FEEDLOT DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

19. Feeding systems

AUTHORS: Peter Watts, Mairead Luttrell and Orla Keane

FEEDLOT DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
Self-feeder in a feedlot. The open area under
the self feeder allows buildup of manure,
odour and flies, and in wet weather it can
become boggy. The feed truck has to enter
the pen to deliver feed.
2 19. Feeding systems
Introduction
The feeding system must be well designed to achieve good cattle
performance, efficient feedlot operation and for maintaining high
environmental standards.
Design objectives
Feeding systems should
• provide livestock with free and continual access to feed
• maintain fresh and palatable feed
• minimise waste, spilled feed and spoilage
• prevent all classes of cattle from fouling the feed and escaping
from the pens
• allow easy delivery of feed
• allow for easy cleaning and removal of spoiled feed after rainfall
• not inhibit pen cleaning
• minimise environmental impacts (odour, flies, dust)
• minimise ongoing maintenance costs
• provide a safe working environment for pen riders and other
feedlot personnel.
Mandatory requirements
Compliance with
• Australian Animal Standards and Guidelines for Cattle
(DAFF, 2013).
• National Guidelines for Beef Cattle Feedlots in Australia
(MLA, 2012a).
• National Beef Cattle Feedlot Environmental Code of Practice
(MLA, 2012b).
• NFAS standards (AUS-MEAT, 2011).
Design choices
The feeding system can use either self-feeder bins or open feed bunks.
Self-feeders
Self-feeders are best suited to small and/or opportunity feedlots
which do not prepare their own rations or where rations are milled
and mixed off site.
Advantages of self-feeders include that they
• have their own storage bins and so need filling only once or
twice a week
• are readily transportable, can be installed quickly, can be used
as a temporary feed-out system
• can be used elsewhere on the farm or in a small paddock or
yard to form a temporary feedlot for drought feeding
• can be moved around within pens.
 FEEDLOT DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

Problems with self-feeders in feedlots include

• Rations that are moist, contain large amounts of roughage
(particularly coarse roughage) or contain molasses or oils may
bridge and restrict feed supply.
• If a self-feeder bridges or is allowed to empty completely, cattle
are likely to gorge on feed when it is delivered. This can result
in acidosis and deaths.
• Hay racks often need to be used with self-feeders, particularly
during the introductory feeding phase.
• Moist feeds tend to ‘go off’ or spoil when stored in self-feeders
for several days.
• Manure and spilt feed accumulate under the feeder generating
One-sided self-feeders placed on a fence
odour and fly breeding sites, unless the feeder is designed well line and filled without entering the pen.
and the area cleaned frequently. A concrete apron is provided for stability,
but manure can still accumulate under the
• Self-feeders must be located so that they can be filled during self feeder and will need to be removed
all weather conditions, preferably from outside the pens. This is regularly.
possible only where the feed trough is on one side and they can
be placed parallel to and up against the top fence.
• Self-feeders with feed troughs on both sides must be placed at
right angles to the top fence and are therefore more difficult to
fill from outside the pens.
• They should be located at the top side of pens so that they have
minimal impact on pen drainage.
The size and number of self-feeders depends on the number and
estimated feed intake of cattle being fed, the frequency of filling and
the type of ration. Self-feeders typically have capacities of 3.5 tonne,
5.5 tonne and 7.5 tonne. Based on an average dry matter intake
(DMI) of 12 kg DM/head/day and a moisture content of 12%, the as-
fed intake would be about 13.4 kg/head/day. Table 1 calculates the
number of self-feeders needed for pens of different capacity.
Table 1. Number of self feeders/pen for weekly feeding

SCU/pen
100 150 200
Self feeder capacity (kg) No. of self feeders
3500 3 5 6
5500 2 3 4
7500 2 2 3 A two-sided self-feeder placed on a concrete
apron and close to the fence line so that it
can be filled from outside the pen.
Feed bunks and aprons
Most commercial feedlots use open feed bunks (troughs). They
generally process their own feed and can feed-out more than once a
day. All types of rations, including those moist or containing large
amounts of coarsely chopped fibre, can be fed in troughs.
Location
Feed bunks should always be located along the fence line, never
within the pen, so that they can be filled during all weather
conditions. They should be located along the higher end of the pen
with drainage away from the bunk on both the feed road and pen
sides. This minimises boggy conditions on the pen side of the bunk
and keeps the feed road firm and accessible.

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FEEDLOT DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
Access gate at the top end of the pens
Posts cast into the concrete wall need to be
treated with epoxy to prevent corrosion at
the concrete joint.
A rusted or broken post has been replaced
with a new post bolted to the back of
the wall.
4 19. Feeding systems
Bunk length
The length of a bunk depends on the number of cattle in the pen
and the dimensions of the pen. Bunks usually run the entire length
of the pen although some feedlots provide access gates in the top
end of their pens. The type of feed ration (bulkiness), size of the
cattle and desired feeding frequency must also be considered.
Bunk length per head
Most lot feeders would require 250 mm to 300 mm per head of
bunk space.
The temptation to design for 200 mm of bunk space per head in
order to minimise building costs may be false economy if 50 or 100
mm extra space would enhance cattle performance.
A shorter bunk space may restrict the opportunity of shy feeders to
feed, particularly during the introductory phase. In these cases, some
cattle will take longer to adapt to the high energy ration, there may
be more cases of acidosis, less uniform finishing of cattle within
pens and lower average daily weight gain of cattle within the pen.
Fence posts
Fence posts along the feed bunk may be cast into the bunk itself (for
bunks that are cast on site), located against the vertical wall of the
bunk on the pen side or on the inside of the feed bunk (for either pre-
cast or cast on site). The posts can be built into a feed bunk wall of
uniform thickness or with a locally thickened wall around the post.
A feed bunk wall of uniform thickness will make it easier to remove
accumulated waste but the wall must be thicker to prevent it
from cracking or from damage during pen cleaning; this will add
substantially to the capital cost.
Local thickening of concrete around the posts, or having the posts
on the outside of the feed bunk, will make it difficult to clean
around them to remove manure that has built up against the bunk
wall and to clean along the feed trough apron. Posts that are cast
into the concrete wall need to be treated with epoxy or equivalent to
prevent corrosion at the steel/concrete joint and subsequent failure.
All steel posts need to be capped top and bottom to prevent water
entry and subsequent rusting. Top rails are highly recommended
along feed trough posts as these help to strengthen the whole feed-
bunk fence system which is continually being pushed by feeding
cattle. An expansion joint every 25 m in long cattle rails will
prevent buckling.
Restraint devices
Cattle must be prevented from entering the feed bunk and possibly
escaping. This has been achieved using a system of cables strung out
over the feed bunk, but this can make it difficult to maintain and
clean the trough. In most modern feedlots, cattle are constrained by
the design of the feed bunk back wall and a single cattle rail.
An adjustable height cable below the cattle rail or an adjustable rail
will restrain a range of cattle sizes in a pen.
The judicious use of an electric wire adjacent the cattle rail or top
cable can help teach cattle not to press against the restraint system.
 FEEDLOT DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

Cross-sectional dimensions
The cross-sectional area of the trough determines the amount of feed
that can fit into the trough per unit length. If the cross-sectional
area is too small frequent filling will be necessary, particularly if
silage or other bulky ingredients are fed. If the feed bunk is too
wide, feed pushed to the back of the bunk is less accessible and
cattle are tempted to step into the trough to try to reach it.
Feed bunks should have vertical external faces on either side for
ease of removing built-up manure and spilt grain. Outwardly sloping
sides make wastes trapped around them difficult to remove, but may
reduce damage by the feed truck.
The inside of the feed bunks should be smooth with rounded Expansion joints prevent buckling of steel
corners. Square inner corners will trap inaccessible feed allowing it cattle restraint in hot weather.
to become mouldy or stale, and are also difficult to clean.
Feed bunks should allow rainwater to drain, preferably by having
drain holes or slots at intervals along the length of the trough.
These drainage points need to be large enough that they do not get
blocked. Water can also drain if a shorter feed bunk is left open at
the end. Adequate slope (>1%) longitudinally along the feed road
and bunk enhances drainage after storms.
Feed bunks must be designed for easy filling. They should be readily
fillable from the feed road side without opening and closing gates.
Feed alleys should be straight and not curved to minimise spillages
and damage by the feed truck; the approach should have a straight
section so the truck is moving parallel to the trough when unloading.
Over the years, a wide range of different feed bunk dimensions have
been used.
Table 2 gives the dimensions of several different types. Important
dimensions are
H1 – the height of the back wall above the feed apron. This should
be 500 mm high to prevent cattle stepping into the feed bunk.
H2 – the height of the front wall above the feed road. This needs to be
higher than the back wall but not so high that it interferes with feed
delivery. Experience indicates that this should be 700-750 mm high.
Drainage points along the feed bunk
H3 – the height of the cattle restraint rail above the apron. In must be large enough so they do not
become blocked.
conjunction with H1, these dimensions allow cattle free access to feed
without rubbing or awkward bending but prevent cattle from stepping
out of the pen into the trough. H3 should be lower for smaller cattle
and therefore a restraint system where H3 can be varied is desirable.
Typically, H3 should be about 1000–1150 mm above the feed apron.
W1 – the width of the feed storage area of the bunk. In conjunction
with other dimensions, it determines the volume of feed that can be
held. If W1 is too large, cattle cannot reach feed without straining.
W2 and W3 – the thicknesses of the front and back walls. Greater
thickness provides more bunk strength but adds to the volume and
cost of concrete required.
A1 – the cross-sectional area of feed per metre length of bunk. The
Type D bunk is an old design that provided only 0.15 m2 of feed,
and has been found to be inadequate. Newer bunks provide over 0.2
m2 of feed per unit length, which is 30% more than Type D.

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FEEDLOT DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

A2 – the cross-sectional area of concrete for the bunk. This dimension

has a large bearing on capital cost. The old Type D trough has less
than half of the concrete per unit length than the new bunk, but this
is at the expense of feed volume and cattle constraint.
Table 2. Sample feed bunk dimensions
A1/A2
Type H1 H2 H3 W1 W2 W3 A1 A2
Ratio
mm mm mm mm mm mm m2 m2
A 500 545 1080 715 135 120 0.196 0.219 0.89

B 610 790 1140 825 150 100 0.266 0.409 0.65

C 575 625 1190 662 75 70 0.183 0.187 0.98

D 429 550 1100 590 100 90 0.150 0.159 0.94

E 519 619 1110 790 100 90 0.219 0.240 0.91

F 480 750 1080 840 160 100 0.164 0.386 0.42

G 480 760 1000 780 140 70 0.162 0.347 0.47

H 550 725 1155 715 125 125 0.221 0.239 0.92

The following sections show most of these sample feed bunks.

A large bullock feeding from a Type A

feed bunk

Feed bunk Type A

The projection of concrete at the base of the bunk front wall (feed road) was designed to
prevent feed trucks from pushing against the front wall.

6 19. Feeding systems

 FEEDLOT DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

Feed bunk Type B

The inward slant from the base to the top of the front wall (feed road side) of the bunk was
designed to prevent feed trucks from pushing against the front wall. The sloping back wall also
reduces damage from pen cleaning equipment.

Individual pre-cast section feed bunk Type

C. This cable arrangement makes trough
cleaning more difficult; a single rail is
usually sufficient to confine cattle.

Feed bunk Type C

A pre-cast feed bunk available in 2.4 m lengths. This cross section has a high ratio of feed
area to concrete area.

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FEEDLOT DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

Feed Bunk Type D

An old design with a cross-sectional area
that does not hold enough feed, and the
back wall is too low.

Feed bunk Type D

This old design minimises the volume of concrete for the feed bunk. The planar internal sides
and bottom make cleaning by shovels easier.

Feed bunk Type E

Type E has a vertical front wall (road side) and concrete infill, but offers few advantages over
alternative designs.

8 19. Feeding systems

 FEEDLOT DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

Feed bunk Type F on top of concrete apron.

Feed Bunk Type F

Type F is solid and robust. The inward sloping front and back walls are designed to minimise
damage by feed trucks and pen cleaning equipment from pushing against the walls. The round
bunk shape enables cleaning by rotary brooms.

Feed Bunk Type G on concrete apron. Front

wall slopes towards the pen.
Feed Bunk Type G
Type G has a similar profile to Bunk F but is narrower. The inward sloping front wall is
designed to minimise damage by feed trucks from pushing against the front wall. The round
feed bunk shape enables cleaning by rotary brooms.

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FEEDLOT DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

Feed Bunk type H cast in situ.

Feed Bunk Type H

The outward sloping wall on the feed road side should minimise feed spillage from feed truck
but may get damaged by truck and cleaning equipment.

10 19. Feeding systems

 FEEDLOT DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

Bunk problems

Bends in the road and the feed bunk require extra skill from the truck Without suitable anchoring, pre-cast bunk sections can be moved
driver to avoid feed spillage. out of alignment.

Bunk aprons

Concrete apron on the pen side of the bunk provides a stable base
against mud holes, and allows easy cleaning.
Posts in back wall
A concrete apron extending onto the feed road will reduce any impact
on the feed truck load cells and give more control on feed delivery. The
apron should slope gently away from the bunk, but still allow the truck
driver to see into the bunk.

Local thickening of the feed bunk wall is strong but may make Posts cast into the bunk back wall of the feed bunk can rust at the
cleaning difficult. joint between the post and the back wall. Replacement posts bolted
inside of the bunk could inhibit bunk cleaning.

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FEEDLOT DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

Posts behind back wall

Cable systems above feed bunks can inhibit bunk cleaning. Posts bolted behind the back wall are more readily replaced but can
hinder cleaning along the feed apron.

External posts of old cheap railway line will inhibit cleaning along Intruding posts will make apron cleaning difficult.
the feed apron and lead to damaged posts and bunks.

Damage to the ends of feed bunks by feed trucks will be minimised Posts cast into the back wall can corrode and be damaged.
with a straight feed road and placing a steel bollard.

12 19. Feeding systems

 FEEDLOT DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

Cattle restraint

A fixed, two-bar cattle restraint Single steel bar cattle restraint with posts cast into the back wall of
the feed bunk

Cattle restraint using only cables. The lower cable can be adjusted to The lower cable indicates that the back of the feed bunk is too low
suit different sizes of cattle while the top cable is redundant

Trough cleaning

Feed Bunk type F with steel posts bolted to the top and rear of the
back wall, with a single-bar cattle restraint. A steel bollard prevents
damage to the end of the feed bunk.

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FEEDLOT DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
Feed trough made from rubber belting is
difficult to clean internally and externally.
Manure and spilt feed promote odour, flies
and vermin.
Bunk of corrugated steel half-pipe inside
which rubber belting has been subsequently
laid. Same issues as above.
Finished concrete surface of feed bunk
should be sprayed with curing oil
immediately to minimise shrinkage
and cracking.
14 19. Feeding systems
Feed bunk covers
Fixed covers over feed bunks are generally not recommended. While a
fixed roof over the feed trough protects feed from weather, keeping it
dry and palatable, it does promote management problems. Regardless
of weather conditions, cattle seem to stay under the shade near the
feed trough throughout most of the day, and waste builds up around
it. Also, cattle resting in the shaded area can limit access of shy
feeders to the bunk; this will limit the performance of these cattle and
result in uneven finishing of the cattle within the pen. In Australia, a
cover over the feed bunks would be desirable only at a site with heavy
annual rainfall—not a preferred location for a feedlot.
Construction materials
Feed bunks have been made from concrete, fibreglass, rubber
belting, steel and wood. All commercial feedlots now have concrete
feed bunks and the use of other materials is not recommended.
Concrete feed bunks are either pre-cast or poured on site. Pre-cast
bunk segments come in various lengths (usually 2.4 m) and these
have always to be kept aligned. Misaligned rows of pre-cast feed
bunks due to differential settling of the foundations or impact from
feed trucks allows grain to spill and makes it difficult to clean up
spilt grain and built-up manure. Pre-cast bunks are best placed on a
concrete strip for a more stable bunk structure.
Half-pipe segments are sometimes used as feed bunks but should be
avoided, since they allow waste to build up under the trough and
this is almost impossible to remove mechanically.
Pouring feed bunks on site in one long run keeps them permanently
aligned, and they can be built to specified dimensions by developing
a special mould.
The concrete used to build feed bunks should be high quality and
strength (20 MPa or better). Fibre reinforced concrete is used, as
steel reinforcement is difficult to place.
Surface protection and repair
Some ration ingredients, particularly silage and molasses, will corrode
steel and iron in concrete reinforcement, and concrete surfaces.
Sealing the inside of the feed bunk with two-component epoxy resin
will protect the surface from chemical attack and abrasion.
As with all coating applications, surface preparation is critical.
Epoxy is best applied when the bunk is new. The surface must be dry
and free of dust and surface contaminants (such as oils or chemicals)
before application.
Typically, two or more coatings will be required, and this protection
will need to be renewed periodically as the original surface wears.
Construction techniques for slip-form feed bunks
Slip forming, continuous poured, continuously formed, or slip-form
construction is a construction method in which concrete is poured
into a continuously moving form. Slip forming enables continuous,
non-interrupted, cast-in-place ‘flawless’ (i.e. no joints) concrete bunks
which have superior performance characteristics to pre-cast bunks.
 FEEDLOT DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

Subgrade preparation
Before placing the slip form, the foundation material needs to be shaped
and compacted to form a firm base, or a concrete base can be used. An
uneven surface uses more concrete and leads to uneven feed bunks. The
feed apron and base can be cast in preparation for slip-form construction.
Consistency and additives
A balance between quick-setting capacity and workability is
required. Concrete needs to be workable enough to be placed into
the form and compacted, yet quick-setting enough to emerge
from the form with strength. Just enough water needs to be added
to chemically complete the hydration process with virtually no
Sealing the inside of the feed bunk with
slumping. At all times between mixing and discharge the slump epoxy resin will protect the surface from
should be within the range specified for the nominated mix. chemical attack and abrasion.

Concrete which is non-conforming in relation to consistency should

not be incorporated into the work.
Traditional mesh reinforcement in construction of feed bunks is
difficult due to their size and shape. The use of synthetic/steel fibres
in the concrete mix provides benefits for the concrete while it is still
plastic and in the hardened concrete.
Synthetic fibres are most commonly added to concrete for slip-
form construction to reduce early plastic shrinkage and long-term
cracking while increasing impact and abrasion resistance and
toughness of the hardened concrete.
Table 3. Example of concrete mix design for slip form bunks

Constituent kg/m3
Aggregate 970–1100
Sand 820–970 Good concrete mix with consistent moisture
content is essential throughout the whole
Cement 330–350 slip-form process—or problems will occur.

Water 80-95
Additives – synthetic/steel fibres 0.1% by volume approx. 0.9kg/m3

Construction tolerances
The finished surface of the feed bunk should be uniform in
appearance and comply with the practical design tolerances and
client expectations.
Jointing
Contraction joints should be formed at 6 m centres.
Trial section
The construction of a trial section of bunk is highly recommended.
This will ensure that equipment, concrete mix, contractors and
techniques are able to demonstrate to the client the quality, finish
and tolerance of the finished feed bunk, and gain approval from
the client of a standard of workmanship that will be acceptable Feed Bunk G. The slip-form machine
runs on prefixed rails, then the surface is
for ongoing feed bunk work. This section should then be used as a steel trowelled.
‘standard’ for any future works to be compared against.
The trial section should be constructed using the same materials,
concrete mix, equipment and methods the contractor intends to use

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FEEDLOT DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
A wide concrete apron allows cattle to
stand comfortably while feeding.
Concrete aprons on pen and feed road sides
Feed delivery trucks usually feed out on the
same side as the driver with left or right
hand drive.
16 19. Feeding systems
for the remaining work. The contractor needs to demonstrate the
methods proposed to be used for texturing, the application of curing
compound and construction of joints.
The trial should also be used to demonstrate that the contractor’s
allowances for concrete strength, compaction and slab thickness are
adequate to achieve the minimum requirements specified.
Only after acceptance by the client of the trial section should the
contractor proceed with placing concrete.
Selection of contractor
An experienced slip-form contractor and concrete supplier should
be engaged. Slip-form systems require a small but highly skilled
workforce on site.
Timing of construction
The quality of work will depend upon the weather conditions. It
is best to avoid slip-form construction of feed bunks during the
extreme heat conditions that commonly prevail during the summer
months. Work should be programmed outside the summer months
where possible.
Aprons
Without an apron, the pad near the bunks will wear and form bog
holes. Aprons provide a stable surface for cattle to stand on and
allow for easier removal of wastes.
Concrete or compacted gravel aprons should be 2.5–3.0 m wide,
allowing pen cleaning machinery to fit along them. Wider aprons
also minimise damage to the pad from cattle hooves.
Aprons should slope uniformly away from the trough at the
same slope as the pen slope. Concrete aprons should be properly
reinforced, and a moulded rough surface can reduce slippage by
the cattle. Damage to the edge of the apron will be minimised by
building a short rat baffle on the pen side of the apron.
Installing gates across the aprons at the top of each fence line allows
pen cleaning machinery a smooth straight run, and allows pen riders
to move more freely between pens.
A 1 m apron on the feed road side improves consistent feed delivery.
Feed delivery vehicles
Feed delivery vehicles may be self-propelled feed trucks or tractor-
drawn wagons. As a guideline, allow one feed truck with a 5 t
load capacity for each 7000 head in the feedlot. As any machine
may suffer a breakdown, even a small feedlot should never rely
on having only one feed truck. See Section 35 – Feed mixing and
delivery for further information on feed delivery vehicles.
Feed-out trucks deliver feed only from one side, either left hand or
right hand. This determines the direction of movement of the feed
trucks when delivering feed to the bunk. To avoid spillage, the truck
needs to be aligned straight with the bunk before and as the feed is
delivered. This will require an adequate length of straight feed road
leading onto a feed bunk section.
 FEEDLOT DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

Feeding system maintenance

Bunk cleaning
Most feedlot cattle are fed once or twice a day with just enough
ration put out to meet intake requirements. As a result, feed does
not usually go stale, but any leftover feed should be removed on
a daily basis. Rain can cause feed to become wet and unpalatable,
and cattle may go off their feed during rainy or hot weather. In such
cases, bunks must be cleaned — usually with brooms and shovels.
The rotary brush cleaners now available should be used to throw
uneaten wet grain into the pen from where it can be removed during
pen cleaning. Cables above a feed bunk can severely restrict feed
bunk cleaning.
Bunk maintenance
Feed spoiled by rain is usually cleaned out
Pre-fabricated or other segmented feed bunks may be bumped out manually with shovels. Access to the feed
of line by feed truck drivers from time to time. Feed bunks must be bunk must be open and clear.
kept aligned lest feed spills out and to allow easy cleaning around
the trough and along the aprons. Drainage gaps or holes clogged
with feed must be cleaned.

Quick tips
• Self-feeders are suited best to small and/or opportunity feedlots.
• Self-feeders have their own storage bins and need filling only once or twice a week.
• Moist rations tend to ‘go off’ or spoil when stored in self-feeders for several days.
• Feed bunks should always be located along the high end of the pen along the fence line.
• Bunk space should be 250–300 mm per head in the pen.
• A bunk with a small cross-sectional area will require frequent filling, particularly with silage or
other bulky ration ingredients.
• If feed bunks are too wide, feed can be pushed to the back of the bunk and cattle are tempted to
step into the trough to try to reach it.
• Feed bunks should have enclosed vertical faces on either side for ease of removing built-up
manure and spilt grain.
• The inside of the feed bunks should be smooth with rounded corners; square corners trap feed
and are difficult to clean.
• Fence posts on the outside of the feed bunk make it difficult to remove manure build up along
the bunk wall or to clean along the feed trough apron.
• Thicker front and back walls give a feed bunk greater strength and volume, but cost more.
• Feed bunks should have drain holes or slots at intervals along the length of the trough to drain
rain water.
• Expansion joints in long cattle rails to prevent buckling.
• When the feed bunk is new, seal the inside with two-component epoxy resin to protect the
surface from chemical attack and abrasion.

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FEEDLOT DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

Further reading
AUS-MEAT, 2011, NFAS Rules & Standards (April 2011), AUS-MEAT Limited, Brisbane, Qld.
DAFF, 2013, Australian Animal Standards and Guidelines for Cattle, Department of Agriculture, Forestry
and Fisheries, Australian Government, Canberra, ACT.
MLA, 2012a, National Guidelines for Beef Cattle Feedlots in Australia. Meat & Livestock Australia,
Sydney, NSW.
MLA, 2012b National Beef Cattle Feedlot Environmental Code of Practice. Meat & Livestock Australia,
Sydney, NSW.
Guidelines for the establishment and operation of cattle feedlots in South Australia, Department of Primary
Industries and Resources (SA) and Environment Protection Authority, 2006, Adelaide.
Victorian code for cattle feedlots, August 1995, Victorian Feedlot Commitee, Department of Agriculture,
Energy & Minerals, Melbourne.
Skerman, A 2000, Reference manual for the establishment and operation of beef cattle feedlots in Queensland,
Information Series QI99070, Queensland Cattle Feedlot Advisory Committee (FLAC), Department of Primary
Industries, Toowoomba, QLD.
Guidelines for the Environmental Management of Beef Cattle Feedlots in Western Australia, Bulletin 4550,
2002, WADo Agriculture (ed.), Western Australia Department of Agriculture, Perth, WA.
The New South Wales Feedlot Manual, 1997, NSW Agriculture, NSW Agriculture, Department of Land and
Water Conservation, Department of Urban Affairs and Planning & Environment Protection Authority, Orange.

18 19. Feeding systems