolerant behavior make them attractive when compared with metals. It is
nevertheless important to understand how composites would tolerate damage where
both the reinforcement and matrix (or resin) would react differently. As a first
consideration, damage of the resin could be externally visible or hidden internally
depending on its fracture toughness under the same loading condition. Impact tests on
resin systems are performed for different energy levels; they are followed by static and
fatigue tests to determine the allowable impact damage which could prevail during the
service life of the aircraft. Typical composite configurations used in military and
commercial aircrafts are chosen for the investigation.
2. Repair Consideration
Aircraft components contain defects arising from manufacturing or service. These
defects could spread under repeated loading and as a rule the possibility of their
presence could not be neglected. Nondestructive inspection procedures are available to
detect the location and size of these defects such that their growth into critical sizes
would be interrupted by repair. Typical damage by impact could range from small
surface dents to internal delamination or through penetration. The degree of damage
would depend on the resin toughness and component configuration.
2.1 In-Field Condition

Since impact damage could affect the structural integrity to a level below the
design limit, defects need to be detected and repaired such that the damaged
components could be restored to their expected level of performance. In-field repair
should be distinguished from repair in the shop. The former must often be exercised
under less ideal conditions:
• Freezer storage facility may not be available so that the bonding material must
be stored at ambient temperature .
• Autoclave facilities are not available. Repair must be performed with heating
blanket and vacuum bag, limiting the curing pressure to 1 Bar only.
293
294
• Production materials such as prep regs and film adhesives are not feasible
because of complexity to process them under field conditions.
• Repair on or inside aircraft is less convenient and often confined in

maneuverability.
• Accessibility is often limited to the front side only.
Effective in-field repair must thus be kept as simple and quickly as possible. Some of
the required items are:
• Vacuum source,
• Heating blanket or lamp,
• Shelf life materials,
• High hot/wet performance paste adhesive,
• Wet lay-up resin systems, and
• Countersunk blind bolts.
2.2 Methodology
The damage tolerant concept requires that the structural components should be
able to sustain certain pre-determined static and fatigue load even when they are
damaged. Beyond the design limits, repair should be made to restore the components
to their full strength. Among the relevant parameters to be considered in the
performance restoration process are:
• Structural efficiency (weight increase)
• Durability (repeated loading)
• Reliability (adequacy of repair)
• Joint efficiency
• Aerodynamic smoothness
A more detailed account of damage assessment can be found in the flow chart outlined
in Figure l.
3. Test Specimens of Structural Components
Test coupons are designed to represent actual structural components under the
required condition of loading. The "cocured" boxes of horizontal stabilizers and vertical
fins, as well as "full depth" honeycomb sandwich movable control surfaces are the
components to be assessed against impact damage behaviour. Two of the specimens are
shown in Figures 2(a) and 2(b); they are:
• Solid laminates for the skin panels

295
• Portion of skin cocured to spar flanges, a typical structural junction
SCREENING STATIC TESTS STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF

FOR DEFINITION OF IMPACT ENERGIES CAUSED
ACCEPTABLE DAMAGES BY PROBABLE EVENTS
FATIGUE AND RESIDUAL
I STRENGTH TESTS FOR
ALLOWABLE DAMAGES
VERIFICATION
I
I REPAIR MATERIALS I I REPAIR METHODS I
QUALIFICATION I I VALIDATION
I ASSESSMENT OF IN SERVICE
I REPAIR MANUALl-- DAMAGES BYTHBR
DETECTION WITH N.D.I.
DECISION ABOUT:
- ACCEPTABIUTY OF THE DAMAGES (Cosmetic repair)
- REPAIRABIUTY PER REPAIR MANUAL (Field repair) -
- REPAIRABIUTY NOT PER REPAIR MANUAL (Shop repair)
Figure 1 - Flow chart for assessing the acceptance or repair of damaged composite parts.
~
I
. )
I I '
I
100:11 I SO WtoI
(a) Solid laminate box skin panels (b) Solid laminate box skin panels (compression
(static compression strength) fatigue and residual static strength)
Figure 2 - Solid laminate integrally stiffened cocured structures.

296
Displayed III Figures 3(a) and 3(b) are some of the tensile and bending specimens.
(a) T pull specimens (b) Cocured skin-spar specimens

(static tension strength) (3 point bending fatigue and
residual static strength)
Figure 3 - Static tension and bending test specimens.
Those representing the construction of the control surfaces can be found in Figures 4( a)
to 4(c); they include:
7-#
( a) Precured laminate secondary bonded
(static tension/shear strength and
fatigue + residual static strength)
(b) Movable control surface (c) H/ C sandwich specimen

Full depth honeycomb core (4 points bending fatigue
Sandwich component + static residual strength)
Figure 4 - Typical specimen configurations for movable control surface .
• Honeycomb sandwich panels, with different H/C heights and skin thickness such
as those covering the sandwich area, and
297
• Secondary bonded solid laminates of the "Facing skins-Spar flanges" bonded

area.
4. Allowable Damage and Experimental Verification
Prior to defining the allowable damage, possible impact damage is classified.

4.1 Impact Classification
During the life of an aircraft, it can experience damage during flight, on ground, in
the shelter and in maintenance operation. During taxiing, take off and landing, the
aircraft could be hit by runway stones, hailstones or tank pistol in refueling. The use of
service platforms or ladders could also cause damage to an aircraft when it is being
sheltered. Severe damage could also be inflicted during the maintenance' operation
when heavy equipment bump the aircraft or tools are accidentally dropped. Table 1
gives a list of the possible events that could damage different parts of an aircraft with
the corresponding impact energies.
Table 1 - Probable impact events and corresponding energies to cause damage

Aircraft Section Impact Risk Mass Height Velocity Energy
and Components (Kg) (m) (m/s) (J)
Wing Control Upper Hailstones 4,5
movable part Falling tools 1 1 10
surfaces Service platform 50 1 25
Lower Service platform 50 1 25
part Runway stones 17
Horizontal Stabilizer Upper Hailstones 4,5
stabilizer and part Falling tools 1 1 10
elevator Service platform 50 1 25
Lower Service platform 50 1 25
part Runway stones 17
Vertical Fin and Service platform 50 1 25

stabilizer rudder
Fuselage HIC Above Ejection seat 70 0,83 24

sandwich Canopy install. 5-8 0,83
panels Refuelling probe 10 0,3 30
and HIC Falling tools 1 0,5 5
sandwich Hailstones 4,5
doors
Bottom Runway stones 17
Sides Entry Ladder 15 1 7,5
Service platform 50 1 25
4.2 Damage Growth Validation
Allowable damage is verified by fatigue tests comparing the ultimate failure strains
298
of specimens subjected to impact with the design strains of the actual components.
Verification of this procedure consists of two steps:
~irst Step. Tests are carried out on specimens subjected to a range of impact
energies. The constraints are made to be consistent with those in the region of the
actual aircraft. Static test results determine the allowable energy or damage based on
comparing the ultimate failure strains with those for the undamaged specimens.
Second Step. Repeated or fatigue loads are applied to determine whether the
damage would spread or not.
Transfer of the test specimen results to the actual components depends on the load
transmission character of a particular component. The parameters of concern are:
• Distance from highly loaded areas,
• Maximum number of defects allowed,
• Distance between defects, and
• Defect free area.

5. Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) of Impact Damage
Visual inspection is most common and performed periodically to determine surface

damage while overhaul inspection involves examining the critical components by
radiographic and/or ultrasonic techniques. In-Field or Depot Level inspection may also
be necessary for impact could produce cracks or shatter materials deep inside a
component that could not be detected by standard NDT instruments.
Field inspection would require
• Reliable portable unit,
• On site inspection without component removal,
• Detect internal hidden damage aside from those introduced in production,
• "C" scan for ply-by-ply damage detection through the thickness,
• Inspect and perform diagnostic analysis of repair areas that may not be standard.
Alenia has developed the Flexible Automatic Ultrasonic System (FLAUS) for in-
service inspection. It utilizes the pulse echo or through transmission mode and provides
in real time a two-dimensional representation of the intensity of the ultrasonic signals,
as well as the depth of the reflection surfaces, which may correspond to the laminate
back face or internal flows such as disbonding/delamination. The video image is stored
by a computer and allows the operator to detect the presence of damaged areas while
inspecting the part.
The depth variation is represented by a suitable colour scale, while the received
ultrasonic amplitude is represented by a scale of grey intensity, fading to black. The
system software provides some image processing and statistical capabilities, such as low-
pass and high-pass filtering on images, either on amplitude and/or depth data, edge
299
Jw
I
(a) Lower skin panel for horizontal stabilizer
(b) Damage zones

Figure 5 - Typical ultrasonic "e" scan map and photo of damaged zones.
300
enhancement and area calculation referring to a pre-defined depth. A typical "C" scan
map for a solid laminate cocured box with impact damaged zones can be found in
Figures 5(a) and 5(b).
6. Material Data Requirement for Repair
Materials used to repair under field conditions shall possess the following
properties:
• Stable shelf life,
• Simple to process,
• Conducive to repair of exposed areas, and
• Good resistance to environment.
Field repair would require that:
• Two parts epoxy adhesives with hot/wet performances,
• Advanced wet laminating resin systems for flush tapered repair,
• Blind bolts (130° countersink head) applied to thin patches on the wetted
aerodynamic surface, and
• Vacuum bagging system to optimize curing cycles.
Differential Scanning Calorimetric and Rheological chemical characterizations were

performed to optimize the curing cycle parameters. Severe environmental parameters
were applied to make an overall assessment of material performances under service
operational conditions. The applied testing conditions were:
• Room Temperature (RT), As Received (AR),
• - 55°C and +70°C after conditioning in humidostatic chamber to reach 1% by

weight of moisture uptake.
Resin impregnating dry carbon fabric plies have been tested in order to obtain data
for the "wet lay-up process" laminates and the adhesion strength of fresh plies cobonded
on precured substrate to assess the adhesion of repair patches. Paste epoxy adhesives
were tested to obtain shear strength properties for the required service conditions and to
assess the foreseen applications of precured patches bonding. Some typical test results
of the selected adhesives are presented in Table 2.
7. Acceptance Criteria and Examples
Acceptance criteria for impact damaged specimens are based on relating strains at
the various thresholds to damage size. The onset of damage growth is determined by
the static and fatigue test. The ultimate failure strain is reduced statistically and
compared with the design strains in compression. All specimens are subjected to the
"F ALST AFF" fatigue spectra, derived from those for the actual structural components;
they are equivalent to 16,000 flight hours.
301
Table 2 - Repair adhesives assessment
Adhe- Mechani- Specimen Cure Test Conditions

SIve cal test configurations cycles
type RT/ - 55°C/ 70°C/ 70°C/
Dry Wet* Wet* Dry
Mean Mean Mean Mean

stress stress stress stress
(MPa} (MPa} (MPa} (MPa}
Two Double Carbon fibre 80°C 9,6 7,67 12,32 8,9
parts lap shear precured x4h
epoxy strength adherends
120°C 6,65 5,27 7,8 8,35
x2h
Wet Single Fresh carbon dry 80°C 6,7 7.0 7,5

lami- lap shear plies, impregnated x4h
na~ing strength with EA 9390, co-
reSIn bonded on C /F 120°C 4,24 4,93 4,53
pre cured adherends x2h
Note: 1~ EA 9391: Curing pressure 1 Bar given by heated pressure plate

2 EA 9390: Curing using heating blanket under vacuum bagging system
( } Wet conditioning in humidostatic chamber, at 95% RH at 70°C per 15 days
STRAINS
• Allowable Darn. = Detected Dam. x Kt

• Max Rep. Dam. "" Det. Dam. x K2 x KHIW l( KRE
• KHJW" Hot Wet Factor
• KRE= Repair Efficiency

"6" VAlUE U.L STRAIN
• K1 = Strain_~_~!~
Design Strain
DESIGN STRAIN • K2 = _Strainat Failu~_

E.~_=:=. ~_~~~_~.~~_I~~.~!~:L Operational Strain
€c ~ 35001' [HiC Sandwich]
OPERATIONAL STRAIN
I STRUCTURAL RiOPAIR I -
DETECTED] [ALLOWAEllE.1
DAMAGE DAMAGE
- ----~-
Figure 6 - Definition of allowable and maximum repairable damage.

302
Shown in Figure 6 are the variations of strain with damage size. Two ranges are
defined: The "cosmetic repair" requires only surface touch up while the "structural
repair" involves mechanical reinforcement. The upper limit is the maximum repairable
damage which is defined by comparing the ultimate failure strain with the "operational"
strain at the appropriate location of the actual component. A suitable factor may be
introduced to account for the repair efficiency or the hot/wet conditions. The repair
efficiency is based on the strength of the parent material.
7.1 Solid Laminates: Box Skin Panels
The static and fatigue test results for the solid laminate cocured box skin panels
are summarized in Tables 3 and 4 for two different coupon sizes.
Table 3 - Static compression strength after impact [RT /Dryl (plain coupons 100 mm x
150 mm x tl
t Stacking Impact Detected Mean Mean N=3 "B" Value mean
(mm) sequence energy damage ultimate ultimate spec. failure strain
(Joules) (mm 2 ) failure failure CV f(J.I strain)
stress stress (%)
u(MPal ~strainl
2,5 [(0,90)/0( ±45) 10 917 216 8127 4,8 5729

(0,90)( ±45hls 12 968 193 7970 5,7 5180
r
12 plies 15 1096 179 7466 3,5 5861
3,4 [(0, 90 O/?O,90? 10 690 206 6407 3,8 4908

~ ± 45 /0/ 0,90 12 852 205 6649 1,9 5871
±45 2ls
16 plies 15 994 171 5728 5,1 3930
4,2 [(0,90)( ±45)/0/ 10 497 239 7657 6,6 4549

~0,90~t( ± 45)~0/ 12 564 209 7218 1,7 6461
0,90 ± 45h s
20 plies 15 904 201 6849 4,8 4828
Note: No Hot/Wet Knock Down Factors applied, Compression Design Strain:

since the conditioning plasticizes the impacted f= 4050J.l
area, with beneficial effects on strength
The static tests were performed on coupons, tested in compression using "Boeing
Standard Test Rig" and impacted with different energies. Plotted in Figure 7 are the
variations of load P and energy E with time for a coupon (100 x 150 x 4 mm) impacted
with 10J. Labelled on the load and energy curve are p. and E. where i = m,f,t. The
subscripts m, f and t denote, respectively, matrix, fibef and tJrminal failure. Matrix
failure occurs close to the back side of the impacted panel while fiber failure corresponds
to maximum load P f where the laminate is damaged through the thickness. The energy
required to allow damage growth is
(1)
303
Table 4 - Fatigue and compression residual strength [RT/Dry] (plain coupons 600 mm x
250 mm x t)
Stacking Impact Detected Detected Mean ult. Mean ult. "B" Allow.
(mm) sequence energy damage damage failure failure value damage =
(Joules) (mm 2 ) aft. fat. stress strains failure det. dam.
(mm 2) u(MPa) "l(J1 strain) strains x (fB/fB)
fB(JI strain)
2,5 [(0,90)/0/( ± 45) No 278 5520 4582

(0,90)( ± 45)21s impact
12 Plies 15 672 *Only 323 6450 5353 672

static
test x 5353
4050
=888 mm 2
3,4 [(0,90)/0/(0,90) No 287 5400 4482

( ± 45)/0/(0,90) impact
(± 45)21s
16 Plies 15 660 *Only 305 6600 5478 660
static
test x 5478
4050
=892 mm 2
4,2 [(0,90)( ± 45)/0/ No 366 7800 6474

(0,90)t ± 45)/0/ impact
(0,90) ± 45)21s
20 Plies 15 500 500 339 7275 6038 500

x 6038
4050
=745 mm 2
Notes: * Static tests performed only, since the actual Compression Design Strain:
areas represented are lightly loaded f = 40501'
** Statistical Knock Down Factor:
0,83 (per N=5 and CV=9%)
where E t is the terminal or total absorbed energy. A damage tolerant index

D_Em (2)
- Ep
can thus be defined. The resin is said to be more tolerant to damage or to failure if
Em/Ep is high. Data for other thicknesses can be found in Table 3.
The fatigue test data for coupon size (600 x 250 x t mm) loaded in compression are
given in Table 4. The impact energy is specified as before.
304
360 IllIllll
z N
1
o
r
--------h-.-+-I_ - " - _ , _ _ [ I::
80 I~O
Time t x 10- 4 (Sec)
Figure 7 - Variations of load and energy with time for a specimen (100 x 150 x 4 mm).
7.2 Honeycomb Core Sandwich Components with Movable Control Surface
The same approach has been followed to derive the allowable damages of HIC
sandwich components. In Tables 5 and 6, the results of static and fatigue tests
performed on HIC sandwich specimens, loaded in a "four point bending" test fixture are
presented. The strains at failure are those for the upper skin failure, loaded in
compression. The static screening tests were carried out on coupons impacted with
energy levels of 5J, 8J and 10J. Due to the wedge configuration of the "full depth
honeycomb" movable surface, it was not possible to simulate the actual conditions of
constraint. The data should, however, be conservative because the simply-supported
test condition in Figure 4(c) would yield higher strain than the condition in Figure 4(b).
The acceptable failure strains of coupons with H = 10, 60 and 90 mm impacted at 10J
are lower than the design strains. Finally, the allowable damage is defined as
. Allowable damage = Detected damage x E~ (3)
where E is the design strain and EB the "B" test failure strain as referred to in Tables 5
and 6.
7.3 T-Pull and "Skin Cocured to Spar Flanges" Specimens
The typical structural configurations of co cured boxes shown in Figures 3(a) and
3(b) are investigated. Summarized in Table 7 are the results of the T -Pull static tests
where tension is applied after impacted with different energy_ levels. Two sets results
are presented: one for unsupported web during impact and the other for specimens cut
from a spar. The latter showed better damage tolerant behavior. The detected damage
size was too large when compared with that observed from a full scale production box, a
discussion of which will be made later on. In general, the actual constraint is difficult
to simulate in specimens.
The spar skin impacted by 17 J energy showed small damage on the web center line
(location 1 in Figure 8) and mid-spar flange area (location 2 in Figure 8) when subjected
to fatigue spectra. The spar was further tested in three-point bending after fatigue; its
strength was comparable with that of the undamaged spar tested statically. Refer to
305
Table 8 for the test results.
Table 5 - Control movable surfaces - HIC sandwich specimens long beam flexure static
tests [RT LDry] - [600 mm x 75 mm x t] dimensions
HIC Facing Impact Detected Mean Mean "B" Value mean

height skin energy damage ultimate ultimate failure strain
(mm) thickness (Joules) D (mm 2 ) failure failure (B(Jl strain)
load N strain
!S,Jl strain1
10 3 Fabric plies No 1605 11708 9718

impact
~( ±45j(0,90) 5 625 890 4635 3847
±45) 8 550 644 2917 2421 (1)
20 8 Fabric plies 10 580 3879 5160 4283

t(± 45)4(0,90)
45MO,90)]
25 3 Fabric plies No 3328 7924 6577
impact
l(±45)1
± 45 (0,90) 5 425 3184
3253
5402
5430
4484
8 575 4507
60 3 Fabric plies No 5034 5785 4801

impact
[( ±45j(0,90) 10 850 3298 3000 2490 (2)
( ±45)
90 4 Fabric plies No 6645 2590 2150

impact
[(0,90)) ± 45) 10 633 6944 3095 2569 (2)
(0,9O h
Note: Statistical reduction = 0,83 for N=5, CV=5% Compression Design Strain:
(1) Since the Spec. (H=10) represents the ( = 3500Jl
wedge configuration, 8J is tolerable
(2) The strain values are conservative, since
the specimens are not large enough to
provide infinite sheet conditions
8. Impact Survey
The box lower skin panel in Figure 9 was impacted at different locations with a
range of energies to explore the damage states throughout the panel thickness. More
specifically, damage states of the solid laminate specimens have been verified by
performing tests of "spar-cocured skins" where impact is applied at the spar center line
and at the middle of the spar flange. The corresponding impact energies and damage
dimensions can be found in Table 9. The impact damage sizes listed in Table 4 for the
solid laminate coupons are consistent with the damage size detected on the box skin
panel. The impacts at the center line spar area resulted in small damage only about
150 mm 2 even for high impact energy of 30J at location where the skin thickness is 7
306
Table 6 - Control movable surfaces - H/C sandwich specimens long beam flexure fatigue
and residual static strength - [RT/Dry]
HIC Impact Detected Detected Mean Mean "B" Allow.

height energy damage D damage failure failure Value damage =
(mm) (Joules) (mm 2 ) aft. fat. load N strain failure det. dam.
(mm 2 ) 7(p strain) strain x
f B (p strain)
"B"F· Strain
Design Str.
10 8 572 572 1265 4173 3463 572 x 3463

3500
= D allow.
= 566 mm 2
20 10 586 848 804 4666 3873 848 x 3873

3500
= D allow.
= 938 mm 2
25 8 572 572 2043 4085 3391 572 x 3391

3500
= D allow.
= 554 mm 2
60 10 535 535 4193 3135 2602 535 x 2602

3500
= D allow.
= 397 mm 2
90 10 650 650 5855 1933 (*)
Note: Not reliable test value (Test shall be repeated) Compression Design Strain:
f = 3500p
mm. No damage were observed in other skin locations for impact up to 25J. Damage
size of up to 700 mm2 at 25J were observed on box skin in spar flange areas.
9. Repair Validation
According to the definition of what constitutes structural damage as indicated in

Figure 6, the most suitable repair method can be chosen to restore the structure into its
original strength. Figure 10 ranks the different repair methods in terms of proficiency
in repair and ability to restore the structural integrity. The flush scarf repair is
considered to be most effective. The choice depends on the configuration of the
component damage area and accessibility of the repair.
At Alenia, all specimens will be assessed and repaired according to the methods in
Figure 10. The repairs will be validated by fatigue tests to demonstrate the
effectiveness of the repair.
307
Impact Ch 11
Locations
+I
hinge support
310 t
LOA 0
hinge support
310
APPLICA T ION
Ch.09
~
ch.14
~ RI R2
~
~
Figure 8 - Skins co cured to spar flange specimen.
I I
Figure 9 - Impact locations on lower skin panel of horizontal stabilizer.

308
Table 7 - Solid laminate box structure T-Pull static tests
Impact Impact Detected Mean Failure Remarks

energy location damage ultimate mode
(Joules) D (mm 2 ) failure
load N
No impact - 17250 Capping strip Incorrect specimen

constrains during
15 C.L. Web 1000 6800 Capping strip impact, since the
web was not sup-
18 Spar 1100 5850 Capping strip ported
flange
No impact - 9450 Capping strip Web correctly

clamped during
20 C.L. Web 850 5610 Capping strip impact. Specimens
cut from skin-co-
cured spar flanges
10 C.L. Web 1100 5940 Capping strip
Table 8 - Three point bending residual static strength test (NC020) for a plain laminate
spar cocured to the box skins (failure load: 11,076 kg)
Step Channel number

(% of load)
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
(Kg) (Jlf) (Jlf) (Jlf) (Jlf) (Jlf) (Jlf) (Jlf) (Jlf)
0 11 0 0 10 10 10 10 20 10
10 746 - 300 - 340 10 - 350 0 - 10 340 10
20 - 1605 - 610 - 670 10 - 670 - 10 - 20 670 10
30 - 2340 - 900 -1020 10 -1040 - 20 - 30 1000 10
40 - 3108 - 1210 -1350 0 -1400 - 30 - 50 1330 30
50 - 3679 -1430 -1610 - 10 -1700 - 50 - 70 1620 50
60 - 4402 -1730 -1950 - 10 - 2080 - 90 - 90 1940 70
70 - 5108 - 1970 - 2200 - 20 - 2340 - 100 -110 2210 - 110
80 - 5821 - 2270 - 2570 - 30 - 2750 - 130 - 130 2540 - 150
90 - 6414 - 2510 - 2850 - 30 - 3050 - 160 -150 2810 - 190
100 - 7465 -2920 - 3340 - 50 - 3530 - 230 - 190 3160 - 270
105 - 7708 - 2980 - 3420 - 60 - 3690 - 270 - 200 3300 - 310
110 - 8064 - 3110 - 3600 - 70 - 3890 - 330 - 210 3450 - 370
115 - 8420 - 3240 - 3800 - 90 - 4150 - 410 - 250 3600 - 480
120 - 8816 - 3400 -4060 -170 - 4570 - 630 - 310 3720 - 650
125 - 9194 - 3620 - 4510 -120 - 5640 -1400 - 410 3830 -1110
130 - 9584 - 3930 - 5330 0 - 6640 - 2160 - 510 3940 -1930
135 - 9912 - 4200 - 6010 70 - 7170 - 2540 - 490 4010 - 2450
140 - 10285 - 4530 - 6980 150 - 8030 - 3210 - 370 4110 - 2890
145 - 10652 - 4810 -7600 210 - 8630 - 3740 -170 4200 - 3220
150 - 10986 - 5110 - 8420 270 - 9310 - 4340 120 4320 - 3300
309
Table 9 - Impact data for horizontal stabilizer - lower skin panel
Impact Skin Impact Damage dimensions (mm 2 )

location thickness energy
(mm) (Joules) Skin Web Flange
1 4,3 22 620
2 7,0 30 150
3 6,6 25 700
4 3,9 17 860
5 6,2 25 No Dam.
6 5,6 22 30
7 3,5 17 1220
8 5,4 22 10
9 5,4 20 No Dam.
10 3,1 15 910
11 5,0 22 No Dam.
12 4,8 20 600
13 2,4 12 530
14 3,9 22 No Dam.
15 3,6 20 710
16 1,8 12 360
17 3,5 20 No Dam.
18 3,7 17 No Dam.
REPAIR METHODS
~
a::
Iv ij
a:: • Bolted/Bonded metal or CFC patches CJ
...~
UJ
• Bonded CFC patches

~
a::
§
::)
• Flush scarf wet laminating repairs U

::)
a::
In
Figure 10 - Composite structures repairability approach.
10. Conclusions
"Depot Level Repair" refers to damage tolerant and repair test programs that
pertain to in-field conditions. The methodology applies to damaged composite
components for military and commercial aircrafts and has been validated at Alenia.
Repair manuals are available for a tactical fighter and parts of a civil transport aircraft.
The flow chart in Figure 11 outlines the major steps in compiling the repair manual for
composite structural components.
Additional research is being carried out on improving the in-service detection of

defects and repair techniques such that the damage tolerant concept can be applied
310
I QUALIFICATION OF REPAIR MATERIALS i 1- AT SheH Life

\- Vacuum Bag Curing
1
I I
- MECHANICAL CHARACTERISATION
• COLD ADHESIVES WITH HOT/WET PERFORMANCES
(BASIC DESIGN DATA)
• WET LAMINATING RESIN SYSTEMS
- PROCESSABIUTY PARAMETERS
ASSESSMENT (CURE CYCLES)
I REPAIRING :
I
I I
I I
r STRUCTURAL REPAIRS! COSMETIC AND SEMI-
STRUCTURAL REPAIRS
T
r
1
I \
HOT BOND REPAIR
T
BOLTED REPAIR
I COLD REPAIRS
T I
- Rush Tapered repair - Bolted Precured CIF - Potting Compounds
- External Bonded or Metallic Patches - Cold Paste Adhesives
Precured CIF or - Overlaid Wet Plies
Metallic Patches
Figure 11 - Flow diagram of the qualification process for preparation of composite

structures repair manuals.
more effectively. This would enhance the maintenance of the present and next
generation aircrafts.
NEAR TIP MEASUREMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON OPENING
AND GROWTH OF CRACKS IN PARTICULATE COMPOSITES
C. T. Liu
Phillips Laboratory (AFMC), 4 Draco Drive,

Edwards AFB, California 93524- 7160
C. W. Smith
Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics,

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061-0219
A series of experiments were conducted at two crosshead rates (2.54 mm/min and
12.7 mm/min) and three temperatures (165°F, 72°F, and - 65°F) on edge cracked
sheet specimens. The specimens were made from polybutadiene rubber embedded with
hard particles. The effects of crosshead rate and temperature on the strain fields and
local fracture behavior near the crack tip were investigated and the results are discussed.
1. Introduction
An important engineering problem in structural design is evaluating the strength

and reliability of the structure. It is well known that the strength of a structure may be
degraded during the period of its design life under service loads. One of the common
causes of strength degradation is the result of the development of cracks in the
structure. However, the development of cracks in a structure does not necessarily mean
that the service life of the structure is terminated. Therefore, to determine the ultimate
strength or the ultimate service life of a structure, studies should be conducted to
determine the significance of flaw types and size and the rate of growth. Since crack
growth behavior is controlled by the local stress/strain near the crack tip, it is very
important to investigate local stress/strain and fracture behavior near the crack tip.
In recent years, a considerable amount of work has been done in studying local
behavior near the crack tip in highly filled polymeric materials [1-6]. These materials
consist of hard particles contained in a soft elastomeric binder. It is well known that
the mechanical behavior of such materials depends on the strain rate and temperature.
Therefore, in order to provide some insight into the near tip mechanisms which are
associated with crack opening and growth, and how they may be affected by changes in
strain rate and temperature, a series of experiments were couducted. The experimental
data are analyzed to determine the local behavior near the crack tip and the results are
discussed.
2. Testing and Data Analysis
In this study, the effects of temperature and loading rate on the strain distributions
and local behavior near the crack tip were investigated using sheet specimens. The
specimens were made of a highly filled polymeric material, containing hard particles in
a rubbery matrix, and the geometry of the specimen is shown in Figure 1. Since the
specimens were quite soft, a special grating had to be developed from which
displacements near the crack tip could be measured without affecting the stiffness of the
specimen. A coarse grating consisting of squares of 0.2 mm on each side (approximately
311
312
203 mm
~I
Aluminum grips cemented to

specimen. Specimen thickness:
2.54 mm. ao = 25 mm
Figure 1 - Specimen dimensions.
1/2 of the largest size of the hard particle) and which had a thickness of less than 2.5 x
10 - 2 mm was deposited in the neighborhood of the crack tip. The procedure to print
the grid on the surface of the specimen was to cover an area of about 5.08 by 5.08 cm
with a very thin layer of mixed silicone grease and titanium dioxide. Then a mesh of 5
lines per millimeter was placed on that area. The grid was pressed gently onto the
specimen and the excess grease mixture removed. The specimen was then placed in a
vacuum machine and aluminum was evaporated on it. After the evaporation process,
the mesh was removed.
Prior to testing, the specimens were conditioned at the test temperature for an
hour and were then tested at a constant crosshead speed until the specimen fractured.
In this study, three temperatures (165°F, 72"F and - 65°F) and two crosshead speeds
(2.54 mm/min and 12.7 mm/min) were considered. During the tests, photographs of
the grid region were taken at various time intervals and they were used to determine
the displacement fields near the crack tip. The procedure to determine the
displacement and strain fields is discussed in the following paragraph.
The determination of the displacements and the strain fields requires digitizing the
data from the photographs. When digitizing the data, points located at the intersection
of the grating lines are selected close together in regions of expected high gradients and
further apart away from these regions. These points in groups of four form
quadrilaterals (initially rectangular) and values are read at each of four points and
averaged before and after loading. The value of the four points' average is located at
the centroid of each quadrilateral and the difference between the no-load and loaded
values becomes the digitized displacement at that point. This four-point smoothing
method used to calculate the displacement at a given point will reduce the experimental
error of reading the grid and it also reduces th~ local anomalies that exist in the real
deformation of the heterogeneous specimen. The calculated displacement data were
stored in a computer and processed to calculate the strains (i y , EX and Exy) and to plot
the isostrain contours. In calculating the strains, small strain definitions were used.
Therefore, strain contours for strain level greater than 15% should be ignored.
313
3. Results and Discussion
It is well known that, on the microscopic scale, a highly filled polymeric material
can be considered a nonhomogeneous material. When this material is stretched, various
forms of damage can be developed, depending upon the cohesive strength of the binder
material, the adhesive strength at the interface between the binder and the filler
particle, and the magnitude of the local stress in the material. The damage developed
in the material may be in the form of dewetting between the binder and the filler
particle. The growth of the damage in the material may take place by material tearing
or by successive nucleation and coalescence of the microcracks. These damage processes
are time-dependent and are the main factor responsible for the time-sensitivity of the
strength degradation as well as fracture behavior of the material. Experimental
evidence reveals that these basic damage mechanisms take place in the range of
temperature considered in this study and they are used to explain some of the local
behavior near the crack tip and crack growth phenomena observed experimentally.
3.1 Crack Surface Profile
Typical sets of photographs showing the crack surface profile and local damage near
the crack tip are shown in Figure 2. The local behavior shown in Figure 2 can be
Global strain 5% Global strain 7.5%
Global strain 11 %
Figure 2(a) - Crack opening and growth profiles at T = 165"F and crosshead rate = 2.54
mm/min.
regarded as typical for the material investigated and the two cross head speeds
considered in this study. According to Figure 2, it is seen that crack tip blunting takes
place both before and after the crack growth and the magnitude of tip blunting depends
on the temperature; the higher the temperature, the larger the blunting. Experimental
data also reveals that the degree of blunting varies from specimen to specimen both
before and during crack growth. This suggests that the local microstructure near the
crack tip plays a significant role in the blunting phenomenon. In addition to showing
314
...........
•............... ::: .......
•••••......•.....
:::::~~:::.;
~
::::::~
::!:::a:::::::::···::::::
............. ,..·~::......
•• I •••••••••••• ••••• •.
:::::I:::::::~~~
.............. ~~ .. ..
•• &•••••••• ~ ••• ~::, ••••• •
....•.......... ,::: ..... .

~
:::::::::::::::::::::::::
................ , .. :.... .
U!!················
Ii::::::::::::····::::::
...............
.... .
::::!!!!!!
Global strain 2.5% Global strain 5% Global strain 10.8%
Figure 2(b) - Crack opening and growth profiles at T = 72"F and crosshead rate = 2.54
mm/min.
Global strain 0.3% Global strain 1. 1% Global strain 3.2%

Figure 2( c) - Crack opening and growth profiles at T = - 65°F and crosshead rate =
12.7 mm/min.
the blunting phenomenon, Figure 2 also shows that a damage zone, or failure process
zone, can develop at the crack tip. A close look at the crack tip region reveals that the
failure process zone has a cusp shape which is consistent with that predicted by
Schapery [71 in his study of fracture of viscoelastic material. In the failure process zone,
the material can be highly nonlinear and suffer extensive damage. Experimental data
indicate that when the local strain inside the failure process zone reaches a critical
value, small voids are formed in the failure process zone. Because of the random nature
of the microstructure of material, the first void is not necessarily formed in the
immediate neighborhood of the crack tip. Probably as a result of the transverse stress,
some of these voids open up while the material is longitudinally stretched, resulting in
long elliptical voids at different locations. The formation of the voids, or the damage
zone, is not restricted on the surface while the maximum normal strain occurs. Since
the tendency of the filler particle to separate from the binder under a triaxial loading is
high, it is expected that voids or damage zone will also be generated in the interior of
the specimen. Consequently, there are a large number of strands, which separate the
voids and are essentially made of the binder material, form inside the failure process
zone. As the applied strain is increased with time, coalescence of elliptical voids occurs.
Finally, the coalescence of the large void with the main crack tip leads to crack growth
to a distance which is equal to the length of the failure process zone. When this occurs,
the crack tip resharpens temporarily. These local damage and fracture processes are
time-dependent and are the main factor responsible for the discontinuous crack growth
315
in the material. For the loading conditions considered in this study, both acceleration
and deceleration as well as jump in crack growth are observed.
The damage and fracture mechanisms, blunting, voiding, coalescing, and growing
discussed in the previous paragraph and the basic crack growth mechanism, stop-
growth-stop, were typical for the loading conditions considered in this study. In other
words, the near tip mechanisms were the same over the entire range of test conditions,
differing only in a quantitative sense. Crack growth occurred through a blunt-growth-
blunt-growth phenomenon at the tip revealing a highly nonlinear mechanical response
to constant cross head speed loads.
3.2 Strain Contours
The previous discussions centered on local damage mechanisms and fracture near
the crack tip. The following paragraphs discuss the effect of temperature and crosshead
rate on the local strain distributions near the crack tip.
Typical plots of normal strain ( distributions under different temperatures and

cross head rates are shown in Figures? and 4. These figures show that the contour lines
--c;.::::r",. .\ .
:~/ . ~. 0 ..:1~ /·0.09·
.c, . .. . , )
.
. / .
, .. . 0: IS' \' 1.( 0 06..
· L . · ~J\· ,.~. .~.' , . ' . .
: . -:> ./ 'I '. , / . ,;_~--
'...,;!. 09 . ( ., :--~~.
~fi ..---
~ =:> .) . (. ,
· . . /'
· ../ .> .,/ I J ...I .....,f · ",
.~ ~;;:s:~_
~ ~ ~-
. :,. -- -
.....
· /
.r .
. .
.(.i...:..< ........
.
"')"
~ :.r
'\. . "-
.. '. ' \ 0'. 06
~\ . ','-....
' .. ,
· .. ! . D.)?'.
/." ) ~.09
·/ -v
. .; V "
. ' , . '
(a) limit of data without extrapolation
(b) Actual crack profile
Global strain 6.6% Global strain 5.8%

T = 165°F =
T 72°F
Figure 3 - Typical contour plots of normal strain at crosshead rate = 2.54 mm/min.
are not smooth but irregular. It is believed that a portion of the irregularities may stem
from the method of data collection and reduction but they are mainly due to the
nonhomogeneity of the material. It is known that, dependent upon the level of interest,
micro or macro, the material's microstructure can have a significant effect on the strain
fields. Experimental data reveal that, on the macro level, the effect of the material's
nonhomogeneity on the distributions of the strain near the crack tip becomes small
when the applied strain level is large. Experimental data also indicate that the normal
strain (y is significantly higher than the shear strain (xy and the transverse strain (x'
Also, tne shear strains are significant near the crack tip and insignificant elsewhere. In
316
addition, when the magnitude of the applied strain is small, the large normal and shear
strain occur in small zones, or the intense strain zones, which are immediately ahead of
the crack tip. However, at elevated temperature, the intense strain zones can be very
large when the applied strain level becomes large. These characteristics of the strain
fields were typical for the testing conditions considered in this study.
Crosshead rate = 2.54 mm/min

Global strain 0.83%
Crosshead rate = 12.7 mm/min

Global strain 0.83%
Figure 4 - Typical contour plots of normal strain at T = - 65'1'.

From Figures 3 and 4, it is seen that, for a given temperature, the effect of
changing the crosshead speed by a factor of 5 alters the strain fields but the isostrain
contours are of this same general form. Moreover, for a given crosshead speed at 72"F
and 165'1', the shapes of isostrain contours are similar, but they are different from the
shape of the isostrain contours when the temperature is equal to - 65'1'. It seems that
the intense strain zone size decreases with decreasing testing temperature.
4. Conclusions
In this study, local fracture behavior and strain fields near the crack tip in a highly
filled polymeric material were investigated under different crosshead rates and
temperature conditions. Experimental results indicate that the near tip mechanisms
(blunting, voiding, coalescing and growing) were the same bver the entire range of test
317
conditions, differing only in a quantitative sense. Crack growth occurs through a blunt-
growth-blunt-growth phenomenon which appears to be highly nonlinear. However, very
recent experimental results obtained from crack propagation tests on 12.7 mm thick
specimens reveal that classical brittle fracture occurs at - 65"F. Experimental data also
reveal that, for a given temperature, the effect of changing the crosshead speed by a
factor of 5 alters the strain fields but the isostrain contours are of the same general
form. Moreover, for a given crosshead speed, at 72"F and 165"F, the shapes of the
isostrain contours are similar, but they are different from the shape of the isostrain
contours when the temperature is equal to - 65"F. Tests on 12.7 mm thick specimens
are continuing.
References
[1] D. Post and C. W. Smith, "Crack Opening and Extension III Inert Solid
Propellant", AF AL-TR-87-043, 1987.
[2] C. W. Smith, C. W. Chang and C. T. Liu, "Measurement of Crack Induced

Damage in Particulate Composites", (Invited Paper), Proceedings of 1990 Annual
Society for Experimental Mechanics, pp. 241-246, 1990.
[3] C. T. Liu and C. W. Smith, "Near Tip Behavior in a Particulate Composite

Material - An Experimental and Analytical Investigation", Proceedings of 2nd Int.
Conf. on Computational Engineering Science, 1991.
[4] C. W. Smith and C. T. Liu, "Effects of Near-Tip Behavior of Particulate

Composites on Classical Concepts", Journal of Composites Engineering, 1, 4, pp.
249-256, 1991.
[5] C. W. Smith, L. Wang and H. Mouille, "Observations of Material and Geometric

Effects on Crack Opening and Growth for Particulate Composites", ASME Applied
Mechanics Division, 130, pp. 119-129, 1991.
[6] C. W. Smith, L. Wang, H. Mouille and C. T. Liu, "Near Tip Behavior of

Particulate Composite Material Containing Cracks at Ambient and Elevated
Temperatures", Fracture Mechanics, 23, ASTM-STP, 1992.
[7] R. A. Schapery, "On a Theory of Crack Growth in Viscoelastic Media", Report

MM 2765-73-1, Texas A&M University, 1973.
FRACTURE MECHANICS PARAMETERS INFLUENCING THE MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE COMPOSITES
O. Buyukozturk
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,

Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
Deformation and failure behavior of concrete composites are affected by the fracture
properties of the constituent materials and the properties of the interfaces between these
constituent materials. For concrete modelled as a two-phase composite, consisting of
mortar with aggregate inclusions, fracture mechanics parameters are assessed. These
include elastic moduli mismatch parameters between the mortar and the aggregate and
the ratios of the interface fracture toughness to the fracture toughness of the aggregate
or that of the mortar. From the tests of novel physical models and numerical analyses,
the role of these parameters on the cracking behavior of the composite is studied. On
the basis of the established parameters, considerations to manufacture high performance
concrete composites with improved mechanical properties are discussed.
1. Introduction
Concrete is a heterogeneous material, and its behavior is complicated by the

properties and interaction of the constituents. Thus, the mechanical properties of
cement-based materials are determined by: (1) the chemical composition, the
microstructure, and the pore geometry of the cementitious materials; (2) the properties
of the aggregate; and (3) the nature of the cement-aggregate bond. Particularly, the
various interfaces between different phases in a concrete system (e.g. between cement
paste and aggregate, concrete and steel), and the associated interfacial properties
significantly influence the properties of concrete. Interfaces which represent
discontinuities are intrinsic to the concrete, and conventionally, the interfacial regions
are regarded as the "weak links" in the concrete structure. The terms "interfacial zone"
and "interface" can be defined as follows. The layer which incorporates all of the
naturally and artificially formed anomalities in the vicinity of the aggregate surface is
referred to as the interfacial zone, transition zone, or interphase. The interface is a two-
dimensional boundary between two distinct materials. In this paper, these terms are
used interchangeably referring to the properties of interface as influenced by the nature
of the interfacial zone.
Interfaces in concrete play a major role in the determination of its mechanical

properties. Good properties can be realized only if the stresses are effectively
transferred between the constituent materials. Load transfer between the phases of
concrete depends on, and is controlled by, the degree of contact and cohesive forces at
the interface. In high strength concrete with silica fume, the increased compactness and
the reduction in the thickness of the interfacial zone improve the transfer of stresses
from the paste to the aggregate allowing more contribution of the aggregate in resisting
the applied load. In general, strong interface can enhance the strength, stiffness, and
durability of concrete. However, a concern about the increase of the bond strength is
the possible brittle behavior, resulting in the limitation of the use of high strength
concrete. In this paper, interface and related fracture mechanics based properties are
first defined. Experimental and numerical studies on two-phase composite models are
319
320
then presented to investigate the role of the identified parameters in the cracking and
deformation behavior of concrete as a composite material.
2. Interfacial Fracture Property
An interface can be characterized by its fracture toughness and bond strength.

These properties affect the formation of microcracks and their growth in the interfacial
region. Assuming that concrete is a two-phase composite material with a mortar matrix
and aggregate inclusions, mismatch between the elastic properties of the mortar and
aggregates is important. Two plane strain parameters arising from the solution of
elastic inclusion problems are useful:
El - E2 1 J.ll (1- 2v2) - J.l2(1 - 2vl)

a=E 1 +E 2' /3=2" J.ll(1-v2)+J.l2(1-vl) (1)
where E = E/(1-v 2) = 2J.1/(I-v), and E, J.I, and v are Young's modulus, shear modulus
and Poisson's ratio, respectively. The subscript 1 refers to the mortar and 2 to the
aggregate.
An important property of interfaces is the fracture toughness of the mortar-

aggregate interface which influences the stiffness, deformation and the cracking behavior
of high strength concrete [1]. The interface fracture toughness can be expressed in
terms of two parameters such as the fracture energy, r., and the loading phase angle, Ill,
[2,3]: 1
K2
III = tan - 1 (K ), for /3 =0 (2)
1
in which Kl and K2 are, respectively, the Mode I and II interface stress intensity factor.
Note that pure Mode I and II correspond, respectively, to K2 = 0 and Kl = o. The
angle 1/1 is often non-zero due to the elastic mismatch across the interface even when the
external loading is normal to the interface plane. In many practical cases involving
concrete composites, the influence of /3 is small relative to that of a [4]. Thus, for a
simplifying approximation, only the parameter a needs to be considered, both in the
determination of fracture toughness values of mortar-aggregate interfaces from test
specimens and in subsequent application of such data to predict fracture. The quantity
r. can be evaluated by energy release rate calibration of the test specimens. The energy
r~lease rate, G, per unit length of extension of the crack along an interface is related to
the stress intensity factors
G = (1 + .J...)(1-;/32)IKI+K~1 (3)
El E2
Mixed mode fracture of concrete has also been treated by application of the strain
energy density criterion [4,5] where the fracture energy would involve product term of
KIK2 in addition to KI and K~ in equation (3).
With different combinations of r. and Ill, one can establish a fracture toughness
curve for an interface. r. can be assJssed from the sandwich specimens [6,7]. As an
example, the interface fraeture toughness curve for a m.ortar-granite interface is given in
Figure 1 (properties of mortar 1 and granite are given in Table 2 in the Application
section). It is observed from Figure 1 that the interfacial fracture energy markedly
increases as the loading phase increases.
The global behavior of concrete is strongly influenced by various scenarios of crack

321
initiation and crack propagation m the matrix versus at the interface, or crack
1:
40
35 ....!.j-[}- Mortar1/Granite I'· .,.,.....!.. o
~-
30 -_· .... -t··········-1'···--···..:- ·······--1··········;··· ...... .;. ·········f··········;·· .. -..
,,;
c'" ._ ... j_ .......... ~_ ......... + __ ._._ ...l...~............ _.
Q)
.<:: 25
Cl
.i··r::: .
::;)
0
I- 20
0> ...::::: ..:"::" ··t···j··
j 15
10
l'laI
't: 5
Q)
.f:
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Phase Angle, 'II, (degree)
Figure 1 - Fracture toughness curves for tested mortar/aggregate interfaces (from Lee
et al [6]).
penetration into the aggregate. Thus, such a cracking behavior needs to be studied in
order to engineer the material for an optimum behavior. The study of the interface
fracture and cracking in interfacial regions is an important research field, especially, in
manufacturing high performance concrete composites with desired strength and
ductility properties. In what follows, we define some fracture mechanics based
parameters important to the prediction of crack growth and fracture properties of
concrete composites considered as two-phase materials.
3. Fracture Parameters
For designing concrete composites with optimum mechanical properties, the

relative properties of mortar, aggregates, and the interface between them should be
considered. Assuming a fixed mortar matrix, several fracture related parameters will be
considered:
3.1 Mismatch of Elastic Modulus
The parameter a describes the elastic modulus mismatch between the mortar and
the aggregate in plane strain as given by equation (1). Upon application of external
loads, there are stress concentrations at the mortar-aggregate interface due to the
difference in the elastic moduli between the mortar and the aggregate. The parameter a
affects the bond crack initiation and the stress transfer in the concrete composite.
3.2 Toughness of Coarse Aggregate Relative to Interface
The ratio of interface fracture toughness to Mode I fracture toughness of the coarse
aggregate given by D = r.(t/J)/r a can be used to explain the competition between
deflection and penetration 6f a crack impinging an interface. The interface cracking
occurs provided that D is less than a critical value Dc for given geometry and loading
conditions. In other words, the impinging crack is likely to be deflected if
322
_ ri Gd _
D- r a < Gmax
p
- Dc (4)
where r· is the toughness of the interface as a function of the loading phase angle, r a is
J
p
the Mode I toughness of aggregate, G ax is the maximum energy release rate of the
penetrated crack, and Gd is the energy release rate of the deflected crack (see Figure
p
2(a) and (b)). The ratio Dc = Gd/G ax on the right hand side of equation (4) can be
(a) Crack penetration (b) Crack deflection
(c) Crack kinking out of an interface
Figure 2 - Conventions for cracking scenarios in interfacial region.
computed by solving the crack problem for a semi-infinite body [8] or by a finite
element based numerical method [9]. The presence and effectiveness of toughening
mechanisms, such as the deflection toughening and the crack front trapping mechanism
by the aggregate, would depend on D. If the aggregate particle is weak (i.e., D is larger
than Dc), the crack may penetrate into the particle and the trap site would then be
eliminated by particle failure . If the matrix-aggregate interface is not strong enough,
the front at the trap site may rapidly turn onto an interfacial crack, and only partial
trapping can be obtained. If the interface is very weak, the trap size may vanish with
rapid debonding. Eventually, by altering the ratio D, one can influence the toughness
of concrete.
3.3 Toughness of Mortar Matrix Relative to Interface
The ratio of interface fracture toughness to Mode I fracture toughness of mortar

matrix given by P = r.(w)/r a can be used to explain the competition between crack
J
323
kinking into the mortar matrix and crack propagation along the interface. This
parameter governs the crack path and the interaction between bond cracks and mortar
cracks, influencing the ductility of concrete. As shown in Figure 2(c), a semi-infinite
crack lies along the interface with its tip at the origin. Prior to kinking (a = 0), the
parent crack is loaded with a complex interface stress intensity factor K with the phase
angle \Ii. A crack staying in an interface may propagate along the interface or kink into
the mortar matrix or aggregate. Crack kinking occurs provided that P is larger than a
critical value Pc for given geometry and loading conditions as follows [10]
(5)
where r. and rm denote the interfacial fracture toughness and the Mode I toughness of
mortar, 1 respectit'ely, G is the energy release rate {or straight-ahead advance in the
interface, and Gmax is defined as the maximum of G with respect to kink angle n for a
given \Ii.
3.4 Toughness of Aggregate Relative to Mortar
The ratio of coarse aggregate Mode I fracture energy to mortar Mode I fracture
energy for the mortar given by F = GE/GW can be used to predict the load-deflection
behavior of concrete when transgranular cracking (i.e., penetration into aggregate)
occurs (i.e., D>Dc). F mainly influences the post-peak softening behavior of concrete.
If F is high, the concrete may have a high fracture energy absorption. If F is low, the
concrete failure may become brittle. Fracture energy GF was defined as the effective
failure energy consumption by unit area as follows [11]
G _ Wo+mg60
F - AI. (6)
Ig
where, W 0 = area under the load-load line deflection curve, mg = weight of the beam
between supports, 60 = deformation at the final failure of the beam, Ar = area of the
ligament. Ig
3.5 Aggregate and Mortar Tensile Strength
= ur /uF is mainly related to the resistance against the crack propagation.

The ratio of coarse aggregate tensile strength to mortar tensile strength given by T
If T is high,
the peak load of the composite may become high. However, the post-peak load curve
tends to decrease rapidly.
It is noted that in addition to these parameters, other factors such as the aggregate
volume fraction and the maximum size of coarse aggregate are also important.
Quantitative studies on the role of these parameters on global behavior of concrete, both
experimental and analytical, should be performed.
4. Application of Fracture Parameters
To study the role of some of the proposed fracture parameters in cracking and
deformation of concrete composites, two-phase composite beam models were tested and
numerically analyzed.
324
4.1 Testing of Composite Beam Models with a Slab Inclusion
Composite models shown in Figure 3 were tested and numerically analyzed as an

application to study crack penetration versus crack deflection in interfacial regions [6J.
I
p
57.15 P 57.15
mortar aggregate
d =76.
2
:.~+;;::;:;;::;:;;::;:;;::;:;;::::;~;::;:;;::;:;;:;:;:;:;:;:~;"- width :
b =25.4
unit: mm
1=228.6
Figure 3 - Composite beam model with a slab inclusion.
This model consists of a beam of mortar matrix and a slab inclusion of aggregate. Two
mortar mixes of one normal strength (Mortar 1) and one high strength mortar (Mortar
2) were used in combination with granite or limestone slab inclusions. Thus, in the
present experiment, four mortar/aggregate combinations were considered. Table 1
shows the mix proportions for the two mortar mixes . Mechanical properties of the
tested materials are listed in Table 2. Fracture parameters of the mortar/aggregate
combinations are presented in Table 3.
Table 1 - Mix proportions for the mortar mixes (by weight)
W/(C+SF) Sand/C SF/C (%) HRWR/C (%)
Mortar 1 0.50 2.0 0.0 0.0

Mortar 2 0.28 2.0 10.0 2.0
W: water, C: cement, SF: silica fume, HRWR: high range water reducer
Table 2 - Mechanical properties for the mortars and aggregates
C1 c(MPa) E(GPa) Gl d J / m2 ) II C1t(MPa) GF /(M/m 2)
Mortar 1 ~M1 ~ 42.5 27.8 10.3 0.22 2.8 39.0

Mortar 2 M2 80.5 39.2 16.7 0.20 5.0 57.0
Limestone (L) 57.5 34.5 11.8 0.18 3.1 29.2
Granite (G} 140.1 55.3 17.5 0.16 6.2 59.7
For the beam composite model tested, the energy release rate along the interface
and the phase angle for the deflected crack were calculated from the finite element
analysis [9J. For mortar l/granite composite beam, the phase angle for the deflected
crack was calculated to be 37'. From the tests, the Mode I fracture energy of granite r g
was 17.5 J/m 2, and r.(37") was approximately 5.0 J/m 2 [7J. Therefore, the ratio D =
1
r i (37')/r g which is 0.28 is found to be less than Dc which is 0.37 [8J. Thus, the
impinging crack can be predicted to be deflected. This agrees with the test results
325
Table 3 - Ge, F and T values for two bimaterial combinations
Ge F T
Mortar l/Limestone -0.099 1.107 0.748

Mortar 2/Limestone 0.068 0.620 0.512
Mortar l/Granite -0.320 2.214 1.531
Mortar 2LGranite -0.163 1.240 1.047
showing the interface cracking. With the measured cracking loads2 the average value of
the interface fracture energy, r. (37°) , is predicted to be 5.9 J /m from the numerical
calculation. This predicted vJlue is somewhat higher than 5.0 J /m 2 which is the
average value measured directly from the interface fracture toughness testing, but the
agreement is reasonable. For mortar 2/granite beam composite model, the phase angle
for the deflected crack was calculated to be 41° and thus, the ratio r.(41°)/rg , calculated
to be 0.46 is found to be larger than Dc which is 0.30 [8J. According to equation (4),
the crack penetration is predicted. This agrees with the test results showing the
transgranular cracking. It is seen that the parameter D may be used for studying the
crack penetration versus deflection scenarios in the interfacial regions of concrete
composites.
4.2 Testing of Sandwiched Brazilian Disk Specimens
Crack kinking out of an interface was observed in some of failed sandwiched

Brazilian disk specimens shown in Figure 4 [6,7J. As an example, when lit = 70°, M2/G
system exhibited the crack kinking. The fracture energy of M2 and the fracture
p
thickness : 25.4
units: mm
p
Figure 4 - Sandwiched Brazilian disk specimen.
toughness of M2-!}ranite interface are 16.7 J/m 2 and 18.0 J/m 2 [7], respectively. Then,
the ratio P = r .(700)/r which is 1.08 is found to be larger than Pc = 0.5 obtained
from the numerical res~ts by He et al [10J and thus, the interface cracking can be
predicted to kink into mortar matrix. This agrees with the failure mode observed in the
tested specimen. Therefore, the ratio P may be applied to the prediction of the crack
kinking at the interfaces in concrete composites.
326
4.3 Testing of Composite Beam Models with Circular Inclusions
To study the effects of crack patterns on the fracture properties of high strength
concrete composites, beam composite models shown in Figure 5 were developed and
d 0762 I- :'":;Jmo~rt:;ar:;:;:;:;:;:;~;::~:k;:; :;a:;g:;g:;re:;g:;at:;e;: :;t!~_

/ type1 type2
1=228.6
Figure 5 - Composite beam model with two circular inclusions.
tested. In manufacturing these composite beams, the same materials as those for the
composite beam with a slab inclusion were used. Load versus load line displacement
curves were established and crack paths were monitored.
It was observed that the crack paths of all Ml composite beams were crack
deflection. The specimens in the M2 series failed by crack penetration into the
aggregate with the exception that M2/G specimen with Type 1 cross section which
failed by interface debonding. This is attributed to the smaller hitting angle of the
crack onto the aggregate inclusion. The observed crack patterns generally agree with
the predictions by the criterion given in equation (4). Figures 6 and 7 show the typical
load versus load line displacement (LLD) curves obtained from the tests. The load
1500 r-------~--------~--------~
Ml-Type 2 .......... Mortar (M 1 )

- - Ml/Granite
-_ .. - Ml /Limestone
g 1000
~
500
0.05 0.1 0.15

Load line displacement (mm)
Figure 6 - Load versus LLD curves of Ml specimens with type 2 cross section.
versus LLD curves for the specimens in the Ml series were little affected by the
aggregate type. This is probably due to the specific interface fracture toughness values
with the Ml composites, on the average, resulting in a similar overall effect as that
found from the mortar specimens. The load versus LLD curves for the specimens in the
M2 series were much affected by the types of aggregate. This is because with these
327
1500 r-------~--------~-------.
M2-Type 2 .......... Mortar (M2)

- - M2IGranile
z 1000 ;
/'-"
.'
- _.- M2ILimeslone
U
III :
/
...........,. .....
o /!. ., " .
...J
d).,··· .....
500 A '. ".
" ".
'. --:.:: ::_-'''::;::.::::- ..
0.05 0.1 0 .1 5
Figure 7 - Load versus LLD curves of M2 specimens with type 2 cross section.
specimens there appears to be an increased effect of the crack arrest mechanism by the
aggregate in the M2/L case (crack penetration) and by the strong interface in the M2/G
case (crack deflection) .
Fracture energy values (G F ) for the tested composite beams are shown in Figure 8.
It is seen that the fracture energy values of the MI/G and MI/L composite beams with
(a) Composite model specimen (b) Concrete

120~---------------~
A
E 100 " 0 Mortar ....................·........ ·.. A ·.... ·.... .....................
,~
(continuous) '"
~
>.
80 ' ~ ~~~:! (discontinuous) ................................ il ........
A
!?
~ 60 ............................................................ ....................... r" ~
AA
i ·. . . ·
~
l:? 40 ........ .......................... .............. f ..............
rn f
I'
~
z
~
,~ 20 .... .;.,'
. ............... ffi~ ..............
~ 0< ~
O~~~--~~~--~~--~~~~
M1 1L Ml /G M2IL M2IG C-M2-L C-M2-G
Figure 8 - Fracture energy values for composite specimens and real concrete.
Type 1 cross-section are close to that of the plain mortar specimen. M2/L composite
beams have lower fracture energy than that of the mortar specimen. This is because
these composites have low values of T and F parameters. It is noted from Figure 7 that
for the composites in which failure occurs through aggregate cracking (indicated by A in
the figure) a kinking behavior is found. This is due to the phase change (i.e., crack
moving from the aggregate into the mortar) in the composite. It is also noted that
MI/G and M2/G composite beams with Type 2 cross-section have higher fracture
328
energy than that of the mortar specimens, showing a trend similar to that observed in
the real concrete testing. This may be due to the significant toughening effects by the
crack trapping mechanism in the three-dimensional system. In manufacturing real
concrete specimens, one mortar mix (M2) and two types of aggregate (granite and
limestone) with volume fraction to mortar mixture of 0.35 were used. Thus, it may be
stated that the composite beam models with discontinuous inclusions (Type 2 cross
section) and consistent volume fraction values may simulate well the behavior of real
concrete in which aggregates are randomly distributed .
4.4 Numerical Analysis of Composite Beam Models
Currently, little information is available on the nature of progressive failure of high

strength concrete. It has been shown that for higher interface toughness values, failure
with crack penetration into the aggregate is obtained. In that case, the load-
deformation behavior is influenced by F and T. In this section, the effects of these
parameters on the fracture behavior of the tested composite models (Figure 5, type 1)
are analyzed. In order to predict the load deflection curve of the high strength concrete
composite in which cracks penetrate into the aggregates, a numerical analysis method is
developed [12J. The method is based on the fictitious crack model employing the
tension softening constitutive law [13J . In this analysis, concrete is modelled as a two-
phase composite consisting of mortar matrix and aggregate inclusions. For each phase,
a different type of tension softening relationship is adopted. Thus, the cohesive stresses
along the fictitious crack surface have a complex distribution as shown in Figure 9. The
Matrix
.,:,~~.~~?:t.~. aJj
Matrix
AJ
m~tana
Matrix
Crack COD
Figure 9 - Cohesive stress modeling for Figure 10 - Bilinear 1/3 tension
two-phase composites softening model
constitutive relation of the crack opening displacement (COD) to the cohesive stress of
each phase is expressed as
OC
GF =J IT do (7)
o
where 0 is COD, IT is the cohesive stress and Oc is the critical value of COD. A bilinear
tension softening curve for each phase as shown in Figure 10 is used with the
parameters ITt and G F as listed in Table 2 for the aggregate and the mortar phases. For
the calculation of COD, the integral crack equation is solved by several iterations.
From the values of COD, external load and load line displacements can be calculated.
Figure 11 shows the comparison of the load versus load line displacement (LLD)
curves of M2/L (weak aggregate) composite with Type 1 cross-section obtained from the
experiment and the numerical analysis . The general shape of the curves found from the
329
1500
M2-L Type 1 .. ----- Test result
- - Numerical analysis
1000
I.
~
~ 500 "-
"-'. a=O.068
--'.'-.'_' F=0.620
----••-. -. T.0.512 ._
0.1 0.15
Figure 11 - Load versus LLD curve of M2/L specimen with type 1 cross section.
prediction and the tests appears to be correlated, although the quantitative correlation
may need improvement. Nevertheless, the model prediction may be used to study in a
qualitative manner the effect of the fracture parameters F and T on the composite
behavior.
Figure 12 shows the results of such a parametric study for the load versus load line
displacement of the beam specimen with Type 1 cross section. In this numerical
calculation, two parameters, T and F, were varied and transgranular cracking was
assumed for all cases (i.e., D>Dc). In general, with a fixed value of T, larger F values
result in higher peak loads and larger areas under the load-LLD curve. However, by
increasing T with a fixed value of F, the post-peak response is more steep, and hence,
concrete may exhibit a brittle failure. On this basis, it can be stated that for an
optimum behavior with desired toughness the values of the fracture parameters F and T
need to be adjusted.
5. Discussion
The identified fracture parameters provide insight into the deformation and failure
behavior of concrete as a two-phase composite. In this study, an attempt is made to
assess the influence of these parameters on the behavior. However, the results should be
viewed with caution since the parameters play a combined role in the composite
behavior. The parameters D and P playa dominant effect in the determination of the
crack path. If crack deflection occurs (i.e., D<D c), the interfacial properties
significantly influence the deformation behavior. In the case of a weak interface, failure
with rapid crack propagation can occur. A ductile behavior may be obtained with a
strong interface due to the toughening mechanism against a rapid crack propagation. If
aggregate cracking occurs (i.e., D>Dc), then the parameters F and T play an important
role in the load-deflection behavior. Then, higher values of F and T are likely to result
in higher fracture toughnesses and peak load levels.
6. Conclusion
A fracture mechanics based methodology is used for the study of concrete

composite models consisting of a mortar matrix and aggregate inclusions. Fracture
parameters influencing the deformation and failure of the composites are proposed.
From the tests of novel physical models and numerical analyses the role of these
parameters on the deformation and cracking behavior of the composite is studied. The
330
2000
IT=l I
CJ tm =6.0 MPa
1500
GFm=60.0 !\11m
E=40.0 GPa
~
1000
~
0
...J
500
1. mortar
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
(a) with varied F and fixed T
2000
I F=l I "m=6.o MPa
1500 GFm=60.0 !\11m

E=40.0GPa
~
1000
~
0
.....I
500
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
(b) with varied T and fixed F

Figure 12 - Load versus LLD curves obtained from numerical analysis.
established parameters may be useful in manufacturing high performance concrete

composites with improved mechanical properties. The present approach is based on
linear elastic fracture mechanics concepts. This aspect together with other conditions
such as size effects and interface roughness, needs to be investigated.
Acknowledgement
This work was partially supported by the National Science Foundation through
Grant No. MSM-9016814. The author expresses his appreciation to K. M. Lee and Y.
Kitsutaka for their work and contribution to this paper.
References
[1] R. J. Detwiler and P. K. Mehta, "Chemical and Physical Effects of Silica Fume on
the Mechanical Behavior of Concrete", ACI Materials Journal, 86, pp. 609-614,
1989.
331
[2] J. W. Hutchinson, "Mixed Mode Fracture Mechanics of Interfaces", Metal-Ceramic

Interfaces, M. Ruhle et aI, eds., Pergamon Press, New York, pp. 295-306, 1990.
[3] O. Buyukozturk and K. M. Lee, "Interface Fracture Mechanics of Concrete

Composites", Proceedings of International Conference on Fracture Mechanics of
Concrete Structures, Breckenridge, Co., pp. 163-168, 1992.
[4] Fracture Mechanics of Concrete - Material Characterization and Testing, Volume 3

of Series on Engineering Application of Fracture Mechanics, edited by A.
Carpinteri and A. R. Ingraffea, Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands,
1984.
[5] Fracture Mechanics of Concrete - Structural Application and Numerical

Calculation, edited by G. C. Sih and A. DiTommaso, Kluwer Academic Publishers,
The Netherlands, 1985.
[6] K. M. Lee, O. Buyukozturk and A. Oumera, "Fracture Analysis of Mortar-

Aggregate Interfaces in Concrete", Journal of Engineering Mechanics, ASCE, Vol.
118, No. 10, pp. 2031-2047, 1992.
[7] O. Buyukozturk and K. M. Lee, "Fracture of Mortar-Aggregate Interfaces in

Concrete Composites", Proceedings of the RILEM International Conference on
Interfaces in Cementitious Composites, Toulous, France, pp. 139-148, 1992.
[8] M. Y. He and J. W. Hutchinson, "Crack Deflection at an Interface between

Dissimilar Elastic Materials", Int. Journal Solids Structures, Vol. 25, pp. 1053-1067,
1989.
[9] K. M. Lee, O. Buyukozturk and C. K. Y. Leung, "Numerical Evaluation of

Interface Fracture Parameters using ADINA", Conference on Nonlinear Finite
Element Analysis and ADINA, to be held in MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts,
1993.
[10] M. Y. He, A. Bartlett, A. G. Evans and J. W. Hutchinson, "Kinking of a Crack out

of an Interface: Role of In-Plane Stress", Journal Am. Ceram. Soc., 74, No.4, pp.
767-771,1991.
[11] RILEM, "Determination of the Fracture Energy of Mortar and Concrete by Means
of Three Point Bend Tests on Notched Beams", Materials and Structures, 18, No.
106, pp. 285-290, 1985.
[12] Y. Kitsutaka, O. Buyukozturk and K. M. Lee, "Fracture Behavior of a High

Strength Concrete Model", Research Paper, Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, 1993.
[13] A. Hillerborg, M. Modeer and P. E. Petersson, "Analysis of Crack Formation and

Crack Growth in Concrete by Means of Fracture Mechanics and Finite Elements",
Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 6, No.6, pp. 773-782, 1976.
FUNDAMENTAL ASPECTS IN MANUFACTURING OF THERMOPLASTIC
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
K. Friedrich, F. Haupert, M. Hou and V. Klinkmiiller
Institute for Composite Materials, University of Kaiserslautern,

6750 Kaiserslautern, Germany
High performance composites with continuous fibers in a thermoplastic matrix

possess several advantages, among which are excellent impact toughness, unlimited shelf
life and recyclability.
In addition, they offer various possibilities with regard to faster processing cycles,
thermoformability and joining different welding techniques. The problem in fabrication
of parts out of thermoplastic composites arises, however, from the fact that the matrices
in the melt have a much higher viscosity than uncured thermosetting resins; this yields a
lot of difficulties in proper impregnation of the reinforcing fibers with the thermoplastic
matrix. In order to overcome these difficulties partly, various intermediate material
forms have been developed, including powder impregnated fiber bundles, commingled
yarns or solvent impregnated tapes or fabrics. These coarse fiber/matrix preforms are
then used to start the melting-, impregnation-, and consolidation-process. The final
quality of the bulk composite material or structural part depends on the processing
parameters applied and the manufacturing technique chosen.
This overview deals with some fundamental aspects of (1) the impregnation
mechanisms, in particular those occurring in case of powder impregnated and polymer
sheath surrounded fiber bundles, (2) the manufacturing of ring structures out of these
preforms by the use of an on-line-filament winding facility, (3) the thermoforming of
preconsolidated and re-heated plates in a cold, matched die mold, and (4) the resistance
welding of thermoplastic composites plates by the use of carbon fiber/thermoplastic
heating elements.
1. Introduction
Polymeric composites reinforced with continuous fibers possess low weight along
with high specific strength and stiffness. Therefore, they are increasingly used for
structural parts in aircraft and space applications, in the automobile industry, and for
sporting goods [1]. Usually, the composites contain thermosetting matrices such as
epoxy, phenolic, or unsaturated polyester resins. Reinforcing materials are usually
glass, carbon, and aramid fibers. New developments have also focused at the use of
thermoplastic matrices, because of their advantageous mechanical properties, especially
improved toughness. In addition, they show advantages in processing; special emphasis
is set in the development of thermoplastic composites with polypropylene,
polyetheretherketone, polyamide, or polysulfone matrices [2,3]. The primary property
of thermoplastics is a linear structure of molecular chains. This means that, below the
melting temperature, they have their typical mechanical properties; above the melting
point, however, they become soft and are easy to process. The existence of a melting
point opens the possibility of producing intermediate forms of thermoplastic composite
materials that can be processed or post-formed at a later date. But there is still a lack
of knowledge about the properties of these composite materials, especially about
methods of process optimization, which still restricts their application.
333
G. C. Sih et al. (eds.). Advanced Technology for Design and Fabrication of Composite Materials and Structures. 333-348.
334
The problem of thermoplastic composites is their high melt viscosity with about
500 to 5000 Pa s compared to thermoset baths before curing « 100 Pa s). To solve the
problem of fiber impregnation, various forms of intermediate materials have been
developed, such as powder impregnated fiber bundles, commingled yarns, and melt or
solvent impregnated tapes, Figure 1. Melting, impregnation and consolidation of the
final product are started out from these rather coarse fiber-matrix mixtures. The final
quality of the composite is highly dependent on the process chosen and the relevant
processing parameters.
Film Stacking Commingled Fibers
Fiber Woven
Fabric
Polymer Films
Powder Impregnated Bundles
Pultruded Band Bundle
~
ibe r
Fiber
Polymer Powder
f,II.II.IIIIIIIIIIIII-(
Polymer Sheath
Polymer
Figure 1 - Intermediate material forms for thermoplastic composites.
The present techniques which are mainly used for manufacturing high quality
composite parts are thermoforming and filament winding [3,4]. Another technique is
the joining of laminates or formed parts by electrical resistance welding [5], Figure 2.
Compression Tape
Thermolorming Joining
Molding Winding
Figure 2 - Manufacturing of continuous fiber reinforced thermoplastic composites.
To obtain optimal properties of the part produced, it is of main importance that the
high viscous polymer melt creates a void free structure by flow and diffusion
335
mechanisms.
This article discusses for thermoplastic matrix composites some of the processes
mentioned above. To obtain optimum processing windows that simultaneously result in
high process speeds and good product quality, different processing studies were carried
out, with the general objective to achieve a better understanding of the influence of
temperature, pressure, time, and speed variations on the microstructure and resultant
part quality. It has always been followed the same methodology, as shown
schematically in Figure 3.
Intermediate
Material f-
Form
Processing
Method
.... Processing
Parameters
Microstruc-
f--- ture of Bulk
Composite -- Mechanical
Performance
of Laminate
a) Commingled a) Compression a) Temperature a) Morphology a) Interlaminar
Yarn Molding of Crystalline Fracture
b) Pressure Polymer Matrix Toughness
b) Powder b) Tape
Impregnated Winding c) Time b) Alignment b) Materials'
Fibers of Fibers Stiffness
c) Stamp d) Cooling and Strength
c) Melt Impr. Forming c) Formation
Tapes of Voids
t t t
~
No
ok?
Yes
I Optimized Structure I
Figure 3 - Methodology for fundamental studies on process related properties of
thermoplastic composite materials.
2. Fundamental Principles of Impregnation and Consolidation of Thermoplastic

Composites
A system of polypropylene (PP) powder impregnated glass (GF) fiber bundles has
been selected to demonstrate the correlations between impregnation mechanisms and
process conditions during consolidation in a hot press, Figure 4. The impregnation
quality has been judged by means of density measurements and microscopic
observations of the cross sections, Figure 5. Based on the microscopical studies and
previously developed theories, an impregnation model for qualitatively following the
consolidation behavior of those prepreg laminates has been developed. This model
describes the variation of void content by means of laminate thickness. It provides
relationships between void content, degree of impregnation, and the consolidation
process, namely temperature, applied pressure, holding time, and bundle geometry,
Figures 6 and 7. The results of transversal flexural tests (90· specimens), Figure 8,
served to correlate mechanical properties with the impregnation quality, especially the
void content of the laminates. Finally, an optimal prqcess window has been proposed
for this material, Figure 9. Further details and explanations of these studies can be
found in [6].
3. Continuous Manufacturing of Advanced Composites with Thermoplastic Matrices

by Filament Winding
Filament winding is an often used process for producing composite structures with
336
thermosetting matrices. In a first step, the composite structure is built up by filament
7#H"'O')
Weld Lines
CuI Lines
Powder .(').
v
'1n
Pressure
T I
-~}"
Sleel Foils 16 Plies Prepregs
Figure 4 - Process of specimens for determination of impregnation behavior during hot

pressing.
Figure 5 - Comparison of three different degrees of impregnation for GF IPP powder-

impregnated material.
winding. Then, in the second step, the structure is cured in an oven or autoclave. The
possibility of welding thermoplastics enables the combination of these two steps in one
continuous production process. Generally, it has to be distinguished between the
winding of preimpregnated tapes and that of flexible bundles, such as powder
impregnated or commingled yarns.
The impregnated tape is wound to a laminate structure under controlled winding

parameters. By applying sufficient heat and pressure, the tape gets welded onto the
337
previously wound structure. The welding region is called nip-point. In this way, this
Bundle Compaction during Impregnation:
o imp =degree of impregnation
r, =radius of resin front
ro = radius of fiber-tow border
0.-
rb = current radius of whole fiber bundle
r -
~
•
D imp =0 o <D imp<1 D imp = 1
rb = ro
rb
r,
> ro
=ro
rb > ro
r, < ro r,=0
I >0 I =t ,
t =0
are a im pre g n a Ie d n r~ - 1t rf
Dimp= lowarea = nr2 =1
o
Figure 6 - Schematic impregnation mechanisms in a single bundle as base for modeling.
20
o Pa =0.5 MPa
o Pa =1 .5 MPa
15
~
x
> 10
00 5 10 15 20
I [min)
Figure 7 - Void content as a function of holding time at different levels of applied

pressure (T = IS5°C).
technique provides the possibility for fully automation, with the additional advantage
that there is no need for postprocessing of the workpiece after removing it from the
mandrel. Furthermore, it is possible to produce very large structures and great wall
thicknesses.
In order to characterize the details of such a production process, a filament winding

device has been constructed and built. With this device, the winding parameters, such
as winding speed, heat flux, tape or tow tension and consolidation pressure could be
varied, Figures 10 and 11.
The first wound material was an endless unidirectional glass fiber reinforced
338
polypropylene tape (Plytron, ICI). By varying the winding parameters, different rings
of this material were produced. The material's properties were investigated by
mechanical and microscopical testing methods, leading to an optimal processing
window, Figure 12. The limits of this processing window were explained by using a
theoretical approach, which allows the transfer of these results to other fiber/matrix
systems [7,8].
In a further examination, powder-impregnated and polymer sheath surrounded,

flexible fiber bundles were wound into composite rings . The matrix consisted of
7.5r------------------------------.
o T = 185 0 C
• T= 200 0 C
5.0
'iii'
a.
Q.
w'"
'" 2.5
5 10 15 20
Figure 8 - Changes of transversal tensile modulus as a function of the void content.
6r-----------------------------------~
a.
.. 3
10 20 30 40
I (min]
Figure 9 - Optimum processing window for compression molding of GF /PP-laminates.

339
Infrared Line-Heater
Tow Ten5ion
Controller Hot Air or Infrared
Preheating Zone
\
r
Support
... Brake Heated Mandrel
I!!II G-- Mot;,. Co""oll ..
Figure 10 - Thermoplastic filament winding device.
250
T[OC]
o. Layer
200
Tmelt
150
100
Tman
50
TRT
o
[5]
Figure 11 - Temperature profile as a function of the position of thermoelements placed

in a wound ring.
polyamide 12, reinforced with glass-fibers (GF /PA12). During this survey, the
processing parameters were determined and both the inner structure of the composite
rings and their mechanical and fracture mechanical behavior were characterized.
Especially different methods for the determination of the interlaminar shear strength
and the crack propagation were investigated. It was shown that a new developed shear
device is much more superior to deliver interlaminar shear strength data for
comparisons of the differently wound rings, than it is possible by the short beam shear
test. Another test method applied was a DCB-test for curved samples, in order to get
Mode I fracture energy values [8-10], Figure 13.
Another optimization study was performed by winding rings from P A12-powder

impregnated carbon fiber (CF) bundles. First the mandrel temperature was increased
gradually from 130'C to 190'C. In this range, the rings' consolidation quality rose with
mandrel temperature. Mandrel temperatures above 190'C were not realized in the
340
10
0 0 Thin Tape
0 - Thick Tape
....... 8
::.......
~
~
Q) 6
3:
-...
0
~
CU
4
Q)
~
Q)
D.. 2 0
010
15 20 25 30
Winding Speed [em/s]
Figure 12 - Processing windows for GF /PP tapes with different thickness.
1.2 .----_ _ __ _ _ _ _----,
~ 1.0
~
~ 0.8
0.4 '---_--"-_ _ -'-~_____' _ _ ....J
I
2200 2400 2600 2800 3000
I ;reheati,n g pow~r [W]
152 158 164 170 176

Tape Surface Temperature rOC]
v=11.6cm/s p = 15N/mm 2 THotGa. =220°C
Figure 13 - DCB-test for curved samples (left) and Mode I fracture energy values as a
function of preheating power right.
frame of this study, because the crystalline melting temperature of polyamide 12 was
already exceeded. In addition, a positive influence on the rings' quality could be
determined from the enhancement of the nip point temperature up to 260·C . The upper
level was caused by the maximum power of the heating device. The consolidation force,
as applied through the compaction roller, was raised in three steps from 150 N to 450 N.
Also in this range, an increasing consolidation force improved the rings' quality. A
341
further variation in tow tension was performed between the minimum tension, as caused
by friction in the tow guiding device, and the ultimate tensile strength of the CF /P A12
- tow. As a result of this investigation, it can be stated that the highest tow tension
lead to the best consolidation quality. The latter was characterized by a high density of
the rings and therefore a low void content. Furthermore, an increase of the structure's
flexural modulus could be observed [111, Figure 14. The figure shows that rings with a
higher density have much better material properties. The optimal processing
parameters for CF/PAI2 (tex 1200) are given in Table l.
Table 1 - Optimal processing parameters for CF/PAI2 (tex 1200)
Winding Temperature CC) Force (N)

velocity (em/sec)
mandrel nip point consolidation tow
5 190° 260° 450 45
In a final experiment, the winding speed should be further enhanced. This was, in
fact, possible with a thinner CF /P Al2-bundle (tex 300), for which, under additional rise
24
I-'
22 mmm . ,I~F-P~12Inrmmrmnn~ ,mnnm
..c
g,.,.. 20 ...... ...... ~ ...... ..• .0.,:. .......... . ..:.... ...
1 ; 0:
. .. ..:. .... .... ... ~ •........ . ..
~ ~
I!!E
u;~
.... z .. _-_ .... _··... ........ _....... _-- ....... -_......... .
···· .....
18
ra~
Q)
.
..c
r/) .
. ·... -.. -.---.-----.
.· ..
. .. -.---..-..............----.----
-- --.--.---.-
. .
,
16
·
~
•
.
..
•
. I
.
•
..
•
l a . ~
14
1.26 1.30 1.34 1.38
Density p [glcm 3]
Figure 14 - Interlaminar shear strength as a function of the rings' density.
of the mandrel temperature up to 220°C, a speed of 50 cm/s could be reached that

resulted in a good ring quality .
4. Thermoforming of High Performance Composites with Thermoplastic Matrices
This section deals with a thermomechanical processing procedure for the shape
forming of parts made of high-performance composites with thermoplastic matrices.
The basic investigations were performed by the use of an angle mold (90°) and a
mechanical press, Figure 15, in order to thermoform a carbon fiber reinforced
polypropylene system. Preconsolidated, unidirectional and quasi-isotropic laminates
were heated up above the polymer melting temperature and were then immediately
transported to the cold mold for further thermoforming. Typical cycle times, including
the heating time for the preconsolidated laminates, were around 2 minutes.
342
Alignment
Pins
Male Die
....-I---r-- Hot Laminate
- I t t - - - b _ Female Die
Cold Tool
Figure 15 - Experimental set-up for stamp forming.
The processing conditions, e.g., thermoforming temperature, time, rate and

pressure, required to produce high-quality 90°-angle parts have been determined. This
was used to produce a processing window for this thermoforming procedure which
reflects the interaction between processing conditions and a) final thickness as well as b)
final angle of the specimens. Finally, it was demonstrated that this processing
procedure is also suitable for the thermoforming of high-performance composites
consisting of high temperature matrices, such as PEl, PEEK with continuous carbon or
glass fiber reinforcements. The experimental details and the results including a
corresponding processing window of this thermoforming procedure are presented in
Figures 16 to 19. Complementary references will be found in [12,13].
(a)
( b )
Figure 16 - Dimensions and nomenclature of stamped bend.

343
'"
Q.
::i!
PEEK
@
:l
III
III
~
Q. 6
0)
c 4
'5.
E 2
'"
Ui 0
200 300 400 500
Stamping Velocity [mm/min]
Figure 17 - Correlation between stamping velocity and stamping pressure in relation to

type of matrix and carbon fiber content.
Stampin 200 300 400 500

PP CF2O% 181 0 ~
•
• *
PA12 CF40% ~ g ~
PA12 CF6O% 0
•
~ 15
PEEK CF60% 0
III
III
a>
~
u
E 10 PP
I-
a>
iii
ii:
oS
c 5
·u
0
:>
"0
PEEK
a> (60%)
a:
0
0 2 4 6 B 10
Stamping Pressure [MPa]
Figure 18(a) - Thickness reduction of stamped bend side,

344
Slamping Ve10cily PP PA12 PA12 PEEK

mmlmin CF 20"1. CF 40% CF 60· CF 60%
200 I8l !'I 0 •
90 o
3l PEEK
400
500 A
C,
~ 89 - PA12 (60) -J..-;=---=.....,~=--;:-I----I----I
II> PA12 (40)

g> 88 1----+-=iI~-
«
1: PP
<II
Cl.
~ 87 1-----+----+----4----~---~
IB
•
c:
i.L
86 L-____-L______ ~ ____ ~ ______ ~ ____ ~
o 2 468 10
Stamping Pressure [MPa I
Figure 18(b) - Final angle of stamped bend.
/ /,;/,'/ /./. /'/ / / / / //,.1r--=-pr-e."-he-a-'-un-g---'

/
~,: ~ lemperalure I ·C J
CF/PP
180
GFIPP
CFIPA12 220
~//////~ CFIPEE
/ 380
/ Intense
/ GF/PEI 280
/ Thinning
/ and Resin /
/
/ Migration ~
/
'l////////;
200 - 500 mm I min
GF/PEI above 300 mm { min
Figure 19 - Acceptable processing windows for stamp forming of different composites.
5. Resistance Welding of Continuous Fiber Reinforced Thermoplastic Composites

with Carbon Fiber Prepreg as Heating Element
This section presents an experimental investigation of fusion bonding of continuous

glass and carbon fiber reinforced polypropylene systems by resistance welding. The
heating element consists of a single ply of carbon fiber (CF)/polypropylene (PP)
prepreg. An experimental apparatus was developed, Figure 20, to carry out
experiments which yield information on the processing parameters, such as current
intensity, input energy and power level which can govern, more or less, the efficiency of
the welding process. The quality of the welded surface was examined by tensile (lap
345
shear) and double cantilever beam (Mode I) testing. Morphology and microstructure of
the welded surfaces were studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and
differential scanning calorimetry (DSC).
Heating Element
Connection
Clamp
Welding Parts
Switch
Ohmmeter
Figure 20 - Experimental set-up for resistance welding.
Power Level: 100 kW/m

14 1---,----
01
Q. 12
:2
10
8
6
4
2
o
Compression
Molded Sample Input Energy [kJ/m 2)
Figure 21 - Lap shear strength of specimens welded at a power level of 100 kW 1m 2 •
The experimental results showed that good bonding can be achieved at a power
level range from 40 kW 1m 2 to 140 kW 1m2 • Under these conditions, the mechanical
properties of these joints (lap shear strength and interlaminar fracture toughness G1C )
are equiva!ent to that of the compression mould base line, Figure 21. Fracture surfaces
of the welded sample show typical inter-fiber and matrix separation, occurring in form
of a mixed intralaminar failure either within the bulk structure of the composites,
346
within the heating element or within both of them, Figure 22. As a conclusion, Figure
23 shows the acceptable processing window for resistance welding of CF IPP and GF IPP
laminates by using a CF IPP prepreg as the heating element. More detailed information
about this technology will be found in [14,15].
;:gg L iS22J
(a) Intralaminar Failure
I
-, .-I
I
(b) Interfacial Failure
(c) Coupon Failure
Figure 22 - Failure types of lap shear test.

180
Equivalent energy curve
[kJ / m 2 )
N
~
E
120 600~~
'-... 7000 8000
.>!
Qi
>
Q)
...J
60
Q;
~
0
a..
0
0 20 40 60 80
Welding Time [s I
Acceptable processing window Ii Buming of matrix in heating element
III Too much thermal energy loss IV Weak or no bonding
V Unstable geometry of jointed sample
Figure 23 - Processing window for resistance welding of CF IPP and GF IPP composites.
Acknowledgements
Special thanks are due to colleagues Dr. H. Wittich, Dr. B. Lauke and Dr. L. Ye
having worked out several graphs and parts of the text. These works were financially
supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG-FR-675-4-2; DFG-FR-675-7-
347
2; DFG-FR-675-11-1). We thank several firms for having supplied us with testing

material (ICI, England; Enichem, Italy; BASF, Germany; Toyobo, Japan). Professor
Friedrich gratefully acknowledges the receipt of the FONDS DER CHEMISCHEN
INDUSTRIE, Frankfurt, Germany, for his personal research activities in 1993.
References
[1] H. J. Becker, "Fertigung vo~! Automobilteilen durch Faserwichelverfahren und

Bandlegetechnik", Magazin Neue Werkstoffe, 4, pp. 31-43, 1988.
[2] K. Borgschulte, "Faserwickeln mit Prepregs und GMT-Verarbeitung",
Plastverarbeiter, 39, pp. 7-1, 1989.
[3] H. Wittich and K. Friedrich, "Kontinuierliche Konsolidierung von thermoplast-

impragnierten Langfaserbandern zu Hochleistungsverbundlaminaten" ,
Tagungsbericht der AVK-Tagung, Mainz, 5, pp. 7-1, 1989.
[4] P. J. Mallon, C. M. O'Braidaigh and R. B. Pipes, "Polymeric Diaphragm Forming
of Complex-Curvature Thermoplastic Composite Parts", Composites, 20, 1, pp. 48-
57, 1989.
[5] F. N. Cogswell and D. C. Leach, "Processing Science of Continuous Fiber

Reinforced Thermoplastic Composites", SAMPE Journal, pp. 11-14, 1988.
[6] L. Ye, V. Klinkmiiller and K. Friedrich, "Impregnation and Consolidation in
Composites Made of GF /PP Powder Impregnated Bundles" , Journal Thermoplastic
Composite Materials, 5, pp. 32-48, 1992.
[7] H. Wittich and K. Friedrich, "Tape Winding of High Performance Thermoplastic

Composite Materials", Proceedings 5th European Conf. on Composite Materials,
ECCM 5, Bordeaux, France, pp. 465-470, 1992.
[8] H. Wittich, "Bruchmechanische Charakterisierung kontinuierlich faserverstarkter

thermoplastischer Verbundwerkstoffe unter besonderer Beriicksichtigung ihrer
Verarbeitung durch die Wickeltechnik", Dissertation, Technische Universitat
Hamburg-Harburg, 1993.
[9] B. Lauke and K. Friedrich, "High Performance Thermoplastic Composites
Fabricated by Filament Winding", Proceedings Int. Conf. of Fiber Reinforced
Composites 92, University of Newcastle, UK, 1992.
[10] B. Lauke and K. Friedrich, "Interlaminar Shear Strength Measurement of Thin
Composite Rings Fabricated by Filament Winding", Proceedings 5th Conf. on
Composite Materials, ECCM 5, Bordeaux, France, pp. 313-318, 1992.
[11] F. Haupert and K. Friedrich, "Thermoplastic Filament Winding using Powder
Impregnated Yarns", Advanced Composite Letters, 2,1, pp. 14-17, 1993.
[12] M. Hou and K. Friedrich, "Stamp Forming of Continuous Carbon

Fiber/Polypropylene Composites", Composites Manufacturing, 2, 1, pp. 3-9, 1991.
[13] M. Hou and K. Friedrich, "Thermoforming of High-Performance Composites with

Thermoplastic Matrix", Engineering Plastics, 5, 2, pp. 86-100, 1992.
348
[14] M. Hou and K. Friedrich, "Resistance Welding of Continuous Glass

Fiber/Polypropylene Composites", Composites Manufacturing, 3, 3, pp. 153-163,
1992.
[15] M. Hou and K. Friedrich, "Resistance Welding of Continuous Carbon
Fiber/Polypropylene Composites", Plastics, Rubber and Composites Processing and
Application, 18, 4, pp. 205-213, 1992.
ECONOMIC MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES FOR CONTINUOUS FmRE-
REINFORCED THERMOPLASTICS IN AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOTIVE
APPLICATIONS
G. Kempe and N. Burkle

DLR, Institute of Structures and Design,
7000 Stuttgart 80, Germany
Thermoplastic composites are used more and more in today's aircraft and
automotive structures. Therefore, economic manufacturing technologies are needed to
reduce manufacturing costs as well as to produce components which meet all
requirements.
This paper focuses on the manufacturing of semifinished parts, thermoforming in a
press, joining of the formed parts, and computer-integrated manufacturing. Computer-
Aided Design makes it possible to design parts and provides at the same time the data
which are necessary for programming NC-machines. The manufacturing of semifinished
parts may take place in a hot press, in vacuum or by tape-laying with a robot on a
heated table. Thermoforming requires economical preheating techniques. Heating in an
oven, in an IR-heating-element or by contact heating are compared. It is shown how
heating, transport and forming processes should be implemented.
Another important aspect of the paper deals with joining of the formed parts. After
a review of common joining techniques for continuous reinforced thermoplastics, three
techniques which were investigated at the DLR are presented in detail. They are
concerned with welding in a mold, welding with pressure and heat, and resistance
welding.
Finally, a scheme is given to show the steps which are necessary for economical
manufacturing of thermoplastic composites.
1. Introduction
The processing of continuous fibre-reinforced plastics into complex shaped

components often requires considerable hand work for shaping the part. By using fibre-
reinforced thermoplastics (FRTP), the shaping process can be achieved by
thermoforming pre-heated materials, which leads to a faster and, hence, cheaper formed
component. Processing technologies for continuous fibre-reinforced thermoplastics are
investigated with emphasis on the achievable quality and their cost effectiveness.
Discussed are time required to produce a component, technological requirements for
personnel qualification and machinery, and automation of the process. For all the
production processes, it is presumed that the component and the necessary tools are
described by CAD data files. In addition, the laminate is optimized for strength or
stiffness and to reduce the component fabrication time; subcomponents are correctly
chosen to limit the number of consolidated laminates required. The laminates are pre-
cut ready for processing. An economic method of cutting is with a water jet machine as
shown in Figure 1.
It is also presumed that component fabrication takes place in the sequence of

prepreg consolidation, thermoforming and joining. This production method has proved
to be convenient for FRTP materials since the prepreg consolidation can be separated
349
350
Figure 1 - Water jet machine.
from the thermoforming. Using simultaneous consolidation and forming requires

considerably longer cycle times in the press.
2. Prepreg Consolidation
2.1 Press
A well-established method for the manufacture of prep reg sheets is with a heated
press as shown in Figure 2. The production time per sheet can be reduced by stacking
Figure 2 - Heated press (max. 450°C).

351
packets of plies, which are separated by suitable foils or metal plates. The heating time
of a press with sufficient heating performance is about 40 min. This is followed by a
consolidation time, which is dependent on plate thickness and material type. The
minimum cooling time depends on the temperature difference and the cooling system in
the press. When the cooling system is designed efficiently, this time is about 15 min,
Figure 3.
press temperature in °C
300~----------------~
1 2 3
250
200
150
1 heating
100 2 consolidation
3 cooling
50
OL---~--~--~---L
o 20 40 6080
Pressing time in min ~
~R
Figure 3 - Temperature during pressing.
For the production of laminated plates with UD-prepregs, it is recommended to use

a tool with a rim. This fixes the single prep reg sheets, which is particularly important
for laminates with changing fibre orientation. In addition, the boundary of the tool
prevents too much matrix flowing out causing a non-constant fibre volume fraction in
the plate.
The advantages and disadvantages of using heated presses in large series production
are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1 - Advantages and disadvantages of a heated press
Heated press
Advantages Disadvantages
All lay-ups possible High machine costs
Equipment can also be used for thermoforming Not a continuous process
Can be automated Heating area dependent on press size

352
2.2 Roller Press
The continuous production of laminated plates requires prepreg sheets running

through the press, which are heated up, pressed, consolidated and finally cut to size.
This method is shown in Figure 4 [1]. As the rollers turn they draw in the prep regs to
Figure 4 - Roller press.
be consolidated and hold then for a certain time at the necessary pressure and
temperature. A problem is the prevention of entrapped air as the rollers can trap air in
the laminate. During later heating and forming, the danger exists of the laminate
inflating. In addition, it is difficult to obtain fibre orientation in the laminate other
than O· or 90·. The advantages and disadvantages of the roller press are summarized in
Table 2.
Table 2 - Advantages and disadvantages of a roller press
Roller press
Continuous process for shift working High investment costs
Can be automated Possible trapped air in laminate
No restrictions on the laminate length Only 0·/90· fibre orientation possible
2.3 Lay-Up Process
With this process developed at the DLR for shaping sections made out of FRTP,
complex shaped parts can be produced in a simple way with good strength properties
[2]. As shown in Figure 5, the single prepregs are placed on the heated mould surface
and pressed with a suitable tool such as a roller. The prepreg is thus heated from its
lower face. Because of the low thermal conductivity, there is a temperature difference
so that the lower face is molten and the upper face still solid and not sticky.
353
3 2
1 mould
2 mould surface
3 Heating
4 placed prepregs
5 upper layer
6 pressing roll
Figure 5 - Lay-up process. Figure 6 - Tape-laying device (DLR) .
With this forming process, a reorientation of the fibers and, therefore, a strength
reduction is avoided . This process can be further automated since it shows a
reproducible quality. From experience, the mould temperature should lie just above the
corresponding press temperature.
2.4 Vacuum Table
Here, the prep regs are placed in the correct lay-up on a table and fixed together at
several points. This preparation can be carried out with robots. Afterwards, this ply
Table 3 - Advantages and disadvantages of the lay-up process
Lay-up Process
Advantages Disadvanta;:-:es
Controlled lay-up Relatively slow process
Can be automated Limitations to the laminate thickness
Only lower tool half required High investment costs for automation
Versatile component design
lay-up is placed on the heated table and covered by a foil. Finally, a vacuum is created
between foil and table and the table surface heated. After reaching the processing
temperature, the prepregs are held for a specific time at temperature and then cooled
354
again. Short beam bending specimen from plates produced in this way show the same
strength as those produced in the press. Because of the low heating performance,
heating up the vacuum table shown in Figure 8 takes a longer time than in the press
(about 1 hour). The time for consolidation of CF-PEEK remains the same whereas GF-
P A requires a longer time for prepreg consolidation.
1''"-
_--..
-- --.. ,
perrorate d s hee r ~
.... acuum
______ sea lin g OLR
Figure 7 - Vacuum table.
Figure 8 - Laminate on vacuum table.
Table 4 - Advantages and disadvantages of the vacuum table
Vacuum table
Low equipment costs Symmetrical heat flux
Can be automated Not a continuous process
Thickness of the laminate can be varied Maximum component thickness limited
No tool required
3. Thermoforming in a Press
The first forming trials were carried out in heated tools to guarantee a uniform
forming temperature and consistent quality in the complete component. Disadvantages
are the high energy costs and the long forming time (about 1.5 hours). In order to
shorten the forming cycle and thus to process more economically, a series of tests were
carried out . One way is to form the pre-heated laminate in a "cold" tool; that is, the
355
tool has a constant temperature well below the thermoforming temperature. For this
type of thermoforming, a fast-closing press is needed (see Figure 2).
For further consideration, the thermoforming process is divided into preheating,

transport, and thermoforming.
3.1 Preheating
Possible preheating techniques are contact heating, IR heating and a circulating air
oven. Which method is used depends on the overall concept of the processor and the
equipment available. The advantages and disadvantages are listed in Table 5.
Table 5 - Advantages and disadvantages of preheating techniques
Preheating techniques
Thermal contact Low equipment costs Thermoplastics sticky and

Fast difficult to release after
No oxidation softening
IR heating Contactless heating High equipment costs,

Fast especially control
No oxidation
Circulating air oven Low equipment costs Possible surface oxidation,

with temperature Simple long heating times
control
Circulating air oven Low equipment costs Precise timing required,

with time control Fast otherwise the material is
No oxidation damaged
The shortest preheating time for even heating is achieved in a circulating air oven
with time control or with an IR heater. With such heating, the temperature is set
about 150°C above the forming temperature. The final temperature must be higher
than the forming temperature in order to allow for temperature losses during transport
and closing of the press.
Figure 9 shows that preheating times of under 60 s are achieved if the oven or the
IR heater temperature are set well above the desired forming temperature. Fi~ure 9
shows that the measured laminate temperatures can also be calculated accurately l3].
3.2 Transport
The transport time including positioning should be a few seconds, depending on

equipment, in order to keep the temperature drop small. A fast reproducible transport
of the laminate to the exact predetermined position for thermoforming requires an
automated procedure. Figure 11 shows how a laminate is fixed to a frame for
preheating and then moved into the press.
356
Laminate temperature in °C Laminate temperature in °C

5001---;=====~-1 3501-~====~--1
(CF-PEEK) 300
( Oven 400·C I (oven 300·C I
400
(GF-PAI2 ) 250
/ 200
150
O'·en temperature Laminate temperature from

I -f- 400·C -*- 560·C - measurement . calculation
OL---------L---------~
o 30 60 90 120 150 180 30 60 90 120 150 180
Heating time in s Heating time in s
Figure 9 - Laminate temperature Figure 10 - Laminate temperature

(measured). (calculated).
Figure 11 - Device for transport of laminates.
3.3 Thermoforming
After placing the laminate in it , the press is closed in the fast mode until the tool
almost touches the laminate. Thermoforming then follows with reduced speed to avoid
damaging the fibres. Depending on the forming rate, this process should be completed
in a time from 1 to a maximum of 3 seconds.
357
The next phase is the cooling of the tool, in which the heat conduction through the
tool plays a critical role. At first, it may appear convenient to use a tool made from a
low thermal conductivity material. However, for a fast and thus more economical
cooling, high thermal conductivity materials should be used. The cycle times are
summarized in Table 6. We have a total cycle time of 122 to 189 seconds. It can easily
be seen that preheating and cooling requires the main time. Thus, to improve the
economics of the process, a continuous oven should be used to speed up the preheating
time.
Table 6 - Cycle times
Cycle Time (sec.)

Preheating 60 to 120
Transport 1 to 6
Thermoforming 1 to 3
Cooling 60
4. Joining
Structures made from continuous fibre-reinforced thermoplastics should be joined
by bonding techniques which provide high load transfer without damaging the fibres.
For bonding thermoplastic matrix material, mechanical joints, adhesion and fusion or
welding are convenient. Welding can be divided into:
• Welding with heat (mould, heating element (also IR), resistance, hot gas, laser)
• Welding with friction (ultrasonic, vibration, rotation)
• Welding with friction

At the DLR Institute of Structures and Design, several welding and adhesion
techniques were investigated. These bonding techniques are compared in Table 7.
Table 7 - Comparison of bonding techniques

Bonding surface
Not damaged Damaged

Area welding Mould, press, heating element, Vibration, rotation
resistance, high frequency,
adhesion, fusion bonding
Spot welding Ultrasonic
The best results were achieved by those techniques which used heat for bonding
(mould, heating element (also IR), resistance). The fibre orientation and the thickness
of the laminate were not influenced. Bonding by means of friction is possible, but the
358
shear strengths are lower. The fibre orientation in the bonding surface changes because
the fibres and the matrix material move sideways, i.e., the laminate's thickness
decreases slightly. Better results were achieved with vibration welding. In addition to
the lower values, the use of ultrasonic welding is limited by the small area of the
bonding surface. Figure 12 summarizes the normalized tensile shear strength [4]
obtained from several bonding methods. Some of these bonding techniques with good
and reproducible results are described in the following passages.
standardized tensile shear strength [%]
{[, n,
.c ,
II "
~ ~ ~ 11~
e .~ c
._ \ 1-0 ... 11 :s
_~ __ § ~
bonding technique
Figure 12 - Comparison of bonding techniques.
4.1 Welding in a mould
Since thermoplastics soften and melt when heat is applied, components of fibre-
reinforced thermoplastics can be bonded by applying heat and pressure. By using a
mould and with welding parameters corresponding to the prep reg consolidation in the
heated press, the dimensions of the components are relatively accurate. However, the
main disadvantage is that beside the welding area, the whole component needs to be
heated up. Consequently, in that case of hollow components, supporting cores are
necessary.
In general, welding in a mould results in good and reproducible components.

However, the process is limited by the size of the component or the press, the energy
and the controlling devices which are required. Owing to the long cycle time required
for heating and cooling, this technique is suitable for consolidating integral parts which
consist of prefabricated components and unconsolidated segments.
The stiffened inspection cover in Figure 13 is made up of 11 parts and was welded
in the mould.
4.2 Welding with a Heated Tool
Welding with a heated tool, in contrast to welding in a mould, requires that only
the bonding surface of a thermoformed component melts. This surface needs to be
heated very quickly to avoid deformation or delamination in the surrounding sections.
The shape of the bonding surface is without any restrictions because the heater can be
bent to nearly every desired shape and thus fitted to the surface. To apply pressure, a
simple tool is used which must correspond to the component only near the bonding
359
Figure 13 - Welding in a mould.
area, Figure 14. This tool is put into the cold press. However, this technique can only
be used for components with flanges. Because of the preheated welding tool, the cycle
heated tool laminate
Figure 14 - Welding with a heated tool.
time for heating the component and consolidation is only about 5 min. Cooling down to
a temperature slightly below the melting point requires 5 min.
4.3 Resistance Welding with a Heating Element of CF-PEEK
At the DLR Institute of Structures and Design, an electric resistance welding

technique was investigated which uses a prepreg of CF-PEEK heated up by electrical
current. Therefore, resistance welding of carbon fibre-reinforced structures without any
other material is possible (see Figure 15).
360
moulde
segmenl of leading edge
\4-ing rib, welded on

Ih. leading edge
Figure 15 - Resistance welding.
A welding film of PEEK is placed between the heating element and the CF-PEEK
plates which have to be welded. The temperature in the bonding surface is measured
with a thermocouple which is electrically isolated by a kapton foil. Figure 16 shows a
leading edge component with a resistance welded wing rib.
~
Figure 16 - Leading edge component.
The following welding .parameters for a component of CF-PEEK and with a

bonding area of 920 x 50 mm resulted in good strengths:
• Welding temperature 390·C
• Voltage 70 V
• Amperage 30 A
361
• Heating time 2 min
• Consolidation time 1 min
• Pressure 5 bar
The following Table 8 summarIzes the advantages and disadvantages of resistance

welding.
Table 8 - Advantages and disadvantages of resistance welding
Resistance welding
Local heating Danger of current leakage if heating

element is too long
No other material required for carbon fibre- Current dissipation if heating ele-
reinforced thermoplastics ment is too wide
Uniform temperature distribution
4.4 Automated Manufacturing
Producing economical components requires reducing the manufacturing costs as far

as possible by economic manufacturing methods and by using numerical controlled
machines. The design of a component with CAD fixes the geometry of the component
as well as the number of plies and their orientation. These data enable the following
steps to be carried out:
• Manufacturing of tools and moulds
• Cutting of prepregs
• Tape-laying of the prep regs
• Finishing of the component
With the materials data from a database, the processing parameters for prepreg
consolidation, thermoforming and joining and the design of the component all necessary
data is available for programming the NC machines. It is necessary to judge the costs
for mould manufacturing, material and machines such as the tape-laying device or the
heated press during the design process. An advantage of this procedure is that
preliminary tests are reduced to a minimum. Figure 17 describes this data flow.
Figure 18 shows the different machines which are being combined at the DLR for
economic manufacturing of composite components.
5. Conclusion
Through the study of the above processes, it is possible to identify various

economic factors such as process time, equipment, for example, a moulding tool, or
simpler production with a vacuum table. Low cost processing together with the
362
DESIGN MATERIAL
general data
geometry about
strength consolidation
stiffness thermoforming
joining
1
MACHINERY
prepreg consolidation
tools in press, by tape-laying or
moulds on a vacuum table
tapl'-Iayin~ devices thermoforllling in a press
joining
Figure 17 - Data flow for thermoplastic composite manufacturing,
WATER JET MACHI NE
pre·cuuing or prepregs
(UD and r.brics)
H EATED PR E S
consolidation of prepregs
cu,,'ed shell,
WINDI G MACHINE
symmetric part s
ru sclage sections
strin gers
Figure 18 - Automated manufacturing at DLR,

363
possibility of automation IS certainly feasible for continuous fibre-reinforced

thermoplastics. In addition to the fabrication technologies used for aerospace
components such as autoclaves or presses with several manual stages, the use of
CAD/CIM with information about the processing parameters makes possible automated
processing of FRTP and fabrication of FRTP structures. With these lower cost
techniques, it becomes possible to use FRTP materials economically not only in the
aircraft industry but also in the vehicle and mechanical engineering industries.
Acknowledgements
A part of the work described III Section 3.3 was sponsored by BMW AG in the
BMFT project 03M 1044 8.
References
[1] Fa. Held, Information sheet about roller press, D- 7218 Trossingen.
[2] G. Kempe and H. Krauss, "Molding and Joinine; of Fiber-Reinforced

Polyetheretherketone (PEEK)", ICAS-88-5.11.1, Jerusalem/Israel, 1988.
[3] H. Krauss, G. Kempe and N. Burkle, "Heating of Continuous Fibre-Reinforced

Thermoplastic Laminates Prior to Thermoforming", paper submitted to ICCM 93,
Madrid, Spain.
[4] G. Kempe and H. Krauss, "Adhesion Bonding Techniques for Highly Loaded Parts
of Continuous Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polyetheretherketone (CF-PEEK/ APC2)",
ICAS-92-5.9.1, Beijing/PR, China, 1992.
FORMING TECHNIQUES OF ADVANCED THERMOPLASTIC COMPOSITE
MATERIALS
Sp. G. Pantelakis, Th. B. Kermanidis, Th. B. Spathopoulos and E. A. Baxevani

Laboratory of Technology and Strength of Materials, University of Patras,
26500 Patras, Greece
Advancements in material science and in manufacturing methods made it possible

in the last decade to produce thermoplastic composites with excellent material properties
and good manufacturability characteristics. However, expensive production, basically
due to high material costs, has so far prevented wide use of thermoplastics in aerospace
structures. Low-cost forming techniques currently applied are in general qualified for
small parts of low degree of integration only.
To improve cost-efficiency of thermoplastics, implementation of two strategies
involving some newly developed manufacturing techniques is suggested and analyzed.
Application in subsequent process cycles of techniques which are optimized to meet
specific requirements in size, complexity and degree of integration of structural parts,
takes advantage of their complementary capabilities. In addition, introduction of design-
to-cost aspects into the design process leads to more economic designs.
In this respect, the Superplastic Forming and the Continuous Compression

Moulding technique are described and evaluated as two appropriate candidates to
implement above strategies. They are conceived, if applied at different stages in parts
manufacturing and assembly, as a suitable substitute for a potential single process
universal technique.
1. Introduction
Due to their favourable material properties, wide application of advanced
thermoplastic composites in aerospace structures has been anticipated since the early
'80s. These properties such as improved impact resistance and damage tolerance, higher
service temperature, repairability by remelting, scrap rate reduction, and solidification
during the cooling process of the melt resulting in very short forming cycles, raised
expectations of a significant breakthrough in aerospace that would lead to an extensive
replacement of other more conventional materials. Additionally, bonding techniques
exploiting the material's remelting ability have been developed to enable more cost-
effective assembly concepts [1].
However, the expected breakthrough of thermoplastics in the aerospace industry
has not yet been achieved. The reason for this disappointing fact can be attributed to
the higher final prices of thermoplastic composite aircraft parts - due to high material
cost and expensive manufacturing techniques - as compared to prices of same
thermosetting composite or aluminum products [2].
The key point of introducing new materials and processes in series production is to
prove increased cost-efficiency. Recent studies [2] have demonstrated that at present,
less expensive thermoplastic structural components can be manufactured using press
forming techniques. However, these techniques are limited to structural parts of small
to medium size only. Furthermore, their application to parts of complex geometry is
difficult [3,4] and may lead to loss of details. On the other hand, the only presently
365
366
available technology to fabricate large parts of complex geometry and high degree of
integration seems to be the application of "hot" autoclave techniques. Latter processes
are economically prohibitive so that their wide-spread application to series production in
civil aviation is not foreseeable in the near future.
Hence, aerospace utilization of thermoplastics will strongly depend on a further

reduction of material costs and replacement of high energy consuming processes with
low cost techniques suitable for producing highly integrated components. Towards this
end, several efforts have been undertaken in recent years [5-11J. The main drawback of
the manufacturing techniques so far is that they have been developed with little regard
to other aspects than manufacturability. In general, they are not conceived by a global
approach to consider interdependence between design-optimization-manufacturing-
quality control and assembly with respect to their impact on overall cost of the end
item. That is, a further step from design-to-manufacture towards design-to-cost still
needs to be taken. Since manufacturing costs are by far prevailing in the above
mentioned chain, selection of suitable forming techniques for particular part geometry
and degree of complexity should be considered at the earliest possible stage in the
design process.
Subject of present study is to discuss feasibility of application of advanced concepts

to produce thermoplastic parts economically. In this context, the current status of the
effort to integrate cost consideration factors into the design by means of software tools
will be presented. The idea of implementing appropriate forming techniques in a hybrid
combination will be introduced and analyzed on the basis of two newly developed
manufacturing methods: The Superplastic Forming (SPF) and the Continuous
Compression Moulding (CCM) technique. Finally, critical process parameters which
have been identified during the development of these techniques, will be evaluated and
the relationship of their variation to product quality and cost will be established.
2. The Proposed Methodology
The current situation in industrial practice that characterizes the European

Aircraft Industry shows a lack of cost targets among the common design parameters.
To overcome this drawback, cost analysis methodologies based on empirical
relationships associated with the development and manufacture of a specified end item
are currently the field of intensive activity [12J. In the concept proposed below, the cost
estimating process should be implemented during the design stage as early as possible to
ensure a Life Cycle Cost optimized product within the framework of product
specifications and affordable resources.
To fully exploit the benefits of design-to-cost strategies, every design feature that
causes an impact on the parts costs should be taken to consideration. Such features
might be: selected material, parts geometry, trimming and shaping, coating,
manufacturing process, including process parameters, tools and quality assurance. The
cost estimating strategy will combine item classification with sets of Cost Estimating
Relationships, CER's, consisting of basic parameters describing physical characteristics
(e.g., geometric size - surface area - and/or weight), and technical parameters describing
the different complexity of items and other quality aspects for each item class.
A relevant activity following this methodology for composite aircraft parts is

currently undertaken by an international consortium in the frame of a CEC funded
BRITE/EURAM project. The basic idea in this concept is to determine the critical
parameters and to establish analytical cost functions which express the relationship
between cost and parameter variation in the whole product development cycle
367
(including the detail design phase). In its final form, a complete cost estimating
software tool will be available to assist the designer in the decision process. A
considerable improvement in cost estimating accuracy and speed are the expected
benefits.
Flexibility on implementing a particular manufacturing technique in different

versions is a critical parameter. This will give the designer the capability to search for
the most cost effective alternative variant and to select between structural equivalent
designs that one which exhibits the lowest production costs. To achieve this target,
each manufacturing technique will be analyzed in discrete, working cycles, Figure 1.
Preparation Preparation
of ====> of I :> Heating-up
tools Materials
Forming
Cooling <=== Consolidation ~ Procedure
Quality
Assurance
Figure 1 - Basic steps in the manufacturing procedure of a typical forming technique for
composite materials.
From this procedure, cost drivers can be identified and cost functions derived by
statistical analysis of historical data. Quality and cost sensitivity curves can drive the
designer to those design changes which can have significant impact on the final cost.
In this context, application of tools capable of performing design analysis through

process integrated cost estimation is an activity complementary to the effort of
implementing low-cost manufacturing techniques in aerospace applications. These
techniques should be able to produce large, complex and highly integrated components
with acceptable accuracy, using cheap manufacturing lay-ups and tooling. Until now,
this is technically possible only by applying "hot" autoclave techniques which are not
economic due to the high forming temperatures and the very expensive tooling
materials. The above aspects have led to efforts to replace the high-cost "hot"
autoclave by alternative techniques with the desired low-cost characteristics.
The hybrid technique suggested below is a combination of low-cost pressing

processes with a "cheap" autoclave variants. This arrangement consists of two
techniques complementary to each other in the manufacturing process, the Superplastic
Forming and the Continuous Compression Moulding technique. The Superplastic
Forming technique is suitable for high precision parts in highly integrated
configurations. In its present form, this technique could be classified to the low-cost
"hot" autoclave techniques. However, modified accordingly, it is a possible candidate
368
for even lower energy consuming operations, e.g., in a "cold" autoclave variant. The
Continuous Compression Moulding technique is a press forming technique and can be
applied to the repetitive production of several continuous profiles in large quantities.
The material used in research carried out during to development of above two
techniques was continuous Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polyether-ether-ketone (PEEK).
The selected forms of the manufactured components were some typical shapes in
aerospace structures such as elliptical covers, stringers, ashtray-like shapes and ribs.
For the manufacture of the ashtray-like, elliptical cover-like and rib shapes, Superplastic
Forming was selected, while Continuous Compression Moulding was applied to stringers
of several profiles, such as L-shape, U-shape, etc.
3. Superplastic Forming Technique
3.1 Description of the Forming Technique
A detailed description of the technique is presented in [4,11]. By this process, the

composite material is heated for a short period of time in a female mould while a
backing material is placed over its surface. Pressure is applied to the upper surface of
the backing material in an argon gas atmosphere, while vacuum is applied to the lower
female part of the mould. Once the component is formed and solid, cooling is applied
by circulating water, reducing the temperature at the desirable rate.
The experimental set-up is shown schematically in Figure 2. To investigate the

ability of the technique to manufacture high complexity parts, an ashtray and an ellipse
cover-like shape were selected, Figure 3.
1hermocwples
Cooling & Heeling a,omber

Inn9l' Mould
Upper MOlJld
Argon Bottle VeCUlJmPump
Figure 2 - Schematic drawing of Superplastic Forming technique.

369
Figure 3 - Parts shaped by Superplastic Forming technique.
The basic forming parameters have been found to be: temperature, pressure,
forming time (i.e. , the time required for the composite to reach the desired shape),
stiffness of the system backing material/composite and strain rate sensitivity of the
backing material. After sufficient experimentation, the following conclusions were
obtained:
The forming temperature should be set at about 370°C for C/PEEK.
• The required pressure for forming depends on the stiffness of the selected
backing material (Aluminum foil, Kapton-H, Upilex-R, etc.). Amongst the above
mentioned, Upilex-R was proved to be the most suitable backing material. In its case,
a consolidation pressure of 5-10 bars is necessary.
After development of the t echnique was completed, a representative rib was

manufactured, Figure 3. With this technique, the inner standard rib of a horizontal
stabilizer was manufactured and successfully flight tested, and is currently being used in
series production.
370
3.2 Process Parameter Optimization Methodology
In order to introduce cost aspects into the design procedures, the relation of design
features to cost should be known. Process parameters are a critical element in the
definition of a particular manufacturing technique and their selection can have a
significant impact on quality and cost. Therefore, the relationship between process
parameters' value and product quality and cost should be established during the
development phase of manufacturing technique. The first step in this approach is to
determine the impact of process parameters variations on product quality, as described
below and summarized in Table 1. The second step should be to define cost functions
Table 1 - Impact of Superplastic Forming process parameter variation on product

quality
Increase of Quality aspects Quality aspects

parameter value improving deteriorating
Pressure value Consolidation quality Dimensional discrepancies

Fibre wash
Pressure application Dimensional stability Out of plane buckling and

rate No fibre wash wrinkling
Backing material Quality of surface Ability to decrease forming

stiffness finish time
Forming time Dimensional discrepancies

Fibre wash
Consolidation time Consolidation quality
related to process parameters as indicated in Table 2. For the implementation of the
Table 2 - Relationship between process parameters and cost
Process parameter value Impact on cost through
Temperature Mould material type

Energy consumption
Time for heating and cooling
(production rate)
Pressure value Mould material type

Pressure application rate
Backing material Material type

Total process time
Consolidation time Total process time
first step, the following procedure was followed: After selecting the values of the basic
forming parameters, temperature and pressure, their influence on several quality aspects
371
was investigated. From this investigation, it was established that the process
characteristics affect the surface finish, dimensional stability, fibre buckling and fibre
wash in the following way:
• The surface finish is mainly influenced by the stiffness of the backing material.
The quality of the surface finish increases with increasing backing material stiffness and
decreasing backing material roughness.
• Dimensional stability and fibre wash are caused by the matrix flow occurring
during the forming of the composite at the desired shape. It was derived by
dimensional analysis, that dimensional instability and fibre wash become minimal when
the time to form the part into the desired shape tends to zero. This experimental
observation was also obtained theoretically [13]. The above condition is limited by the
strain rate sensitivity of the backing material and the stiffness of the system bbcking
material/ composite.
It was proved that the consolidation time does not affect dimensional stability and fibre
wash significantly. However, consolidation time affects the consolidation quality and
consequently the mechanical and physical properties.
• Out of plane buckling and wrinkling depend on: fibre material (stiffness), fibre
volume fraction, geometric characteristics of the fibre, compression stress on the fibre
and compression stress rate (i.e., forming pressure rate).
For a fibre of a certain material and geometry, buckling decreases with decreasing
compression stress and decreasing pressure application rate. Furthermore, buckling and
wrinkling are affected by the geometry of the component to be formed as well as the
stacking sequence of the composite. It is recommended that the designer avoids areas
with high compression stress on fibres.
For the quality evaluation, non-destructive testing was carried out. By an

evaluation with X-Rays on selected specimens, satisfactory results were obtained, as no
foreign inclusions, voids, etc., were observed, and well consolidated products were
shown. The same conclusions were derived from C-scan evaluation on the ellipse-cover
parts and rib.
4. Continuous Compression Moulding Technique
4.1 Description of the Forming Technique
The Continuous Compression Moulding technique is a method for continuous

manufacturing of consolidated preforms or components of several shapes [14,15]. The
experimental set-up employed is shown schematically in Figure 4. The material is
placed on a linear steel support and a guiding device holds the layers in the correct
position and guides them through an open double mould. The material is preheated
above its melting point, pressed at this temperature and cooled down by water under
pressure, thus taking the shape of the double mould. After that, the formed part is
pulled out of the mould by a pneumatic "feeder" and the processing operation is
continued in the same way. The process-cycle and the material displacement are
controlled by peripheral aggregates.
Several shapes can be produced by using the same tool with slight changes and
additions, Figure 5. The selected profile of stringer is L-shape, (see Figure 5), common
to a variety of aerospace applications.
372
. .iii. . Press ~ \!==I=II

I I
I~ ....... \ Printer
Control System
Feeder Tooling
Prepreg
Supporter
Cooling
Supporter
Figure 4 - Schematic drawing of Continuous Compression Moulding technique.
lLU
U
_PlATE
I\ISllAlDj PlATE LJ]

ff;AlNlCARTAOleS
J~
T>fiMJCIU'I£
Mlll.EM!J.J.1l
L· STFW'«lSI
f9.WE M!J.J.1l
~ V
'I>6MXIl.Pl.E
ff;An .... CARTAOleS
_ _ NUAlUI PlATE
P!elWRE PlATE
~
Figure 5 - Drawing of the double mould for L-shape stringers and the producible shapes
with Continuous Compression Moulding technique.
For the development of the CCM technique, the same methodology as in the case
of SPF was followed. The basic process parameters feeding velocity, temperature,
pressure and forming time were initially derived. After sufficient experimentation, the
following conclusions were obtained:
• For C/PEEK, the forming temperature should be about 370°C.
• Within the investigated temperature range, the pressure should not vary
significantly. As a first value could be selected, the pressure given by the material
manufacturer for good consolidation.
• The material displacement into the mould depends only on the length of the
mould forming zone. Finally, after experimentation, the appropriate feed rate for
C/PEEK (APC-2 in form of UD and MD prepregs), was found to be 60 mm/min. The
feed rate is the parameter which controls the press-cycle. The press-cycle depends on
373
the selection of the forming temperature as well as on the shape and the dimensions of
the produced parts. The order of magnitude for the press-cycle is a few seconds.
• In order to preform stringers without curvature and bending, the inlet material
and outlet formed stringer must be guided by supporters.
4.2 Process Parameters Optimization Methodology
The quality of the products depends strongly on both the design of the mould and
the selection of appropriate forming parameters. In the case of CCM, an optimization
methodology similar to the SPF was applied. After the initial investigations, the
influence of the process characteristics on the quality aspects of the stringers such as
spots and wrinkles on the surface, thickness discrepancies, fibre wash, voids or
delaminations in the part and consolidation quality between the layers, was determined.
The investigation has shown that:
• High quality of the stringer surface finish without spots can be obtained when
the appropriate temperature and pressure value is selected and moreover, a gel coating
foil is placed between the material and the mould on the length of the stringer which
will be produced during processing.
• In order to minimize matrix movement resulting in dimensional instability and

fibre wash, the applied pressure and forming time must be minimal, the material
displacement must be high and also the forming temperature must be as low as possible
for a good consolidation between the layers.
In order to evaluate the quality of the produced specimens, non-destructive and

destructive testing was carried out. A-scan and C-scan tests were used to identify voids
or delaminations in the parts. To make a judgement on the consolidation quality
between the layers, micrograph technique was applied. The results were satisfactory.
Moreover, the Interlaminar Shear Stress test, as well as the Compression test were
carried out, according to DIN 29/971. The achieved mechanical properties were good.
Using the results of the above investigations which are overeviewed in Table 3, quality
curves with respect to process parameters can be developed.
Table 3 - Impact of Continuous Compression Moulding process parameter variation on

product quality
Increase of Quality aspects Quality aspects

parameter value improving deteriorating
Pressure value Consolidation quality Dimensional discrepancies

Fibre wash
Wrinkles
Forming time Dimensional discrepancies
Temperature Consolidation quality Spots and wrinkles
According to the above results, the technique IS suitable for economIc

manufacturing of stiffening elements, using thermoplastic materials. The produced
stiffeners could be integrated by cold autoclave or a modified SPF technique into
thermoplastic panels to fabricate integrally stiffened low-cost components.
374
5. Conclusions
Wide use of thermoplastics in typical aircraft structural parts will become realistic
as soon as their competitiveness in terms of production costs are improved.
A possible way to meet this target is to select suitable low-cost forming techniques
with complementary capabilities and apply them successively at different stages of
manufacturing and assembly.
A further product optimization in terms of cost can be achieved if design-to-cost

concepts are incorporated into the design practice to enable tailoring of design decisions
to process characteristics.
Two newly developed forming techniques were analyzed and evaluated in order to
prove feasibility of above concepts: Superplastic Forming is a promising technique
suitable for aerospace applications as it is low-cost compared to other methods using
autoclave systems. Its further advantage is the convenience for manufacturing of
complex shape parts. At the present development stage, forming of shapes with
multiple curvatures and high draw ratio (ashtray-like shape) may lead to slight
dimensional deviations in the part thickness. Extension of the SPF technique in a form
suitable to manufacture large and highly integrated parts economically is worthy of
being the subject of further research.
Continuous Compression Moulding is an automated technique well suited to the

manufacturing of thermoplastic stringers of continuous length by combining the
pultrusion and the hot-pressing technique. The utilization of the method to form L-
shape stringers has shown the suitability of the method to produce thermoplastic
endless section profiles inexpensively and with satisfactory quality.
To improve cost-effectiveness, a fully automated process should be developed.

Techniques for the lay-up and transferring the prep regs onto the tooling, as well as the
rework activities, such as cutting the edges, drilling, milling and quality control, have to
be automated and should be adapted to the existing equipment.
References
[1] G. Kempe and H. Krauss, "Molding and Joining of Continuous Fibre Reinforced
Polyetherether-ketone (PEEK)", Proc. of the 16th Congr. Int. Council Aeron.
Sciences (ICAS), Vol. 2, Jerusalem, Israel, pp. 1789-1800, 1988.
[2] W. Werner, "Cost Effectiveness of Structural Applications of Fibre Reinforced

Thermoplastics", Proc. of Int. Symp on Advanced Materials for Lightweight
Structures, ESTEC, The Netherlands, pp. 185-190, 1992.
[3] S. Pantelakis, G. Labeas, S. Kalogeropoulos and V. Schulze, "Hot-Forming of

Continuous Carbon Fibre Reinforced PEEK", Proc. of Comp 90, Patras, Greece,
AMA TEC Press, Advanced Composites in Emerging Technologies, pp. 393-399,
1991.
[4] S. Pantelakis, Th. Kermanidis, G. Labeas and V. Schulze, "Development of

Aerospace Thermoplastic Composite Structural Parts Using the Superplastic
Forming Technique", Proc. of 5th European Conference on Composite Materials,
France, pp. 537-543, 1992.
375
[5] E. Wang and T. G. Gutowski, "Cost Comparison between Thermoplastic and

Thermoset Composites", SAMPE Journal, 26, 6, pp. 19-26, 1990.
[6] E. M. Silverman and W. C. Forbes, "Cost Analysis of Thermoplastic Composites

Processing Methods for Spacecraft Structures", SAMPE Journal, 26, 6, pp. 9-15,
1990.
[7] J. B. Cattanach and A. J. Barnes, "Forming Fibre-Plastic Composites", U.S.

Patent #4657717, 1987.
[8] M. Chen-Chi Ma, M. S. Yn, C. H. Chen and C. L. Chiang, "Processing and

Properties of Pultruded Thermoplastic Composites", Composite Manufacturing, 1,
3, pp. 191-196, 1990.
[9] R. K. Okine, "Analysis of Forming Parts from Advanced Thermoplastic Composite

Sheet Materials", SAMPE Journal, 25, 3, pp. 9-19, 1989.
[10] W. SoIl and T. G. Gutowski, "Forming Thermoplastic Composite Parts", SAMPE

Journal, 24, 3, pp. 15-19, 1988.
[11] S. Pantelakis, D. Tsahalis, Th. Kermanidis and S. Kalogeropoulos, "Experimental
Investigation of the Diaphragm Forming Technique Using Continuous Carbon
Fibre Reinforced PEEK" , Proc. of 4th European Conference on Composite
Materials, Germany, pp. 79-87, 1990.
[12] T. G. Gutowski, R. Henderson and C. Shipp, "Manufacturing Costs for Advanced

Composites Aerospace Parts", SAMPE Journal, 27, 3, pp. 37-43, 1991.
[13] D. Tsahalis, S. Pantelakis and V. Schulze, "Modelling of the Superplastic Forming

Process Using Continuous Carbon Fibre Reinforced Composites", Proc. of
Symposium on Processing of Polymers and Polymeric Composites", 1990 ASME
Winter Annual Meeting, Texas, pp. 91-101, 1990.
[14] U. Spelz, "Continuous Compression Molding of Thermoplastic Stringers", Proc. of
5th European Conference on Composite Materials, France, pp. 459-464, 1992.
[15] S. Pantelakis, E. Baxevani and U. Spelz, "An Automated Technique for

Manufacturing of Thermoplastic Stringers in Continuous Length", accepted for
publication in Composite Structures Journal.
BOLTED JOINT STRENGTH OF GRAPHITE/EPOXY LAMINATES SUBJECTED
TO BIAXIAL LOADING CONDITIONS
S. V. Hoa
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Concordia University,

Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3G 1M8
Bolted graphite/epoxy plates were subjected to in-plane biaxial loading. Cruciform

shaped samples were used. Testing was performed on a biaxial machine developed and
built at Concordia University. Four arms of the cruciform sample were independently
loaded. Different lateral loads were applied along one direction. Along the other
direction, load was applied on one arm while the opposite arm was held in the grip
without applied load. This opposite arm measured whatever load that was bypassed
around the constrained bolt hole. Acoustic emission was used to detect the onset of
failure. There was a correspondence between the time at peak acoustic emission activity
with the change in slope of the bypass versus applied load curve. Results show that there
is a significant decrease in joint strength with the application of the lateral load. This
effect is more severe for plates with smaller size hole (6.95 mm dia.) as compared to
plates with larger size hole (19.05 mm).
1. Introduction
In designing using composites, it is advisable to avoid the joint as much as possible.

This is because the joint is usually the weakest link in a composite structure. However,
there are situations where the joint is not avoidable. One example is the case of
patching repair of airframes where patches need to be joined to the parent structure.
Another example is the attachment of a composite structure to other structural
elements, usually by rivets.
The majority of composite structures in airframes are in the form of thin plates or
shells. These structures are subjected to biaxial loading conditions in real applications.
It is also well known that laminated composites are anisotropic; this means that their
response depends on the direction of the loads.
Most work on joints in composite plates or shells have considered only uniaxial
loading. Most of the time, two pieces of composite elements are joined together by
bonding or bolting. The joint is allowed to float freely while loads are applied on the
two ends of the assembly until the joint fails. This type of test may produce useful
information but it may not produce data that are representative of what the structure is
subjected to in real applications.
In this study, joint strength of graphite/epoxy composites under biaxial loading

condition is considered. The configuration of the joint has the bolted hole fixed with
the loads applied around it. Figure 1 shows a schematic of the load and constraint
arrangement.
With the fastener held fixed, different loads can be applied in both the x direction
(right hand side) and y direction (upper side) while the x direction (left hand side) and
y direction (lower side) are allowed to remain free or are subjected to yet different
loads. In other words, four different loads can be applied at four loading arms
simultaneously. This is possible because the loads can be supported by the fixed
377
378
Pyapplied
Px bypass Px applied
Pbearing
fastener
Py bypass
Figure 1 - Biaxial bearing/bypass load and constraint arrangement.
fastener. Depending on the degree of rigidity of the constraint of the fastener, some of
the applied loads can be bypassed around the fastener. These are called bypass loads.
If the fastener is rigid, there is little or zero bypass load. If the fastener loses its rigidity
such as the case after failure at the fastener hole, the bypass load can be larger.
2. Specimen Design
There appeared to be no form of specimen available for this particular type of test
in the literature. It was therefore necessary to design a specimen for this particular
test. The requirements for this specimen are:
• The test section should be flat;
• An area in the test section, which is large relative to the fastener diameter,
should be in a uniform state of plane stress in the absence of the fastener and fastener
hole, i.e., when edge loads are applied to a solid test section;
• All material failure should occur in the test section.
Thin walled tubular specimens have most often been used for general biaxial
testing because they are compact and multiaxial stress states can be produced by
loading axially, in torsion, and/or by internal pressure. However, they are unacceptable
for experimentation with fasteners designed for flat laminates because of the tube
curvature. Flat cruciform specimens are the more suitable alternative. Consideration
for existing cruciform specimens was given in [1]. The development for the design of
the cruciform specimen used in this study was given in [1] and [2]. This specimen has
379
the configuration shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2 - Configuration of biaxial specimen.
In this specimen, Part A contains 49 layers of AS4/3501-6 graphite/epoxy material.

The lay-up sequence for this region is shown in Table 1. Part Band C contain only the
uniaxial plies whereas the non-axial plies have been truncated and replaced with
adhesive layers. This means that in Part B, only plies along the y direction are retained
and in Part C only plies along the x direction are retained. At Parts D and E, the full
laminate thickness is retained. In addition, aluminum tabs were bonded for gripping
purpose. Tables 1 and 2 show the lay-up sequence and material properties for the
specimen.
3. Experimental Set-Up
The biaxial testing machine was developed and built at Concordia University. A
photograph of the machine is shown in Figure 3. The machine consists of a rigid frame
supporting four hydraulic cylinders each with a capacity of 100 kN. Four load cells are
attached to the four cylinders for independent recording of load. Displacements in the
four directions are controlled by four LVDT's to within 0.5 mm.
The alignment of the loading arms was checked using photoelastic coatings on
cruciform samples without hole mounted on the machine. The strain distribution
within a square of 50.4 mm x 50.4 mm square was within 9%. Details of the
photoelastic results are shown in [2].
Eight acoustic emission sensors were mounted on the four arms of the specimen.
Four outer sensors were used to screen out noise from the grips and the four sensors
adjacent to the gage section were used to record acoustic emission activities at the bolt
380
Table 1 - Lay-up sequence for different Parts in the specimen

Part A Part B Part C Part D Part E
10* 250 10* 250 1 0* 25 a 1 0* 250 10* 250
245 260 2a 260 2a 26 a 245 260 245 260
345 270 3a 270 3a 27 a 3 -45 270 3 -45 270
4 -45 280 4a 280 4a 28 a 445 280 445 280
5 -45 2990 5a 29 a 5a 2990 5 -45 2990 5 -45 2990
60 30 -45 60 30 a 6a 30 a 60 3090 60 3090
70 debulk 70 debulk 7a debulk 70 debulk 70 debulk
845 3145 8a 31 a 8a 31 a 845 3190 890 3190
9 -45 320 9a 320 9a 32 a 9 -45 320 990 320
1090 330 10 a 330 1090 33 a 10 90 330 1090 330
debulk 34 -45 debulk 34 a debulk 34 a debulk 34 -45 debulk 34 -45
11 90 3545 lla 35 a 11 90 35 a 11 90 3545 11 90 3545
1245 3690 12 a 36 a 12 a 3690 1245 3690 1245 3690
13 -45 3790 13 a 37 a 13 a 3790 13 -45 3790 13 -45 3790
1490 38 -45 14 a 38 a 1490 38 a 1490 38 -45 1490 38 -45
1590 3945 15 a 39 a 1590 39 a 1590 3945 1590 3945
1645 4090 16 a 40 a 16 a 4090 1645 4090 1645 4090
17 -45 debulk 17a debulk 17 a debulk 17 -45 debulk 17 -45 debulk
180 4190 180 41 a 18 a 4190 180 4190 180 4190
190 42 -45 190 42 a 19 a 42 a 190 42 -45 190 4290
2045 43 -45 20 a 43 a 20 a 43 a 2090 4345 2090 4390
debulk 440 debulk 440 debulk 44 a debulk 440 debulk 440
21 -45 450 21 a 450 21 a 45 a 2190 450 2190 450
2290 46 -45 22 a 46 a 2290 46 a 2290 46 -45 2290 46 -45
230 47 -45 230 47 a 23 a 47 a 230 4745 230 4745
240 4845 240 48 a 24 a 48 a 240 48 -45 240 48 -45
4945 49 a 49 a 4945 4945
Table 2 - Material properties for the specimen

Material Ex Ey IIxy Gxy
(GPa) (GPa) (GPa)
[0] AS4/350l-6 Graphite/Epoxy 137 10.1 0.290 5.40
[0/45/-45/90]s AS4/3501-6 53.6 53.6 0.306 20.5

Graphite/Epoxy
[a] FM-300K film adhesive 4.93 4.93 0.300 0.399
[0/a3k AS4/3501-6 35.1 3.30 0.292 1.65

Grap ite/Epoxy with FM-300K
adhesive layers
hole. The acoustic emIssIon machine was system 3000 from Physical Acoustics
Corporation. The bolt load was measured using a Lebow bolt hole transducer model
3711-250. Studied are parameters related to hole size, lateral load and clamp force.
381
Figure 3 - Biaxial testing machine.
3.1 Hole Size
Three different hole sizes were investigated. These were 6.35 mm, 12.7 mm and
19.05 mm. Initially, all plates contain holes of 6.35 mm diameter. After the first set of
tests, these plates were machined to enlarge the hole to 12.7 mm diameter. After the
second set of tests, 19.05 mm diameter holes were produced by further machining.
3.2 Lateral Load
Lateral loads (loads along one direction, say x direction) of 0 kN, 10 kN and 20 kN
were applied.
3.3 Clamp Force
Clamp forces were varied between zero (pin loaded) and with a clamp force of 7548
N on plates with 6.35 mm diameter. Due to the fixed dimension of the load transducer,
clamp force was not measured precisely on plates with larger hole diameter. For these
other plates, a finger tight plus 1/4 turn of torque wrench was used for clamping. This
was the same torquing procedure used for plates having 6.35 mm diameter hole.
4. Results
4.1 Plates with Hole (6.35 mm dia.) and no Clamp Force
Plate No.8 was tested without any bolt force. A lateral load of 18 kN was applied.
382
Figure 4 shows the variation of applied load, bypass load, lateral loads and acoustic
emission over the duration of the test . Figures 5( a) and 5(b) show the schematic
description of the surface of the hole before and after the test.
35 1000
900
30
BOO
25
700
z
20 ?
600 2-
Z 0
e- 15 500
n
0
c
u ~
0
0
...J
o·
<1>
400 <
<1>
10
v;
~
300
5
200
0
100
0
80 160 240 320 400 480 560 640 720 800
Time (x3 sec.)
Figure 4 - Loads and acoustic emission versus time for Plate No.8 (6.35 mm dia. hole;
18 kN transverse load and no bolt load).
Due to the looseness of the grips on the bypass side, the bypass load was kept close
to zero. As the test went on, the applied load increased monotonically. At a value of
20 kN, the applied load dropped sharply. The applied load hovered around the lower
load value for a certain duration. Subsequently, it picked up and increased again. The
zigzag in the applied load curve was due to the incremental nature of the loading.
The acoustic emission activities showed a sharp peak at the time when the applied
load dropped. It was therefore postulated that the sudden increase in acoustic emission
activity could be used to indicate the onset of failure. This was further reinforced in
subsequent results.
Examination of the hole surface before the test shows that there were minor
damages due to machining as shown in Figure 5(a) . The two parts of the figure refer to
the front side and back side of Plate No.8 with a hole. The 18 kN transverse load is
applied along the AC axis as shown. Minor damage is due to drilling. Area bounded by
dotted line represents section of plate exhibiting slight difference in surface appearance.
3S3
8 A A 8
","0-20
~
Ktf
~ K1t
, ~.
D:
-....
... .. ,.
0
/181<14
C 0 0 C
SCALE 2'1
C 8 A 0
~
~ ""-
--
" --=--
SCALE 911
(a) Before test

8 A A 8
" 0-20 DI
~OR
:~
/lBI<Jt
C D 0 C
SCALE 2'1
C B A
~
~
--
-~
~---------
-.
----
~ SCALE ~Il
Section along the 0 arm. s hows damage t he ent i re heigh t o t: t he hole.
(b) After test
Figure 5 - Observation of hole surface before and after test.

384
After testing, considerable damage was observed as can be seen in Figure 5(b). In
this figure, a lateral load of 18 kN was applied on arms A and C. The applied load was
applied on arm B. Arm D corresponded to the bypass load. The majority of damage
occurred on the bypass side of the bolt hole. This was due to the bearing load that the
bolt was pushing against the side of the hole. Examination of the thickness section
shows that damage was extensive on the outer plies where lifting was apparent.
Damage occurred mostly on the side facing the D arm. Shaded area represents crushed
material. It can be postulated that damage first occurred on the outer plies. Damage
then progressed inward to the inner plies. The duration for this progression corresponds
to the time when the applied load hovered around the lower value in Figure 4. After
the total thickness at the hole was saturated with damage, the applied load then
increased again.
4.2 Plates with Hole (6.35 mm dia.) and Clamp Force (7548 N and Pressure 26.3 MPa)
Plate No.6. Plate No.6 was tested with 0 lateral load (uniaxial loading). Figure 6
shows the applied load, bypass load and acoustic emission activities. The
60 ,--,---,---,---,---,----,---,---,-----,-, 500
50
400
40
z
o
300 S,
30 o
(")
o
c
~
o·
20 fT1
200 ;ii
;:
(J)
10
100
-10 0
o 55 110 165 220 275 330 385 440 495 550
Time (x3 sec.)

Figure 6 - Applied load, bypass load and acoustic emission activities for Plate No.6
(6.35 mm dia. hole and no lateral load).
acoustic emission activities show a peak at an applied load of 49 kN. However, the
applied load curve did not show any load drop as was observed in the previous result in
Plate No.8.
385
Figure 7 shows a plot of bypass load versus applied load for both loading and
unloading parts of the test. The loading curve shows a clear increase in slope at an
15.0
12.5
10.0
7.5
Z
"'"
"0
0
0 5.0
-'
II>
II>
0
0.
>-.
m 2.5
0.0
-2.5
-5.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Applied Load (kN)
Figure 7 - Bypass versus applied load for Plate No.6 (6.35 mm dia. hole and no lateral
load).
applied load of about 47 kN. This sudden increase in the bypass load indicates that the
constraint due to the fastener has been loosened due to some damage. The joint
strength in this case was taken to be between 47 kN and 49 kN. Figure 7 also shows a
significant hysteresis loop between the unloading and loading curves. This hysteresis
loop indicates that some damage has occurred to the joint. Figures 8(a) and 8(b) show
the schematic of conditions at the hole edge before and after test. In Figure 8(a), some
minor damage due to machining was observed. In Figure 8(b), significant damage on
the bypass side of the hole was observed. In this case, only the outer plies showed
damage whereas the inner plies did not suffer damage. This shows that the presence of
the clamp force improves the performance of the joint.
Plate No.7. Plate No. 7 was tested with a lateral load of 10 kN. Figure 9 shows
the variation of applied, bypass and acoustic emission activities. The peak of acoustic
emission activities occurred at about 40 kN of applied load. Figure 10 shows the bypass
386
B A A B
A
o o
c D D c
c B A D
...
...
SCALE 9 -1
(b) After test

Figure 8 - Hole edge observation for Plate No.6 with 6.35 mm dia. hole before and after
test.
387
60 1000
50
800
40
Z
~
600 ~
30
Z 0
n
0 0
c:
"0
0 ~
o·
-' 20 cD
400 <
cD
OJ
Iii
10
200
0
-10 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 .300 .350 400
Time (x3 sec.)
Figure 9 - Applied load, bypass load and acoustic emission for Plate No.7 (6.35 mm
dia. hole and 10 kN lateral load).
load versus applied load. The loading curve shows a change in slope at an applied load
of about 38 kN. From this result, the joint strength can be taken to be in the range of
38 kN to 40 kN .
Plate No.5. Plate No. 5 was also subjected to a lateral load of 10 kN. Three
consecutive cycles of loading up to the same maximum applied load were applied on
this sample. Figure 11 shows the loads and acoustic emission activities. Figure 12
shows the curves between bypass and applied loads. Figure 11 shows that significant
acoustic emission activities only occurred within the first cycle of loading and the peak
acoustic emission event occurred at an applied load of about 36 kN. Figure 12 shows
that only the loading portion of the first cycle shows significant change in slope. This
increase in slope occurred at an applied load of about 34 kN. The joint strength can
therefore be taken to be between 34 kN and 36 kN. Again, the unloading portion of the
curve is above the loading portion. Subsequent cycles of loading and unloading to the
same maximum applied load did not result in any significant change of the loading
curve. The hysteresis loops between loading and unloading curves still exist for the
second and third cycles except they are much smaller than the hysteresis resulted from
the first loading cycle. Also, there did not seem to be any significant difference between
the curves in the second and third cycles of loading.
388
Results obtained from other tests are similar to those described above. Common
features are:
• The burst of acoustic emission activities corresponds to a change in the slope of

the applied load curve during loading. The applied load corresponding to the burst of
acoustic emission activities is taken to be the joint strength.
25,----,-----,----,-----,----,-----.----.
20
15
Z
.><
~
"0
0
0
...J 10
II)
'"a.
0
""-
CD
_ 5 ~ __ ~ ____ ~ __ ~ _____ L_ _ _ _L -__ ~ ____...J
-1 0 o 10 20 30 40 50 60
App lied load (kN)
Figure 10 - Bypass versus applied load for Plate No.7 (6.35 mm dia. hole and 10 kN
lateral load).
• The bypass load during unloading is larger than the bypass load during loading
for the same applied load.
• Failure tends to occur at the hole edge on the bypass side of the hole. Failure
occurs on the outer plies first and propagates toward the centre thickness if possible.
A summary of the joint strength results is shown in Table 3. In this table, results
for plates containing holes of three different sizes are presented. Also, five different
lateral loads from 0 kN to 30 kN are shown.
Consider first the lateral load as the varying parameter. For plates with small
holes (6.35 mm dia.) with a clamp load of 7484 N, as the lateral load is increased from 0
kN to 15 kN, the joint strength decreases from about 48 kN down to about 23 kN, a
389
decrease of more than 50%. This is very significant because it has the implication that
60 r---,---,---,---,---,---,---,---,---'---, 1000
J
50
800
40
z
?
600 8-
30
z
~
0
c- ()
0
c
"U
~
0
0 o·
--' 20 <1>
400 <
<1>
~
'"
10
200
0
-10 0
o 70 140 210 280 350 420 490 560 630 700
Time (x3 sec.)
Figure 11 - Plate No.5 (6.35 mm dia. hole and 10 kN lateral load).
design data obtained from uniaxial loading is non-conservative. For the case of plates
containing holes of 19.05 mm diameter, as the lateral increases from 0 kN to 30 kN, the
joint strength also decreases. However, the decrease is not as significant as for the case
of plates containing a smaller hole.
Consider now the size of the hole as the varying parameter. In this case, it is
necessary to normalize the hole size by dividing the load by the diameter of the hole.
This is valid for the case of bearing stress where load is divided by the projected area of
the hole. For 0 kN lateral load (uniaxial loading), the joint strength is 7.56 kN/m for
plates with a hole diameter of 6.35 mm and a strength of 3.25 kN /m for plates with a
hole diameter of 19.05 mm diameter. There is a reduction of more than 50% of the
normalized strength as the hole size is increased. At a lateral of 18 kN, there is also a
reduction in the normalized strength as the hole size is increased from 12.7 mm to 19.05
mm. However, this reduction is not as severe as the case of 0 kN lateral load. The
presence of lateral therefore reduces the effect of the hole size.
The case where there is no clamp load gives a joint strength of only 20 kN for
plates containing 6.35 mm diameter hole size. This is the lowest joint strength in all of
the plates containing this hole size. Observation of the hole surface also reveals that
390
20,----r----r----.----.----.----.----.
15
z- 10
-=-
'0
0
0
..J
UI
UI
0
a.
>.. 5
CD
-5~---L ____ ~ __ ~ ____L -_ _- L____L -_ _ ~
-10 o 10 20 30 40 50 60
Applied Load (kN)
Figure 12 - Bypass versus applied load for Plate No.5 (6.35 mm dia. hole and 10 kN
lateral load ).
Table 3 - Summary of joint strengths
(6.35 mm) P/d (12.7 mm) P/d (19.05 mm) P/d

(kN/m) (kN/m) (kN/m)
Lateral load Clamp load Clamp load Clamp load
7484 N or finger tight finger tight
26.3 MPa + 1/4 turn + 1/4 turn
o kN 47-49 kN 7.56 62 kN 3.25
10 kN 38-40 kN 6.14
32 kN 5.04
34-36 kN 5.5
15 kN 22-24 kN 3.6
18 kN 45 kN 3.5 62 kN 3.25
30 kN 53-60 kN 2.78-3.14
391
more damage has been done. It is therefore important to have a clamp force to
maintain high joint strength. Refer to the data summarized in Table 3. A failure load
of 20 kN is found for no clamp load, 10 kN lateral load and 0.25 in diameter hole.
5. Conclusion and Suggestion for Further Work
The following conclusions can be made:
• Acoustic emission can be used as a means to determine the joint strength in

composite laminates subjected to biaxial/bearing bypass loading. The burst in acoustic
emission corresponds to a sudden increase in the bypass load. This point can be taken
as corresponding to the onset of failure.
• For plates containing 6.35 mm diameter hole (most common in aircraft

structures), the presence of lateral load reduces the joint strength. This is important
because it implies that design data obtained from joint strength tests in uniaxial
conditions are non-conservative. This reduction in joint strength is also apparent in
plates containing larger hole size. However, the effect is not as severe as for plates
containing smaller hole size.
• The presence of lateral load reduces the effect of hole size on the joint strength.
• Clamp force is essential to maintain good joint strength. This conclusion has
also been reached by previous researchers working on joints under uniaxial loading
conditions.
Since experimental programs are expensive and time-consuming, it is preferable to

model the joint using numerical methods. Work is currently under way using this
approach. Finite element method is used to model the joint under complex loading
conditions including clamp load, friction load, applied load and bypass load.
Acknowledgements
The financial support from Defence Research Establishment Pacific, Department of

National Defence of Canada is appreciated. The author also thanks Dr. W. M. Lucking
for the development of the specimen design, Mmes. R. Janardhanam and D. Lefebvre
for testing the specimen.
References
[1] S. V. Hoa, W. M. Lucking and D. Lefebvre, "Biaxial Testing of Bolted

Graphite/Epoxy Plates" , Proceedings of the International Conference on
Composites, ICCM 9, Madrid, 1993.
[2] S. V. Hoa, "Biaxial Bearing/Bypass Testing of Single Bolt Joint Graphite/Epoxy

Composite Laminate", Contract Report, Defence Research Establishment Pacific,
Victoria, Canada, 1993.
A PARAMETRIC STUDY OF STRUCTURAL ADHESIVE JOINTS FOR
AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS
G. Surace and E. Brusa

Aeronautical and Space Department, Politecnico di Torino,
10129 Torino, Italy
Among the bonding technologies which are usually provided for assembling, the
components of a structure the adhesive joints have been already appreciated because of
the advantages which they offer. The aim of this paper is the analysis of the most
important parameters in order to provide a numerical investigation of the static
behaviour of adhesive joints. Particularly the optimal design techniques are investigated
in the topical case of adherends of different materials.
1. Introduction
The use for the aerospace applications of the adhesive joints is motivated by the
advantages which they offer in comparison with the mechanical joints, particularly
bolted and fastened. One of the major advantages is that any kind of material can be
assembled by this method, particularly metal and composite. In the adhesive joint the
stress distribution is more uniform than for a bolted one and the maximum stress is
generally lower, with an evident benefit of lightness. An important feature of this joint
for the aerospace structures is the smoothness of the exposed surfaces for minimum
drag.
A large scale assembly of adhesive joints needs expensive equipments as holding
fixtures, hydraulic presses and autoclaves, which are usually provided for the aerospace
production.
The costs may be greater than for the mechanical joints because of the surface
preparation, which often involves specific procedures. The present non-destructive
controls seem not completely satisfactory to evaluate the adhesive effectiveness.
Temperature and high humidity limitations must also be taken into account using this
bonding method.
Until now this subject has been dealed in many models, which are available in
literature, although the approaches are quite different.
The adhesive joint looks a complex system: there are many parameters, who can
affect its behaviour. The most important element is the adhesive and its specific
properties, both technological and elastic which have been investigated f12). The
geometry of the joint is very important to predict the stress distribution: the optimal
design of the joint consists also in the choice of the best geometry in relation to the
application [8]. The most useful is the scarfed, even if the overlap joint is often taken as
object for model. The damage growth in this joint has been developed [10].
Many analytical models of single-lap and double-lap adhesive joints, which are
available in the literature [8,11,13] show there are many aspects which the designer
must take into account: geometry, mechanical characteristics both of the adherends
and the adhesive, bending effects, end-joining effects and the plastic behaviour of the
adhesive.
393
G. C. Sih et at. (eds.), Advanced Technology for Design and Fabrication o/Composite Materials and Structures, 393-408.
© J995 Kluwer Academic Publishers.
394
This paper is based on the assumption that the optimal design of these joints may
be investigated through the numerical simulations of the static behaviour, beginning
from a simpler analytical model, which may be gradually improved adding the terms
previously neglected. The results of this paper are related to the simple model [8],
which has been carried on for a numerical investigation of the static behaviour of
adhesive joints with different adherends, in the elastic field, only in the case of extensive
load, while a flexural and plastic analysis is now in progress.
2. The Single-Lap Adhesive Joint Analysis with a Linear Approach

The research program carried by this Institute started with a parametric study of
isotropic adherends joint, especially with different material. This investigation took in
account the most important parameters: the joint width, the thickness of the lower
adherend and of the upper adherend, the thickness of the adhesive, the elastic properties
of the adherends. The applied load is enclosed in the study as a variable of the
problem, even if is not a characteristic of the joint. To provide in this paper a complete
overview of the study we will propose the qualitative results for the first part of the
study (isotropic adherends) and the numerical results and the graphics for the topical
composites technology.
3. Design of a Single-Lap Adhesive Joint with Isotropic Adherends

3.1 Theoretical Models
Among the available models the theory of the single-lap adhesive joint [8] seems
the simplest for an analytical investigation of the parameters of this joint, although it
can not take into account the bending effects of the adherend on the adhesive. This
model shows the static behaviour both of the adherends and the adhesive, when a force
P is applied. The stresses investigated are ITlx' ITlz in the upper adherend, IT2x and IT2z
in the lower one, T3x and T3z in the adhesive, where x and z denote the frame reference
x, y, z, Figure 1.
y y
-
°lx -
--
1 J
3
't3x x +'t3~ z
Figure 1 - Adams-Peppiatt model for the study of the single-lap joint.
Hart and Smith [8] suggested to insert in the study also the IT3 (named ITpp too)
which is usually responsible for the peeling effect when the inlier adherend is a
composite material. In the current case this stress denotes the divergence of the
adherends of the joint.
The Adams-Peppiatt's resolution of the elastic problem of the adhesive-adherend

joint is:
395
62 u
~
6x 2 = Kau Ix - KbulZ + Ca
62 ul z
6x 2 = Kau lz - Kbulx + Cb
where Ka, Kb, Ca, Cb are constants which inclose the mechanical characteristics of the
materials (Young modulus and Poisson coefficient), the thickness of the adherend and of
the adhesive and the applied force P in the case of Ca and Cb [8]. The boundary
conditions are:
x=O, ul x = P /b6 1, u2x = 0, z = ± bfa, Ul z = U2z = 0
x=l, U2x = P /b62 , Ul x = 0

The coupling law between the peeling stress up~ and the shear stress T in the adhesive
has been found by Hart and Smith who suggest this relation
U3y = upp = T p [3Et{I-v2 )t o /Eon]0.25

where Et is the Young modulus of the adhesive, Eo the Young modulus of the
adherend, v its Poisson coefficient, to the outer adherend thickness and n the glue line
thickness. The correct use of this relation is related to the double-lap joint, where is no
bending effect of the load, and to the case of adherends of the same material. This
relation is exact for the peak values of the stresses upp and T, even if it is possible the
application from the beginning to the end of the glue line in the x-direction. Some
comparisons with the numerical results of Adams-Peppiatt and Hart-Smith show that is
possible to substitute the Eo with an equivalent modulus (medium between the inner
and the outer adherend, when they are different).
3.2 Numerical Investigations
A basic model of adhesive joint has been provided for the numerical investigation
and it consists of a single-lap joint with the upper adherend of titanium (E = 110000
MPa, G = 42636 MPa) and the lower of aluminum alloy AISI 2024 (E = 73100 MPa, G
= 28116 MPa). The Adams-Peppiatt's theory suggests for the adhesive a thickness of
0.1 - 0.5 mm, Young modulus E = 3000 MPa and G = 1154 MPa. The contact line
between the adherend and the adhesive is 20 mm long. The computing of the stresses
has been realised dividing the length in 15 parts in the x-direction and in 6 parts in the
z-direction. The range of the values for the adherends thickness is suggested [8].
The analysis takes into account five cases where the influence of the parameters,
about whose we already spoke, on the stress behaviour of the elastic joint is
investigated.
This approach has been also carried on the next study (4.) with composite
adherends, while the adherend material and properties will be specified time by time.
The adopted Adams and Hart-Smith models allow to compute and to draw the
stresses UX , upp' TX versus x-axis and Uz, T Z versus z-axis.
3.3 Analysis of the Numerical Results
Unlike Adams [8], when the model is applied to adherends of different material the
396
distribution of the stresses does not show symmetric properties. In the comparison with
that study, we note that all the normal stresses (1 are not symmetric with respect to the
neutral axis of the joint-system, even if the geometric characteristics and the applied
loads are the same in the adherends. The designer must pay attention to the peak
values of the stresses in both the adherends, unlike that happens for single-lap joints
with equal adherends. He must consider both the interactions between the upper and
the adhesive and between the adhesive and the lower.
The investigation about the influence of the joint width b allows that if this
parameter increases all the stress values become smaller, particularly the TX(X) presents
the smallest maximum value at the end of the glue line in the case of b minimum. The
ratio Txz(1)/Tx(1/2), where 1 is the length of the glue line, is bigger for b maximum and
this is very important in relation to (1'pp. The choice of the width b must be taken
considering that bigger width generalry decreases the stresses in the joint, but the
distribution of (1pp is more uniform for smaller.
When the adhesive thickness 63 has been considered variable in the range of values
suggested by Adams, Peppiatt, Hart and Smith, it happened that if it is higher, the
distribution of the stresses (11x' (12x is almost linear from the upper to the lower
adherend, while the hyperbolic form of the distribution is more appreciated for the
smallest thickness. The TX(X) presents the highest peak values at the ends of the glue
line for the smallest thickness, while the value in the middle of the joint is the highest
for the thickest adhesive. We note that it is the same for the stress (1pp. In the z
direction the variation of the stresses is last evident than in the prevIous case (b
variable), even if the range of the parameter investigated is smaller.
A specific investigation has been carried on concerning the thickness of the
adherends. In this case have been developed the four combinations: upper and lowest
adherend thick (1.6 mm), upper and lower than (0.4:0.6 mm), upper thick versus lower
thin and vice versa.
The (11 (x) and (12x(x) are higher for the smallest thickness of the adherend, but
the most in1eresting distributions are those for adherends of different material: the
peak stress value in the thinner adherend is higher, while in the other there is a lower
stress level. About the shear stress distribution in the adhesive we can appreciate the
peak values at the beginning and at the end of the glue line and the position of the
minimum. If the adherends have the same thickness the minimum is close to x = 1/2,
while for the thinner outer the minimum is after the middle point and before for the
thicker. The distribution is also more omogeneus for the thicker adherend because the
minimum value of T is 30% of the maximum, while for the thinnest is 7.5%. These
considerations have again more importance if we look at the (1pp.
The fourth investigation has been developed to ascertain the influence of the
mechanical characteristics of the materials on the joint behaviour: the adherends have
been taken once of the same material (aluminum alloy) and then titanium - aluminum,
steel - aluminum, titanium - magnesium (aeronautical alloys). Looking at the (1x(x) the
behaviour of the different adherends is appreciated because of the peak values, higher
for bigger Young modulus. The TX(X) presents higher peaks at the end of the glue line
in the case of low elastic parameters. It is not advisable to provide this kind of joint
because of the remarkable difference of value between the maximum and the minimum
especially in the case of (1pp.
The last computing considers different value of the load P. The numerical results
confirm that when this parameter increases, all the stresses follow linearly.
397
4. Design of a Single-Lap Adhesive Joint with Composite Adherends
The model of Adams and Peppiatt seems suitable also for an investigation of the
static behaviour of adhesive joints with inner or outer adherend of composite material.
The following analysis is based on the application of the method of computing the
equivalent elastic parameters (Young modulus E, G, Poisson's coefficient) of the
orthotropic laminates, which has been presented in [5].
Every numerical investigation has been developed in the case of orthotropic
composite laminates, with middle-plane symmetry. When the adherend is a composite
material the angle of orientation of the fibres must be carried on the static analysis, like
the previous parameters about those we have discussed.
In this section we present a preliminary study of the influence of the parameters on

a metal-composite joint, then the investigation of the angle of the fibres.
4.1 Numerical Investigations and Results

The current analysis considers the inner adherend of composite material. This is a
mono-oriented multi-layer adherend, with the fibres parallel to the x-axis. The aim of
the first series of numerical simulations is the study of the influence of the parameters
previously indicated on the static behaviour of the adhesive joint. We note that the
qualitative behaviour of the mono-oriented composite is very close to the isotropic
adherend's one. The stress level in the x-direction is higher for the smallest width of
the joint, b.
Like we saw in the case of metal to metal joints, the TX(X) shear stress presents the
peak values at the ends of the contact line and the minimum value in the middle line
for the thinner adhesive. The highest peak level of this stress is related to the situation
of the thinner adherend, while the largest load produces the highest stresses.
For the second set of numerical simulations for the outer adherend has been
maintained the titanium while for the inner have been considered glass-epoxy, kevlar-
epoxy, boron-epoxy and graphite-epoxy. The difference of the elastic properties among
the previous materials is evident in the stresses diagrams Ux and Uz: the static
behaviours of the graphite and boron fibres are very similar, because of their features
quite close, while the glass epoxy shows the largest stress values in reason of its lower
Young modulus. The shear stress T in the adhesive is much higher than for the other
materials. This consideration is more important related to the upp diagram which
shows the largest peak stress for the glass-epoxy.
The numerical experiments about the role of the angle-ply have been provided
introducing respectively a boron-epoxy and a graphite-epoxy inner adherend. The
values of 8, which have been considered are 0°, 30°, 45° and 60°, while the geometry of
the adhesive joint is the same of the previous investigations.
The behaviour of the U x stresses is quite different for 8 = 0°, where the stress is
applied gradually from the outer to the inner adherend, while for 30°, 45° and 60° it
suddenly happens.
The shear stress TX(X) presents the largest peak at the end of the glue line for 8 =
60° and 45°, while the minimum value is closer to the beginning of the glue line. This
situation recurs in upp(x), while the largest uz(z) have been found for 8 = 60°. Those
398
results are emphasized for the joint titanium-graphite epoxy. In this simulation is more
evident the difference among the behaviours at the specific values of (J.
With the investigation which considers the joint with both the adherends in
graphite-epoxy, we can appreciate the symmetry of the stress distributions between the
adherends, also for the composite materials like for the metals.
We note that the behaviour of the angle-ply laminates in this model is coherent
with the elastic properties diagram which we report in [5].
5. Adhesive Joints with Intelligent Adherends
The topical researches about the intelligent material systems and structures
motivate the following short outline about the application of the active control of the
vibration of the structures with piezoelectric devices. In this case we appreciate the
subordinate effect of the actuation of the active layers on the adhesively bonded
structure. The embedding of piezoelectric layers in a composite structure would be in
future developed in the same structural components for the aerospace and other topics
that now enclose adhesive joints.
The composite adherends have been figured equipped with four perfectly bonded
layers of piezoelectric film (PVDF), Figure 2. The thickness of the PVDF film is
Figure 2 - Adhesive joint with piezoelectric devices.
negligible, as well as its mechanical stiffness. These sheets are suitable to apply an
actuation stress, which may be evaluated as follows [9]:
.,.=4· ¢!o:. V· Ep. d3d t
where ¢ = E.t/Eptp, E is the adherend Young modulus, t is its thickness, E'p the
piezoelectric Young modulus, tp its thickness, 0: a numerical parameter which taKes in
account the kind of deformation (2 for the extension), V is the applied voltage, d 3! is
the piezoelectric constant of the PVDF film (C/N).
5.1 Numerical Results
Both the situations of outer only and outer and inner intelligent adherends have
been investigated, introducing different values of V (600, 800, 1000 Volt), compared to 0
Volt. We appreciate the evident reduction of the stresses "'x, more effective at the
highest applied voltage, even if "'z and T increase. This result is emphasized when both
the adherends are equipped with piezoelectric actuators.
399
6. Conclusions
The analysis of adhesive joints with similar and dissimilar adherends has been
performed in this paper. The metal to metal, metal to composite and composite to
composite assemblies have been examined. In the first step the geometrical parameters
of the adhesive joint have been evaluated. The results show a linear dependence of the
main stresses of the adherend and of the adhesive on the width and on the applied load,
while the thickness of the adherends and of the adhesive and the elastic properties of
the materials affect the global distribution of the stresses, in a different way each one.
The angle-ply orientation influence in the composite adherend on the joint has been
evaluated, for various kinds of materials. A short outline covers the static behaviour of
the adhesive joint in the application to intelligent adherends, with embedded
piezoelectric actuators. The resulting stress level reduction in the load direction is more
evident at the highest apr-lied voltage. All the numerical results are comparable with
the values obtained in [12. This preliminary investigation is now in development at the
Aeronautical and Space Department of the Politecnico di Torino.
7. Graphics
All the Adams diagrams of the previous numerical investigations have been
obtained with the software MATLAB. Some editing reasons suggested to inclose in this
paper only an example of numerical results, because the complete study is constituted
by 15 single-lap joint configurations for 7 stress diagrams each one. All the stress
distributions are referred versus X and Z axis, where
X = x -1/2, Z = z
Therefore in the following pages is presented the analysis of the titanium-CFRP
and CFRP-CFRP with embedded piezoactuators joints. The symmetry between the
stresses in the outer and in the inner adherends suggested to neglect the 172x and the 172z
diagrams.
Upper adherend stress o"(MPa)
80 Adhesive thickness
[\, d3 0.1 mm--
\\
d3 0.2 mm ----
d30.4 mm ......
~, d3 0.5 mm ' - ' - '
60
I
i\~ r~' ..~~ , I I I
0"
40 '"~.- ~ ~
II
i
~~
r,
~
~~
20
'"'" ~~
o 4
I 8 12 16 20
Contact line between adherend and adhesive x (mm)
Figure 3 - Titanium - CFRP (adhesive thickness variable).

400
Upper adherend stress (J (MPa)

O.----r----~~~~~----------~--_.----,
Adhesive thickness ./
\ d3 0.1 mm - -
,I,:
i
r~\--I'-----ld3 0.2 mm ----

, d3 0.4 mm ..•.•.
·2 d3 0.5 mm .
~.. ~'~\~---~~-~-+~!f
! f \ " i
.41--- ' \ \ .il
.61------+--\--\L\:~\\4_- //
\\ ;:~~- :>___ /' Z ,'/
\ --__ --.. . . .: .:. V _--rl
8r---i----r--f==-~-~--~~-~-~-~--=---~t_--4_--~
·20 ·10 o 10 20
Contact line between adherend and adhesive z (mm)

Adhesive shear stress 't (M Pa)
22r---~--~--------'----"A~d~h-es~iv-e~t'h'~lc'kn-e~ss~--------'
~. d3 0.1 mm - -
1-'1--\-1----1---1----+---1 d3 0.2 mm ----
1
18H_+-_--+-_---+-__-+_-jd3 0.4 mm ......
• \ d3 0.5 mm ' - ' - '
'\ \
2L-~I
o
__ Li!
4 8 12
___~I~~
~_~__L~~--~I_--_-·-~-~~~-~~·-
16 20
401
Adhesive shear stress 't (MPa)

4 Adhesive thickness
~"~ I d3 0.1 mm--

d3 0.2 mm ----
d3 0.4 mm ......
2
'. ...............
I d3 0.5 mm ._._.
iI
r-~h
...... ....... ~
I
I
I I
~ -::~".,I I I
-
>C
~
-
0
...'"'"CII ~
VI
I ~
~:'. ~
, .•.., "
-2
'\:~"'"
"\
-4
-20 -10 o 10 20

The first case concerns the adhesive thickness variable in a titanium-CFRP joint.
The CFRP characteristics are: El = 137800 MPa, E2 = 11710 MPa, Poisson coefficient
= 0.25, G 12 == 5510 MPa. The titanium properties are E = 110000 MPa, Poisson
coefficient = 0.33. The geometry of the joint is: b = 40 mm, 61 = 62 = 1.6 mm, P =
5000 N, I = 20 mm, 63 = VARIABLE.
Upper adherend stress cr (MPa)
250
\,
Adherend thickness
(outer-inner)
200
1.6 mm - 1.6 mm
1.6 mm - 0.5 mm
---
------
0.5 mm - 1.6 mm ...........
~\ 0.5 mm - 0.5 mm '-'-'"
,
1\"
\~ ,.,' .
-. ----. ...............
------
100
---.
......
~.~ ----- ~
_-_. ::--...
-'
...
........
' .....
50 .--....;:;:.
r-- -..... "
r-- ~ , \
r--- "
I ~
o 4 8 12 16 20
Figure 7 - Titanium-CFRP (adherend thickness variable).
402

o
~ ~
\ \~~
""
I !
./
-~
I :
.." '" ,~"-.., I i
, , !
i
.... I '_,_', ~/
... -10 '-
" 'r----_ / .'
.
b '-
,,
::l
~ , ------ ----- _------ I I
on .. I
. , (Adhererid thickness
outer-inner) /
/
1.6 mm - 1.6 mm - - - ,
.." 1.6 mm - 0.5 mm ------
\
-20
,:
._-.. . .-.- -.- r

, 0.5 mm - 1.6 mm ............ .'
0.5 mm - 0.5 mm ._.-. /
t---- .. --~ ., .-
-20 -10 o 10 20

30
Adherend thickness
(outer-inner)
-- 1.6mm - 1.6 mm ---
----_ ..
1\
1.6 mm • 0.5 mm
0.5 mm - 1.6 mm ........
0.5 mm • 0.5 mm '-'-'
)( 20
p
\\
.\
'- /
/
/
/
,,
,
10 ~
--
...-'
...,.,r·
V
!
~
~~
....,............
...........
. ,.,..,."'......'.
V
~ .-.~-.-.:: .~
.-:..~-.
... ....-.
~~I=-
.-
-'
--- -/:1--- V
o 4 8 12 16 20

403
Adhesive shear stress 't (M Pa)

,, Adherend thickness
, (outer-inner)
4 ,, ---
..., , iI 1.6 mm - 1.6 mm ------
"
; 1.6 mm - 0.5 mm
...........
"'. ' \. I! 0.5 mm - 1.6 mm
0.5 mm - 0.5 mm .-.-.-
2
.. 0
-- ~
... .....'. I
........... " . -'I."
I
p
~.-.--J
1= _.
'"'"~ 0
"---
Vi iI I ----~
~, ...... .......
" ...... ~
".
-2
,,
"
"
\
'. ,
-4 --
" ".
'.,
'.
'. ,
-20 -10 o 10 20
Here, the adherend thickness is variable in the same titanium-CFRP joint. The
geometry of the joint is: b = 40 mm, 61 = 62 = VARIABLE, P = 5000 N, I = 20 mm,
63 = 0.5 mm.

80
,, Loads
1000N --
2000N -----
\
3000N ........
"
"
'- 5000N ' - ' - '

60 i-- ....
'. "
.... ,
""- I "
40 "
NI "- ........
--
. ...... .....
...
r....,___ I
..........
r---- t--. '-,
""- '- --..- --._- ----
20
'I--...
.....
I-- ----.":-r--.. ..."
! -r----- ,~,
o I I -~
4 8 12 16 20
Figure 11 - Titanium-CFRP (different loads).

404
Upper adherend stress 0' (M P a)

o
~, r--..... ./
~ ./.,
.;.
./ /
.
\:\, ",
\,
//
......... 1/
///
I .-- ---- //
-2
, :\." i
----
\
----
0
", \ -----.
1
V .
.1
-
'"
1:'" .... /
II)
-4 ,
r-- ,-
\
"
\
\ Loa s /
,
,, 1000N --- ,"
\
2000N ----_ .. ,;
-6 3000N ........... "
'-'-'
_"-" SOO~N ,
........
I
, " "
.......... ."
" ...... " ., , "
,20 -10 o 10 20
Adhesive shear stress 1: (MPa)
12
\
loads
1000N
2000N ------
-
\ 3000N ...........
\
\ SOOON ._.-.
I
", '. ,
\
8 /
, ,,- v""
~ "
/_..
/'"
~ r-..... --- --. ---- --

...........,
_.
--- -'- --
.... .;0
......., .......
r-·,'- -----r--
-
4
V
-----
.........
--_
,.
---
........... .... .
r-
-. -T ~
I
o 4 8 12 16 20

405
Adhesive shear stress 1: (MPa)
Loads
2~--~----_+----1---~ 1000N -
",
2000N ----
'" ",
3000N '" ...•
5000N ._._.
1 ......'
'" ' .....,

-1r---+----r----+--~~--~--+_~.1,~~,,~
...... .... "' .......-- -
....,
",
-2r----+----~----+_----~--_+----+_--~----··~·
-20 -10 o 10 20

The variable is the applied load to the titanium-CFRP adhesive joint of the
previous sets: the geometry of the joint is: b = 40 mm, 61 = 62 = 1.6 mm, P =
VARIABLE, I = 20 mm, 63 = 0.5 mm.
Upper adherend stress cr(MPa)
30
."
~'. ,
Voltage
600V --
BOOV -----
1000V .........
.~~ ['-., OV ._.-.
~ ".
~
,
'. ....
"'~',
.....
~ ~,
'
10
I ~
o 10 20
Figure 15 - CFRP-CFRP (with PVDF actuators; voltage variable).

'" 30
406
Upper adherend stress O'{MPa)
o~\ Voltage
--- I
,.\
600V
I BOOV -----
, V
1000V ...........
._0_ 0
OV
Jf
-2 0
~..
\'
\
---
I/;;IW
\ 1 .
\
-40
~ vi
.... ....--
1--""
..............
---
~ ~ ~ >;:;
....--
" V
~~-/
-60
"'" /
-20 -10 o 10 20
Adhesive shear stress 't (M P a)

3.6
I\~
Voltage
600V - - I:
/.,
3.2 '\ BOOV -----
1000V .......... I'i
\ OV .-._.
//
><
l-'
ill
~
on
2.B
2.4
\
\
,
'\
'" .
it
l4'
/1
i'
.47"
1\.., \
'11
/-"
2
''\ jJ .¥
I
"
,<,.
lff'
-y-;)'
~
''''':!::.:~ ~~;;:;-v
~
0
10 20 30

407
~
Voltage
';',
600V --
10
~:"~
,>
'-.j'S'!
BOOV
1000V
OV
----
.......
,
'-'-'
'-
'-
'-.
,
~
~
~
-...........
~.
~,'
-10
~ '.,~
~
-20 -10 o 10 20
Contact line between ad her end and adhesive z (mm)
The intelligent adherends with piezoelectric devices are carried on this section.
The variable is the actuation voltage. The joint is a CFRP to CFRP joint with b = 50
mm, 61 = 62 = 2 mm, 63 = 0.4 mm, P = 3500 N, I = 30 mm.
References
[1] J. J. Bikerman, The Science of Adhesive Joints, Academic Press, New York and
London, 1968.
[2] E. W. Godwin and F. L. Matthews, "A Review of the Strength of Joints in Fibre-
Reinforced Plastics Part 1: Mechanically Fastened Joints", Composites 11, p. 155,
1980.
[3] F. 1. Matthews, E. W. Godwin and P. F. Kilty, "The Design of Bolted Joints in

GRP", Technical Note TN 82-105, Dept. of Aeronautics, Imperial College, London,
1982.
[4] T. A. Collins, "On the Bearing Strength of CFRP Laminates", Composites 13, p.
241, 1982.
[5] A. Carpinteri, Scienza delle Costruzioni, Vols. 1 and 2, Pitagora, Bologna, 1983.
[6] G. Kretsis and F. L. Matthews, "The Strength of Bolted Joints in Glass

Fibre/Epoxy Laminates", Composites 16, p. 92, 1985.
[7] J. M. Hodgkinson, D. 1. DeBeer and F. 1. Matthews, "The Strength of Bolted

Joints in Kevlar RP", Proc. Workshop Composites Design for Space Applications,
Noordwijk Holland, The European Space Agency, ESTEC, 1985.
408
[8] R. D. Adams and W. C. Wake, Structural Adhesive Joints in Engineering, Elsevier

Applied Science Publishers, Ltd., 1986.
[9] E. Crawley and J. de Luis, "Use of Piezoelectric Actuators as Elements of
Intelligent Structures", AIAA Journal, Vol. 25, No. 10, 1987.
[10] V. Giavotto, C. Caprile and G. Sala, "Damage Growth in Composite Bolted
Joints", in AGARD Conference, Proc. 427 from Structures and Materials Panel
Specialist's Meeting, Spain, 1987.
[11] D. A. Bigwood and A. D. Crocombe, "Non-Linear Adhesive Bonded Joint Design
Analyses", Int. J. Adhesion and Adhesive, Vol. 10, No.1, 1990.
[12] J. P. Jeandrau, "Analysis and Design Data for Adhesively Bonded Joints", Int. J.
Adhesion and Adhesive, Vol. 11, No.2, 1991.
[13] M. S. Destuynder et al, "Some Theoretical Aspects in Computational Analysis of
Adhesive Lap Joints", Int. J. Numerical Methods in Engineering, Vol. 35, pp. 1237-
1262, 1992.
IMPACT DAMAGE AND RESIDUAL STRENGTH OF FORWARD FUSELAGE
COMPOSITE PANEL
A. Borgato and S. Pievani
Air Vehicle Technology Department,

Bird impact on aircraft fuselage could cause severe damage and affect the flight
aerodynamics. Such a possibility should be taken into consideration, particularly when
comparing the use of metals with composites being more tolerant to damage.
As an alternative to the use of light metal alloys, Aermacchi considered the

application of composites in the design of the forward fuselage panels. Metal and
composite panels were designed and subjected to bird impacts according to the
certification requirements.
1. Introduction
Reduction in production cost and weight were important considerations in

developing the Dornier Do 328 aircraft. Among a number of structural components,
special attention was given to the skin area around the windshield which was designed
to meet bird impact resistance requirements. The avoidment of penetration must be
met at the unpressurized forward fuselage section between frame 1 and 3 as indicated in
Figure 1. A new structural configuration is needed for certification.
A possible alternate solution is to use composite material by replacing several of

the metal parts by a single unit, thus reducing the weight. No changes in mating with
the existing metal components are necessary so as to reduce the cost of replacement.
Another consideration is the provision for quick and simple replacement should damage
occur in the future. A program is thus launched with the Polytechnic of Milan to study
the feasibility of the replacement. Among the items considered are:
• to integrate composite structural parts for the upper part of the skin between
frame 1 and 3,
• to test the integrity of the replacement for meeting the pre-determined

resistance and impact requirements,
• to acquire data for characterizing the impact behavior of the selected composite
materials based on an analytical analysis, and
• to compare the results with the corresponding metal panels with due
considerations given to weight and cost reduction.
2. Metal Test Panels
Figure 2 depicts aluminum alloy 2024-T42 panels while Figure 3 shows different
types of stringers with different thicknesses. They are designed by the Dornier
commercial aircraft division and subjected to impact tests. Considerations are given to
simplicity, lower weight and suitability in manufacturing.
409
410
Figure 1 - Forward fuselage section: unpressurized .
3. Composite Material Test Panels
Based on the guidelines established from the impact tests of metal panels, several
composite panel configurations are considered as shown in Figures 4( a) to 4( c) . To
minimize the cost in manufacturing, the sandwich panel was selected where composite
material is used as facings while the aramid fiber honeycomb core is made of hexagonal
cells. As mentioned earlier, the composite replacement has higher stiffness in contrast
to the use of metals and possibly has lower weight. Moreover, the composite section is
interchangeable with the corresponding metal section for the purpose of qualifying the
bird impact tests. More specifically, detail constructions of the two selected honeycomb
sandwich composite panels are shown in Figures 5(a) and 5(b). The configuration in
Figure 5(a) consists of facings reinforced with carbon and aramid fiber while those in
Figure 5(b) is reinforced with carbon fibers only. The former is tougher when compared
with the same metal configuration having the same stiffness and weight while the latter
has higher energy absorption capability for the same stiffness and lower weight if the
same section is made of metal.
411
'"
,...
on
Figure 2 - Metallic panels.
4. Test Considerations
Among the relevant load parameters to be considered are:
• load acting on panels in real time,
• time history of impact surface,

• deformation of critical regions of panel, and
• bird impact velocity.

To begin with, the load acting on the panel can be obtained from the equilibrium
equations for given constraint reactions. The panels made of composite material, as in
the case of the metal mock-ups, were bolted to the test frame, and then attached at a
412
60 1 YP ~o TYP
9 TYP
Q.
>-
~
V
<:> 1 8
,>q..
'\."
Configuration A
Configuration C
I
I
'" 6
1" 0
Configuration B
Configuration D
Figure 3 - Stringer configurations.

discrete number of locations to the test rig as shown in Figure 6. The constraints
consisted of a pair of hinges in the forward section and of a pair of braces in the rear
section. The aft constraint reactions are determined through the two load cells installed
on the braces and set to withstand a 5000 kg maximum load. Strain gages are mounted
on the hinges to measure the load acting on the forward constraints. The time reaction
of the impact surface is recorded by a high speed movie camera with speed of 5000
frames per second. Seven strain gages are attached to the inner surface of the panel;
their locations are identified in Figure 7.
A pneumatic launcher is used to drive the bird; it consists of a 120 mm diameter

barrel that is 7000 mm in length. Knowing the bird mass and prescribed speed, the
desired driving force could be provided from a 1000 liter pressurized air tank. Two
methods are used to determine the impact velocity; they both measure the time for the
projectile to travel a certain distance. Reference lines with known scale in the
background determines the projectile position at a given time. Movie film records yield
the bird speed. This is the first method. The second method utilizes a set of three coils
attached to the launch barrel, and spaced 30 cm one from the other; they record the
time passage of a small magnet installed in the projectile. The measurement is taken
413
(a) Composite material integral panel
(b) Composite panel made of a stiffened skin
~ f
(c) Honeycomb sandwich composite panel
Figure 4 - Composite panel configurations.
just before the projectile exits from barrel, when the bird is still in the acceleration
phase. The coils signal also provides the time reference for all of the measurements.
5. Metal Mock-Up Test
A series of six (6) tests are carried out using the metal section with a 4 lb bird
traveling at a speed of 270 knots. Even though complete load history on panel cannot
be determined from the aft reaction constraints obtained from the load cell data alone,
they are, however, sufficient for comparing the relative impact behavior of the different
metal panels. The initial response is linear being indicative of a compressive stress state
while the test terminates with the load cell reading as maximum. The subsequent
response represents damped oscillation of the structure as illustrated in Figure 8.
414
I k 45/·45 I
c= k 0/90
~ KEVLAR 285 MMS8008·TV II
I Th. 0.254 mm 2 PLIES
I C 45/·45 I
I C 0/90 I
I C 45/·45 I
I C 0/90 I CARBON FIBRE 3K 70 PW
I C 0/90 I MMSB001· TV II
Th. 0.212 mm 8 PLIES
I C 45/·45 I
I C 0/90 I
c= C 45/·45 I
k 0/90 II . . KEVLAR 2B5 MMSBOOB· TV II
Th. 0.254 mm 2 PLIES
k 45/.45
ADHESIVE LAYER FM3QO MMS8002
grade 06 (03 + 05)
. _. iI Hy~~eir~ aXld
·~rn·Tr-·n···n··· .. . 3/1.6.
"HONEYCOM~ CO~E
HR~h.1~8~Mm~~1 EX·02
(a) Kevlar/carbon fiber laminate as facings

C 45/·45
C 0/90
C 45/-45
C 0/90
C 0/90
C 45/-45 CARBON FIBRE 3K 70 PW
MMS8001· TV II
C 0/90 Th. 0.212 mm 11 PLIES
C 0/90
C 45/·45
C 0/90
C 45/·45
ADHESIVE LAYER FM300 MMS8002

grade 08 (03 + 051
HONEYCOMB CORE
__31.16:' HRH 10 MMS8011 EX·02
Th.38.1 mm
(b) Carbon fiber laminate as facings
Figure 5 . Details of honeycomb sandwich composite panels.
~~--$-
''----..."'-....... II
......... , ~ I I
Figure 6 - Rig for impact test of composite panel.

415
---------~---------
Figure 7 - Strain gage locations on inner surface of panel.
..... " - " - - ---'-v- '--- ~--'---'~--

I
I I
I
Coils Signal
I
I
I (
Right Load Cell
,N ~\ '"
I
/
~I\: ~r~ 't\,J.AJ ~ ~( ~J\Af ;:
!
V'vv 'J ~ left load Cell
I'
~
I r~ pi ' - / I
1/ V-
~ 7- II
I
I
Jv-...
Max. load 2500 Kg
;~
I
4 Ib Bird
,
I
~ Impact Speed 299 Knots

!
Figure 8 - Oscillatory behavior of panel after impact.
Five different panel damage configurations are obtained and they can be found in
Figures 9(a) to 9{e) inclusive as explained in Table 1. The maximum load cell value
Table 1 - Description of panel configuration

Panel Type Stringer Description
b) Heavy omega shaped

Light Z-shaped
c) Heavy Z-shaped
d) Light omega shaped
e Skin 1.6 mm thick no stringers
416
(a) Heavy omega shaped stringers
(b) Light Z-shaped stringers
Figure 9 - Panel damage configurations.

417
(c) Heavy Z-shaped stringers
(d) Light omega-shaped stringers

Figure 9 continued.
418
(e) No stringers (1.6 mm skin)
Figure 9 continued.
Figure 10 - Test set-up of bird impact on composite honeycomb specimen.
corresponds to the impact stress if no skin penetration occurred. Otherwise, the highest
recorded load is not the skin failure load. This is because a part of the constraint
reaction includes the part of bird impact force on the test frame after the panel has
been penetrated. Regardless of penetration, all test panels were severely deformed .
419
Details of the panel damage data for six (6) tests are summarized in Table 2. They
refer to the five different panel configurations labelled as (a), (b), ... ,(e). More
Table 2 - Panel damage test data and description
Panel Weight Impact Maximum Load Cell Values (kg)

type (kg) velocity
(knots) Right Left
11.93 299 2,500 2,500

~~* 11.93
9.83
306
272
3,500
N/A
5,100
5,100
c) 10.90 308 2,500 N/A
d) 10.68 277 3,500 3,650
e 8.02 299 4,200 4,300
*Impact occurred on center of panel while in all other cases impact occurred at the
intersection of stringer and frame.
specifically, panel type (a) were impacted on the panel center and intersection of
stringer and frame. No penetration occurred except in the former case where the
impact deformation was less severe whereas in the case rivets were dislodged and a
stiffener angle failed. For this reason, the stringer-to-frame intersection were chosen as
the location of impact. Partial penetration of the bird occurred with skin failure for
panel type (b). Panel type (c) showed failure of the joints between the stringers and
frames including the skin where impact had taken place but penetration did not occur.
The impact deformation of panel type (d) is similar to that of panel (a) with no
penetration. In the absence of reinforcement referred to as panel type (e), the skin of
thickness 1.6 mm was penetrated completely through.
6. Impact Tests of Composite Panels
Having tested the metal panels, the same procedure is repeated for the composite
panels using a bird traveling at high speed with an impact angle of 25°, Figure 10. Two
types of honeycomb specimens will be used; they differ in the skin, one being a hybrid
type and the other is reinforced by carbon fibers.
6.1 Hybrid Skin Honeycomb
The temperature and humidity are 8°C and 70% RH, respectively. For a 1.8 kg
bird traveling at 281 knots, the test result was partially satisfactory. Although skin
penetration did not occur at initial impact, local failure did take place at the region
where the panel is attached to the test frame being stiffer than the actual aircraft
structure. This caused shear failure of the inner skin of the honeycomb resulting in an
abrupt reduction in the local bending moment of inertia. In a chain reaction, the outer
skin fails with a subsequent partial penetration of the bird. No visible permanent
deformation is detected near the surface where impact occurred; the aerodynamic profile
is thus preserved as it is visible from the photos in Figures l1(a) to l1(c).
The damaged panel was cut open along the section where the bird made contact.
No internal damage and honeycomb buckling or delamination were found.
420
(a)
'" -
(b)
Figure 11 - Impacted sandwich panel with hybrid skin. (a) Sandwich panel top surface
view; (b) Sandwich panel bottom surface view; (c) Photographic enlargement of the
damaged inner skin.
421
(c)
Figure 11 continued.
The time at which the panel failed can be found from the load cell time record. It
corresponds to the instant of load reversal at 2.6 msec (peak load) which is about two
thirds of the total test time of 3.9 msec. This is shown in Figure 12. Table 3
~ ~~ Coils Signal
I
I
Right Load Cell
-v\. I---
I
I ,f Left Load Cell
I
/
n. ~- L/ _
I
I
~
In
I
I 2800 Kg
I
I
\ \ !
It( J
I
4190 Kg
I
I 2930 Kg
I
--- 3125 Kg
I
i I I
I Elapsed time 2.6 msec I

I Elapsed time 3.9 msec
Figure 12 - Load cell time records for hybrid skin honeycomb impact test.
422
Table 3 - Load cell readings at time of failure and maximum load
Cell Load at Maximum

No. failure (kg) load (kg)
1 2800 4190
2 2930 3125
I
r--- ~ A LA,
, / ~~""-
I Gage2
{\
I
I
I
I
~ Gage 1
I I
I
I A .
'\
Gage 3
I-" ~
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If \
I
I ~
I
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fin
J ~r\
I
I
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,
\
I
f
v--'
I
I
A
I
I
I
1/ \:'\
I V
I
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f----' '\--. "'--V\ ~

, \
I ~ Gage6
-
I
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I
Gage 5
I (
tr
I
Gage 7
,I
, ,...:-r
I
\
I
,
I
J 1\
,
I IV r-
Figure 13 - Strain gage records at locations 1,2, ... ,7 for impacted hybrid skin
honeycomb.
423
summarizes the load cell reading. Strain gages 1,2, ... ,7 are also mounted onto the panel
as shown in Figure 7. The strain records are displayed in Figure 13. Strain gage No.1
records the impact prior to the other strain gages. It shows that the impact point was
lower than the panel center section. The maximum deformations recorded by strain
gages No. I, 2, 3 and 4 decrease as a function of distance from the attach point. Strain
gages No.5, 6 and 7, on the other hand, show that the panel was affected by a wave
shaped deformation transverse to the launch trajectory. A tensile strain is detected at
the center and a compression strain on the two sides. More specifically, the strains for
the seven (7) gages can be found in Table 4.
6.2 Sandwich Panel with Carbon Fiber Skins
Following a procedure similar to that for the hybrid skin honeycomb, impact test is
carried out for the sandwich panel with carbon fiber skins. The bird weight is 1.8 kg
traveling at 300 knots while the test temperature is 5 C with a relative humidity of 47%.
Q
No bird penetration occurred, a result that satisfies the design requirement. This is
attributed to the higher panel stiffness such that the bird is deflected away upon
impact. A satisfactory replacement of the metal panel is found. Refer to Figures 14(a)
and 14(b) for the impacted sandwich panel with carbon fiber skins.
Table 4 - Strains at locations 1,2, ... ,7 for the impacted hybrid skin honeycomb
Strain Strain Strain Strain

gage x 10- 6 (m/m) gage x 10- 6 (m/m)
No. No.
1 4700 5 - 4140
2 5620 6 21250
3 5950 7 - 6250
4 7050
In the absence of failure, the load cell readings are nearly constant for a total test
time of 4 msec. The records in Figure 15 show that both load cell no. 1 and no. 2 read
4375 kg and 4125 kg, respectively. Strain gages were again installed and the recorded
data are shown in Figure 16. A reversal of the wave shaped deformation from the
transverse to the longitudinal (launch trajectory) direction can be seen from the data in
Table 5.
Table 5 - Strains at locations 1,2, ... ,7 for the impacted sandwich panel with carbon fiber
skins.
Strain Strain Strain Strain

gage x 10- 6 (m/m) gage x 10- 6 (m/m)
No. No.
1 4357 5 -4690
2 4690 6 9060
3 5625 7 N/A
4 N/A
424
(a)
(b)
Figure 14 - Impacted sandwich panel with carbon fiber skins. (a) Sandwich panel top
surface view; (b) Sandwich panel bottom surface view.
425
~ ~ f:\
--
r ~
I
--
I ~ Max load 4375 Kg
\
I
I
I
I I--- Max load 4125 Kg
I
I
~
}
I If~
\...
I
I
~ Vf
I
I
I
I
,
I
,,
~
1
I. Elapsed time 4 msec

.1
Figure 15 - Load cell time records for impacted sandwich panel with carbon fiber skins.
7. Conclusions
The feasibility studies carried out in this study were successful in that the
composite sandwich panel proved to be cost effective in manufacturing such that all of
the design requirements are also satisfied. That is, to prevent bird penetration while
maintaining the aerodynamic profile. More specifically, the carbon fiber skins for the
sandwich panel proved to be superior than the carbon-aramid hybrid skins which were
not completely satisfactory. The conclusion is that the metal panel could be safely
replaced by the composite panel.
The research collaboration with the Aerospace Engineering Department of the

Polytechnics of Milan could thus be summarized as:
• Performed analyses to study test parameters.
• Improvement structure on weight and strength-stiffness were made III regions

near impact.
• Replacement of the forward fuselage section of the Do 328 metal skin with the
composite panel and repeat the impact tests.
426
~ '\.-- f:\
I
I
I
Gage 2
f
I
I
V~
I
~ Gage 1
~I(
I
I
Gage 3
"'""'-
I
I
"'-.
I
I
'"
.I
I
~
I
I Gage 4 N/A
I
I (
I
I
I
/ I
I,Il
I
I .-'II
I
I
~
I
I
A ',.1\ Gage 6
I \ rv
I
I 1---
I
I
J \
r'
- Gages
I \~
v
If
I Gage 7 N/A
I 1\
I
I
V
I
I
I
Figure 16 - Strain gage records at locations 1,2, ... ,7 for impacted sandwich panel with
carbon fiber skin .
• Implement and validate an appropriate method for defining the impact

resistance characteristics of the composite panel by defining the bird mathematical
model, impact time histories and material dynamic characteristics. Finite element will
be used to simulate composite panel behavior with due consideration given to crack
propagation that could be verified by tests. Certification of the model could be made
by comparing the predictions with test results.
APPLICATION OF METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES FOR SUPERSONIC
AEROPLANE ENGINES
T. Ishihara
Department of Aeronautical and Astronautics, Tokai University,
Hiratsuka, 259 Japan
Metal matrix composites (MMC) are known to possess superior mechanical

properties and durability at high temperature; they are widely used in the construction of
supersonic aeroplane engines. Turbine efficiency, for instance, could be enhanced by
increasing the entrance temperature and pressure ratio. High strength/density ratio and
heat resistance are desirable features. Discussed also are the recent developments of
fiber reinforced ceramics (FRC), carbon-carbon composites (CCC) and functionally
gradient metals (FGM) in addition to the process of rapid solidification.
These advanced materials are widely used in the construction of supersonic

aeroplane engines where impact resistance and directional control of load transmission
dictated by microstructure anisotropy are considered to be essential.
1. Introduction
Appropriate application of advanced materials for supersonic transportation (SST)

engines would lead to cost saving in fuel consumption and engine maintenance. Such a
goal is now within the reach of engine design. That is, to develop materials that could
sustain high temperature and pressure cycles.
Predictions based on the air traffic demand for the year two thousand suggest for
long distance flights, speeds in the supersonic if not hypersonic range for long distance
flights. There is the need to develop high temperature resistant and light weight
materials for improved turbine airfoil cooling schemes and shafts with higher rotating
speeds. These requirements for the next generation supersonic transport systems are
the focus of research in advanced materials.
2. Materials for Supersonic Transport Engine
Stringent requirements are imposed on materials used in the supersonic transport

(SST) engines. Figure 1 identifies some of the materials with components in a SST
engine. Several national projects in Japan on advanced material are in progress. A
time schedule can be found in Figure 2. The abbreviation FGM stands for the
functionally gradient materials while the others are explained in Table 1.
2.1 Temperature Requirement
The targeted temperature and time duration requirement at a given stress level for
the different materials in Figure 2 can be found in Table 1. They correspond to surface
and gap temperature of 2000"K and 1000"K, respectively. Figure 3 provides information
on the surface temperature versus approximate time of the engine that has been
scheduled to operate. A similar plot is given in Figure 4 for the metal temperature.
427
428
Ti ,lIoy. Ni al loy
He,t resistant FRP
IIlter metaUic compound
(Ceramic matrix composiles} [Curren, co"e~ CARBON·CARBONI _

(SIC/SIC.C/SIC etc.) [lIlte, metallic alloy] (Nb3AI etc.)
[Ceramic matrix composites I
Ni alloy [Inter metallic .IIoy etc.]
[Oxide dispersion stnngthen super alloy]

[Ceramic matrix composites]
Figure 1 - New materials identified with components in SST engine.
I~
~ThtATERI
~ PMC.I+1C
-I•
ICERAMICS.
FINE CERAMICS.MNl..IlHIC
COMPOSITES
~1A~~~;J
1~~J~ffsRAlli~ I
[rr
I I I I I t I I I I I I I I
'!l6S 1900 ms
YEAR
Figure 2 - Time table of Japan national projects on advanced materials.
Outlined in Table 2 are various material type for engine parts in the development
stage. Data are given for four generations of engine with increasing operational
temperature from 1400·C to 2000·C. Those materials within the parentheses are being
developed while the material before and after the slash refer, respectively, to low and
high operating temperature, i.e., low temperature material/high temperature material.
2.2 Strength Data
The specific strength of materials depends on the operating temperature. Their

variations for different superalloys and advanced composites can be found in Figure 5.
3. Manufacturing Technology and Design Consideration of Engine Components
The SST engine is a complex structure; it contains numerous components each of

which are required to perform according to their specific operational conditions. They
include components for the intake section, fan, compressor, combustor (turbo and ram
429
Table 1 - Stress, temperature and time duration requirements for materials in Figure 2
Material Stress level Temperature Time duration

(MPa) ('K) (Hour)
Single crystal (SC) 140 1313 1000
Oxide dispersion 140 1373 1000

strengthen (ODS)
super alloy
Polymer matrix
composite (PMC)
Metal matrix
composite (MMC)
Titanium-aluminum
(Ti-Al)
Niobium (Nb) base
O~~1~98~O--~1~~O~-2~O~OO~~2±Ol~O--~W~W
Approximate time of Use in Eng'rne
Figure 3 - Surface temperature versus time development of materials.
system), turbine and nozzle. A brief description of the manufacturing techniques will
be given.
3.1 Intake Section
The intake section is made up of disk, blade and vane for the compressor in
addition to casing, fairing and after flap. Refer to Figure 6 for some of the component
configurations. Resin matrix composites are not suitable because the aerodynamic
temperature reaches 600"K to 630°K. Heat resistant Ti alloy, Ti-Al inter metallic alloy
430
C/C
FR C
~
w
a:
::>
>-
...:
a::
w
a.
::I:
w
>-
...J
...:
>-
w
::I:
AI
YEAR
Figure 4 - Metal temperature versus time development of materials.
CFRP
100 ~
...E
...
I Al FRM
'"w
~ ~~~H
Z
...a:: 50 _ TEMP.
'"o ~~~~ ACC
G:
U
w
.............
AI ........
Ti ---....... ~==-----===~
Ni
~ Ref/!MC
e; ALLOYS '- 1 - -
o 500 1000
TEMPERATURE I ' C I
Figure 5 - Variations of specific strength with temperature for super alloys and
advanced composites.
or metal matrix (Ti or AI) composite should be used. Ceramic matrix composites could
sustain temperatures of 1200·K to 1300"K although weight and oxidation are potential
problems that require consideration.
More specifically, near alpha Ti alloys with improved tensile strength of 600 MPa
at 600·C; creep strain of 0.2% at 300 MPa and 540·C for 100 hours; and endurance limit
of 150 MPa at 540·C have been developed by IHI.
431
Table 2 - Engine component materials for four generations with increasing operational
temperature
Engine Development
1st Generation 2nd Generation 3rd Generation 4th Generation
TIT 1400°C TIT 1550°C TIT 1700- TIT 2000°C
class class 1800°C class class
Module Parts Candidate Materials
Fan Blade Ti alloy (FRM, Ti FRM FRM

alloy hollow)
Vane Ti alloy FRP, Ti FRP FRP
alloy
Disk Ti alloy Ti alloy (FRM) FRM
Compressor Blade Ti alloy/ Ti alloy/ (RSR Ti/TiAI) TiAI, Ni alloy
Ni alloy Ni alloy
Vane Ti alloy Ti alloy/ TiAI TiAI, Ni alloy
Ni alloy (TiAI)
Disk Ti alloy Ti alloy/ Ti alloy/ (RSR Ti),
Ni alloy (TMP Ni) TMP Ni TMP Ni
Duct, (High tem- High tem- High tem- High tem-
Case perature perature perature perature
FRP) FRP FRP FRP
Ti alloy/ /Ni alloy /(TiAI, TiAI
Ni alloy RSR Ti)
Combustor Liner Ni alloy (ODS) (ODS+TBC) (FRC)
Ni alloy
casting+TBC
Turbine Blade (SC) (RSR,ODS, (IMC,FRC, IMC,FRC
2nd SC) 3rd SC)
Vane (SC,SC SC+TBC (IMC,FRC, IMC,FRC
+TBC) 3rd SC)
Disk (PM Ni) PM Ni fRSR Ni) RSR Ni
PM Ni-
Dual
Properties)
A/B Ni alloy Ni alloy (ODS+TBC) (FRC)

+TBC
3.2 Fan
Aluminum and titanium matrix composites are suitable for temperatures in the
range of 600 K to 630 o K. Lighter and higher pressure ratio fan module can be made
0
from Al or Ti alloy matrix reinforced by ceramic fibers. Among the combinations of

fiber/matrix used are SiC/AI, SiC/Ti and SiC (C hybrid)/ Al composites. Table 3
summarizes the average values and range of strength, Young's modulus and rupture
strain for the SiC / AI-4 Ti composite. Similar results for the SiC( CVD) /Ti-15-3-3-3
composite can be found in Table 4.
432
Figure 6 - Intake section component configurations.
Table 3 - Strength and rupture strain data for SiCj AI-4Ti composite at room
temperature
Properties Strength Young's modulus Rupture strain
(MPa) (GPa) (%)
0°-Tensile 1769 253 0.76
(49% FVF) (1688-1840) (233-288) (0.67-0.83)
90°_Tensile 55 136 0.05
(49% FVF) (41-70) (117-146) (0.03-0.06)
0°-Compressive 2605 223 1.36
(46% FVF) (2341-2741) (210-247) (1.23-1.46)
0°-Shear 86
(49% FVF) (72-92)
Table 4 - Strength and rupture strain data for SiC (CVD)jTi-15-3-3-3 composite at
room temperature
Properties Rupture strain

%
0°-Tensile 1904 191 1.06
(35% FVF) (1817-2044) (187-194) (0.97-1.17)
90°_Tensile 550 134 0.99
(35% FVF) (410-601 ) (130-138) (0.58-1.22)
0°-Compressive 3370 190 2.06
(35% FVF) (2950-4104) (181-193) (1.66-2.77)
Tensile Strength. Data on degradation of the tensile strength with increasing

temperature are given for a variety of advanced composites. They can be found in
Figures 7, 8 and 9 for SiC fibers in Ti, Al and intermetallic matrix.
433
2000
0'1
o
!i 1500
~z
UJ
a: ~-3MATRIXI
......
>-
<f) 1000
':':l
"'''' ...
~
>-
-. "", ,
500 -.
10.35 Si elTi '15'3. 90·r--.. . . . . . ,
400 500 600

TEST TEMPEPATURE (K)
Figure 7 - Tensile strength as a function of temperature for SiC/Ti-15-3 composites.
2000
1500
:x:
t; 1000
z
UJ
'"
>-
Ul
UJ
-'
~
Ul
Z
UJ 500
(I 0.48 SiCF/AI-8Cr-l Fe
>- .048 SiCF/AI-4Ti
\l 0.50 SiCF/6061
O~-L __ ~L-_ _- ' -_ _~_ _ _ _L -_ _~~
300 400 500 600 700 800

TEST TEMPERATURE ( K)
Figure 8 - Tensile strength degradation with temperature for SiC/AI composites.

Fatigue Strength. Plotted in Figure 10 are the stress amplitude and number of
cycles to failure for SCS-2/ AI-4Ti with 49% fiber volume fracture. The mean stress
ratio is R=l. Figure 11 exhibits the increase in fatigue life of SCS-6/Ti-15-3 composite
with 34% fiber volume fracture at R=l as the stress amplitude is lowered.
434
.--
250
• Al-8Cr-l Fe
, ,
o Al-4Ti
",,
200 \76061
\ BLANK: MATRIX
\
0-- \ FILLED:COMPOSITE
,, \
\
\
"" "
150
"-
"\ \
•
\ \
I
>- V-~ \ \
"-
'"z "- \
"~ \ \
,,
W
100 \
'">- \
<f)
\ ,
~
,o.~
<f)
z
w
r-
50
'
V, '
\
...... -
a
300 400 500 600 700
TEST TEMPERATURE (Kl
Figure 9 - Variations of tensile strength with temperature for intermetallic composites.
16m
0,
o '0
'0
'0
1200
'----!? 0
o~
c; o 0
"-
:;
<f)
<f)
w 800
'"
r-
V1
IR=+0.1
400 Kt=1.0
0
10' 10' 10' 10' 10'
NUMBER OF CYCLE TO FAILURE
Figure 10 - SN-curve for the fatigue of SCS-2/Al-4Ti composite with 49% FVF.
SiC-C Hybrid Fiber. The tensile strength and elongation data of composite with
SiC-C hybrid fiber are summarized in Table 5 for the 0 /0 and 0 /90 arrangement at 0 0 0 0
room temperature and 723"1(. Refer to Figures 12(a) and 12(b) for cross-sectional views
of the hybrid fiber where the contents of SiC fiber and carbon fiber are varied.
435
'~r---------------------~
I R · = • 0,1
K t 1.0
1200
~
:>:
~ 800
UJ
...cr.
'"
NUMBER OF CYCLES TO FAILURE
Figure 11 - SN-curve for the fatigue of SCS-6/Ti-15-3 composite with 34% FVF.
(a) 0.43 SiCF/O.ll CF W/OO) (b) 0.34 SiCF /0.1 CF W/90°)

Figure 12 - Cross-sections of silicon and carbon hybrid with 0%° and 0°/90°
arr angemen t,
3.3 Compressor
The entrance and exit temperature in the compressor are 700"K and 1050 K, 0
respectively. It suffices to use Ti alloy at the entrance and Ni alloy at the exit section.
For higher thrusts that prevail in SST /HST, heat resistant alloy or Ti-Al intermetallic
alloy is needed for the disc, blade and stator vane. Metal matrix (Ti) composites are
effective for the enhancement of performance. The development time of Ti-Al, FRM
and FRP in terms of surface temperature is displayed in Figure 13 with the target year
set at 2000.
436
Table 5 - Mechanical properties of composite with SiC-C hybrid fiber composite

Fiber 0
%
° 0°/90°
angle
Room 723"1( Room 723"1(
temp. temp.
Tensile 0° 1800 1500 1200 1000
strength
(MPa) 90° 40 170 140
Rupture 0° 0.90 1.0

elongation
(%) 90° 0.05 1.20
()
ill
a::
:J 1000
~W
a..
~ Advanced FRM
W
I-
W Titanium
~a::
500
Advanced FRP
Ol
«--l
fli
~ 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
APPROXIMATE TIME OF USE IN ENGINE

Figure 13 - Surface temperature versus development time of advanced materials for
engine.
3.4 Combustor: Turbo System
Thermal barrier coating (TBC) may be applied using a heat resistant alloy such as
Zr02. For temperature up to 2000"1(, oxide dispersion strengthened alloy and ceramic
composites are needed. Figure 14 shows the development time for materials used in the
turbine and combustor.
Oxide dispersion strengthened alloys are needed for making turbine nozzles and
high temperature turbine blades. The MA 754 T /NZL manufacturing technology
provides high strength and reliable bonding. T /Blade alloy possesses high creep rupture
resistance that will be used in the third generation 1700°C Class engine.
3.5 Combustor: Ram System

The existing Ni matrix super alloy cannot be used because the exit temperature of
the ram combustor is extremely high. Refractory metal alloys like Columbium alloy or
refractory metal matrix inter metallic alloy like Nb 3AI etc., are required. Weight
consideration favors ceramic matrix composites but oxidation remains as a problem
when metal fibers are also involved.
437
2
w 1.60
a:::
::::>
~
a:::
w
a..
~
w
I-
W
u
i1
a:::
::::>
(j)
-l
«
......
0::
W
f;(
~
1960 1970 1980
APPROXIMATE TIME OF USE IN ENGINE

Figure 14 - Development time for temperature resistance materials used in turbine and
combustor.
3.6 Turbine
For turbines with entrance temperature of IS00oK, blades and stator vanes should
be made of single crystal alloy or oxidation dispersion strengthened alloys. Alternately,
cooling can be applied to reduce the operating temperature such that thermal barrier
coating may be sufficient. Powder metallurgy may be applied for Ni alloy where high
fatigue strength for disc bore and high creep strength for rim are required.
Few materials are available, particularly at operational temperature of 2000°K.

Blade materials should have a rupture strength because of the high stress levels they are
required to sustain. Efforts are being made to improve both the mechanical and
thermal properties of these materials.
Progress on turbine disk materials has been made. Improvements on the yield
strength from 1950 and onwards can be seen from the data in Figure 15. Displayed in
Figure 16 are the effects of heat treatment on the creep rupture property of mono
crystal blade alloys.
3.7 Nozzle
The nozzle experiences gas temperature in the range of 21000K to 2300°K. Not only
film cooling but also revised cooling structure by ON-OFF fuel should be considered. A
heat-resistant alloy like Ni and Nb matrix on the revealed surface is applied. Ti alloy
honey comb are used for structure members. Ceramic composites (CIC, CMC, FGM,
438
250
:J: 200
G
z
w
~~ 150
VIe
oe
..J'
W""
100
~¥
)0_
P 50
...
<>
III
a
1950
Figure 15 - Improvements on yield strength since 1950.

200
X For Blade
o For Vane
", ~.
•• B·l AVERAGE
' ..~
8 -2/3 AVERAGE "x
"
.........
20
10L-~~~~~n-,~~-~~~46°-'4~8~5~0,-~5~2-,~~~56.-'~~,t,OO
IT +4601120 +LOG 1,],10-3
LARSON -MILLER PARAMETER
Figure 16 - Effects on heat treatment on creep rupture property.
1600
1400 OJRRENT COATED

~N~N CURRENT COATING
STATE·qF TH&ART RES,¥,RCH ClOI.LS
~\2
.
j!:,
to
200'F
5000-F
Z'
UJ
a:
l-
V)
u 400
~ 200
0
200 ~O 600800 10001200 11.00 16OO18OOXXXl :w:J 4IJJ 2lOO
TEMPERATURE('C]
! , I I ! I I I I I , I I
~O BOO 1200 1600 20001.OO28003!XJ3000~~48OO
TEMP ERATURE( • C]
Figure 17 - Specific strength of carbon-carbon composites.
etc.,) could yield improved resistant to oxidation and thermal shock. Typical variations
of the specific strength with temperature for various nozzle materials are given in Figure
17.
ENGINEERING APPLICATION OF FRACTURE MECHANICS
Editor-in-Chief: George C. Sib
1. G.C. Sih and L. Faria (eds.): Fracture Mechanics Methodology. Evaluation of

Structural Components Integrity. 1984 ISBN 90-247-2941-6
2. E.E. Gdoutos: Problems of Mixed Mode Crack Propagation. 1984
ISBN 90-247-3055-4
3. A Carpinteri and A.R. Ingraffea (eds.): Fracture Mechanics of Concrete.
Material Characterization and Testing. 1984 ISBN 90-247-2959-9
4. G.C. Sih and A DiTommaso (eds): Fracture Mechanics of Concrete.
Structural Application and Numerical Calculation. 1985
ISBN 90-247-2960-2
5. A Carpinteri: Mechanical Damage and Crack Growth in Concrete. Plastic
Collapse to Brittle Fracture. 1986 ISBN 90-247-3233-6
6. J.W. Provan (ed.): Probabilistic Fracture Mechanics and Reliability. 1987
ISBN 90-247-3334-0
7. AA Baker and R. Jones (eds.): Bonded Repair ofAircraft Structures. 1987
ISBN 90-247-3606-4
8. J.T. Pindera and M.-J. Pindera: Isodyne Stress Analysis. 1989
ISBN 0-7923-0269-9
9. G.C. Sih and E.E. Gdoutos (eds.): Mechanics and Physics of Energy Density.
Characterization of Material - Structive Behaviour with and without
Damage. 1991 ISBN 0-7923-0604-X
10. E.E. Gdoutos: Fracture Mechanics Criteria and Applications. 1990
ISBN 0-7923-0605-8
11. G.C. Sih: Mechanics of Fracture Initiation and Propagation. 1991
ISBN 0-7923-0877-8
12. O. Orringer, J. Orkisz and Z. Swiderski (eds.): Residual Stress in Rails.
Effects on Rail Integrity and Railroad Economics. Volume I: Field Ex-
perience and Test Results. 1992
ISBN 0-7923-1635-5 (Vol. I); ISBN 0-7923-1651-7 (Set)
13. O. Orringer, J. Orkisz and Z. Swiderski (eds.): Residual Stress in Rails.
Effects on Rail Integrity and Railroad Economics. Volume II: Theoretical and
Numerical Analyses. 1992
ISBN 0-7923-1650-9 (Vol. II); ISBN 0-7923-1651-7 (Set)
14. G.C. Sih, A Carpinteri and O. Surace (eds.): Advanced Technology for
I!esign and Fabrication of Composite Materials and Structures. Applications
to the Automotive, Marine, Aerospace and Construction Industry. 1995
ISBN 0-7923-3303-9
SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.

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ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY FOR DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF

COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES

SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.

Printed on acid-free paper

No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or

Series on engineering application of fracture mechanics ix

Opening remarks xiii

SESSION I: Curing, Bonding and Modelling

SESSION II: Composite Fabrication Technology

Modelling three-dimensional composites 49

Material anisotropy and work strain characterized by stationary 85

Constitutive laws for fibre reinforced ceramics 101

On the fiber-governed bimodular constitutive models 113

Genetic algorithms for the design of composite panels 129

SESSION IV: Composite Beams and Plates

On computational strategies for composite laminates 145

Some aspects in the structural modelling of composite 171

Transverse cracking in laminated composites 191

Some global aspects of fibre reinforcement efficiency in concrete 203

Failure behavior and structural design of concrete members reinforced 221

SESSION V: Interfaces and Fracture

Interface structure analysis and fracture behaviour of inorganic 231

Advanced fibre composites with engineered interfaces 241

Interface property tailoring for pseudo strain-hardening 261

SESSION VI: Damage and Fracture

Experimental determination of the fractal dimension of disordered 269

Damage characterization, damage growth validation and repair 293

Near tip measurement of environmental effects on opening and 311

Fracture mechanics parameters influencing the mechanical 319

SESSION VII: Thermoplastic Composites

Forming techniques of advanced thermoplastic composite 365

SESSION VIII: Joint, Airframe and Engine

A parametric study of structural adhesive joints for aerospace 393

Impact damage and residual strength of forward fuselage 409

Application of metal matrix composites for supersonic 427

Contained in the volume are the papers presented at an International Symposium on

A special note of thanks is due to the staff of the Dipartimento di Ingegneria

May 1993 G. C. Sih

Torino, Italy G. C. Sih

Technical session at the Politecnico di Torino.

At the Symposium banquet.

Institute of Fracture and Solid Mechanics, Lehigh University,

Improvements on composite cure cycle can enhance fabrication time, operational

2. Transitional Character of Composite Cure

Construction of high performance composites makes use of continuous fiber

2.1 Exothermic and Endothermic Heat Reactions

Figure 2 - Characteristics of local temperature change during cure of resin.

For a one-dimensional composite system depicted in Figure 3, the rate of heat

:t (pCT) = :z (k ~I) + pQ (1)

Figure 3 - Schematic of prepreg lay-up assembly of the composite.

I-ls = I-lo exp[IiT + Ka] (4)

in which t* is the time required for the system to reach a thermal/mechanical

3. Nonequilibrium Thermomechanics of Curing

Any system that undergoes phase transformation is known to be intrinsically

and time response are mutually interactive. Nonequilibrium temperature 9 must be

eij = ae\ i,j = 1,2,3 (7)

3.1 Nonequilibrium Heat Reaction

gt (pCe) = gz (k ~~) + pQ (9)

p = p(z,t), C = C(z,t), k = k(z,t) (10)

Q(z,t) = C(z,t)~e(z,t) (11)

For the one-dimensional model, ~ V / ~A or 'r refer to the z-direction.

3.2 Isoenergy Density State

An isoenergy density state is defined by ('r,e) or (T,e) since