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Future Ship Powering Options Report PDF
Future Ship Powering Options Report PDF
POWERING OPTIONS
Exploring alternative methods
of ship propulsion
July 2013
Foreword 2 Glossary 76
1. Introduction 8 Appendices 78
1.1 Drivers for change 9 1. Terms of reference 78
1.1.1 Carbon emissions 9 2. Membership of the working group 79
1.1.2 Price of oil 10 3. Referee and review group 81
1.2 The shipping industry 11 4. Statement from Vice-President of the European
1.2.1 Technical development 11 Commission Siim Kallas and EU Commissioner
1.2.2 Operation 13 for Climate Action Connie Hedegaard, October 2012 82
1.3 International regulations 15 5. A ship systems approach 83
1.3.1 Emissions control under MARPOL Annex VI 16 6. Further aspects relating to nuclear merchant ship
1.4 Global context of shipping 17 propulsion 84
7. International atomic energy principles and
2. Design options 18 requirements 89
2.1 Ship energy considerations 18 8. The energy efficiency design index 92
2.2 The ship system 19 9. Calendar for main emission legislation events
2.3 Energy Efficiency Design Index 20 2010–2020 93
10. Potential applicability of measures and options
3. Primary propulsion options 22 discussed 94
Conventional propulsion options and fuels
3.1 Diesel engines 22
3.2 Biofuels 26
3.3 Liquid natural gas (LNG) 29
3.4 Gas turbines 31
Other propulsion technology options
3.5 Nuclear 33
3.6 Batteries 41
3.7 Fuel cells 43
3.8 Renewable energy sources 47
3.9 Hydrogen 50
3.10 Anhydrous ammonia 51
3.11 Compressed air and liquid nitrogen 51
3.12 Hybrid propulsion 53
I believe that this report will be of great benefit to the shipping industry,
APPROACH IS considered. Additional propulsion influences are addressed and include
conventional and non-conventional propulsors, magnetohydrodynamic
offering an overview that is both broad and expertly informed. I hope that REQUIRED propulsion, energy-saving devices, hull design and coatings.
it is made full use of as this important sector joins the challenge to reduce
emissions on a global scale and maintain its competitiveness. There are other factors that affect the emissions from shipping. Avoiding
poor weather by using weather-routing technologies offers important
fuel consumption benefits. Similar benefits are also realisable if ship
speed is optimised during voyages and the crew are trained to understand
the implications of the decisions and actions they take. Furthermore,
the condition of a ship’s machinery has a significant influence on fuel
consumption and emissions performance. There is, therefore, good reason
Sir John Parker GBE FREng to keep machinery well-maintained and operated by well-motivated crews.
President of the Royal Academy of Engineering
Studies show that larger ships are more carbon-efficient than smaller
vessels, and it is known that deploying slower ship speeds is an effective
means of reducing emissions. However, de-rating existing engines
installed in ships, or fitting smaller engines than are conventionally
adopted for a given ship size in order to meet environmental design
constraints, can create significant operational risks from under-powering
ships, particularly in poor weather.
IS CURRENTLY THE required. This must embrace all of the elements of naval architecture,
Biofuels are potential medium-term alternatives to conventional fuels for
diesel engines. Synthetic fuels based on branch-chain higher alcohols and
MOST WIDESPREAD marine and control engineering alongside operation practices. Moreover,
a systems approach must include all of the stakeholder requirements to
new types of E-coli as well as algae and other microorganisms are medium-
OF MARINE PRIME achieve a sustainable and optimal design solution. With any propulsion
to long-term possibilities, but further work is necessary to examine their
storage, handling, and impacts on health, safety and the environment.
MOVERS. IT IS A option it is essential that the overall emission profile of the propulsion
method and the fuel used is properly assessed, so that reductions in
Di-methyl ether shows some potential as an alternative fuel; however,
WELL-UNDERSTOOD exhaust emissions from ships are not at the cost of increasing harmful
there are presently disadvantages which need resolution in terms of
lubricity and corrosion together with the creation of sufficient production
TECHNOLOGY AND A emissions in land-based sectors that produce either the propulsion
machinery or the fuel.
and supply networks.
RELIABLE FORM OF Fuel cells offer potential for ship propulsion with good experience gained in
MARINE PROPULSION The report identifies a range of short-, medium- and long-term
propulsion options:
auxiliary and low-power propulsion machinery. For marine propulsion, the
AND AUXILIARY high-temperature solid oxide and molten carbonate fuel cells show most
promise, while for lower powers the low temperature proton exchange
POWER GENERATION, Short-term options membrane fuel cells are more suitable. While hydrogen is the easiest fuel
WITH ENGINE The diesel engine is currently the most widespread of marine prime to use in fuel cells, this would require a worldwide infrastructure to be
developed for supply to ships.
movers. It is a well-understood technology and a reliable form of marine
MANUFACTURERS propulsion and auxiliary power generation, with engine manufacturers
HAVING WELL- having well-established repair and spare part networks around the world. Nuclear ship propulsion has the advantage during operation of producing
no CO2, NOX, SOX, volatile organic or particulate emissions. A significant
In addition, there is a supply of trained engineers and the education
ESTABLISHED REPAIR requirements for future engineers are well-understood, with appropriate body of experience exists in the design and safe operation of shipboard
AND SPARE PART training facilities available. However, diesel engines will continue to nuclear propulsion plant, particularly in the case of PWR designs. The
conventional methods of design, planning, building and operation of
produce CO2 emissions as well as NOX, SOX, volatile organic compounds and
NETWORKS AROUND particulate matter. merchant ships would, however, need a complete overhaul since the
THE WORLD process would be driven by a safety case and systems engineering
approach. Issues would also need to be addressed in terms of international
Liquid natural gas (LNG) can be used in reciprocating engine propulsion
systems and is a known technology with classification society rules for the regulation, public perception and acceptability, financing the initial capital
fuel systems already in existence. Service experience with dual fuel and cost, training and retention of crews, setting up and maintenance of a
converted diesel engines, although limited at the present time, has been global infrastructure support system, insurance and nuclear emergency
satisfactory and currently LNG is considerably cheaper than conventional response plans for ports .
fuels. LNG, while not free of harmful emissions, has benefits in terms of
CO2, NOX, SOX emissions, given that methane slip is avoided during the Battery technology is developing rapidly, offering some potential for
combustion and fuelling processes. propulsion. However, full ship battery propulsion requires further
technical development and is likely to be confined to relatively small
Gas turbines have been successfully used in niche areas of the marine ships. Nevertheless, battery-based propulsion would be beneficial due
market and represent a proven high power density propulsion technology. to producing no CO2, NOX, SOX, volatile organic or particulate emissions in
However, the fuel for aero-derivative gas turbines is expensive when operation. Batteries may offer a potential hybrid solution in conjunction
compared to conventional marine fuels and gas turbine thermal efficiencies with other modes of propulsion for some small- to medium-sized ships
are lower than for slow-speed diesel engines of similar power. provided that their recharging does not increase the production of other
harmful emissions from land-based sources or elsewhere.
Renewable energy, principally derived from wind and solar origins, is
considered as an augment to the main propulsion and auxiliary power Superconducting electric motor technology has been successfully used
requirements of a ship. in demonstrator applications, with low electrical losses resulting in a
more efficient motor. Depending upon the type of prime mover deployed,
exhaust emissions will be lower, the machine can run for some time after a
coolant failure, and further advantages may accrue from their smaller size.
SYSTEMS WITHIN atmosphere and would use land-based sources of power for its creation.
It would need a supply infrastructure to be viable in a marine context, but
REASONABLE it is ideal for use in fuel cells. Compressed air and nitrogen would use land-
TIMESCALES, based sources of power for creation and the tank storage technologies
are well understood – though tank corrosion is an issue in salt-laden
RESEARCH AND environments. The size, pressure rating and cryogenic capabilities, in the
FUNDING ARE case of liquid nitrogen, of the ship storage tanks will determine the amount
of energy storage and hence usefulness of the concept. As with hydrogen,
NEEDED IN A NUMBER a supply and infrastructure and distribution network would be needed.
OF AREAS
In summary, the following options are considered
appropriate:
i. For existing ships, reciprocating engines with exhaust gas attenuation
technologies are the principal option together with fuels that produce
fewer CO2 emissions. LNG is one such fuel and, together with some
other alternatives, would require an adequate bunkering infrastructure
to be developed, particularly for deep sea voyages. Some attention
could also be usefully paid to reducing the demand for shipboard
energy.
ii. For new buildings planned in the near-term, the scenario is broadly
similar but with the option to include hybrid propulsion systems
depending on ship size and intended use.
iii. In the case of ships to be built in the medium- to long-term, further
propulsion options include alternative fuel options, fuel cells, batteries
and nuclear. The former methods await technological development
but nuclear, while well understood technically, would require a major
change to ship owning and operation infrastructure
and practices.
Renewable power sources such as wind and solar are likely to be augments
to power requirements, assuming a return to full sail propulsion is not
contemplated. If, in the future, a hydrogen economy is adopted, then
hydrogen may become a realistic marine fuel option.
1. Introduction
of the total sea trade in terms of the weight “The most developed and the emerging
of cargo transported, while container economies must stabilise and then reduce
shipping was around 15%. material consumption levels through:
dramatic improvements in resource use
The carriage of freight by sea is low-cost. efficiency, including: reducing waste;
Consequently, because the transport costs investment in sustainable resources,
are low the international community is not technologies and infrastructures; and
generally aware of shipping economics. systematically decoupling economic
Within the shipping industry, however, activity from environmental impact.”
competition for trade between companies (Royal Society, 2012)
is strong and there are four elements
which have a significant influence on To lay a foundation for the consideration
shipping economics. These are the freight; of alternative means of propulsion of
the shipbuilding; the sale and purchase; merchant ships, the Royal Academy of
INTERNATIONAL The propulsion of merchant shipping
has, during the last century, undergone
are also included. International shipping is
estimated to contribute some 3% of global
and the scrapping markets. Freight rates Engineering convened a working group
are largely a function of the available in July 2010, (Appendices 1, 2 and 3), to
SHIPPING IS a significant transformation. It is now emissions of CO2 and this, if no attenuating transport capacity any political intervention consider the issues involved and this report
ESTIMATED TO dominated by diesel propulsion machinery
with the cost of fuel accounting for a
action is implemented, will vary as the
shipping industry changes to reflect world
and world trade levels where these are summarises the findings. It principally
all variables. There are also components considers the technical and regulatory
CONTRIBUTE SOME large proportion of the running costs of trade. Although the industry has reduced of the derivative, voyage charter and issues relating to the options and aims to
3% OF GLOBAL the ship. Against this background, recent
developments have led many in the industry
its consumption of fossil fuels by, for
example, employing increasingly thermally
time-charter markets and it is all of these place these into short-, medium- and long-
component aspects which generate cash term perspectives.
EMISSIONS OF CO2 to question whether the present modes of efficient diesel engines in recent decades, for the shipping industry. The shipbuilding
ship propulsion are sustainable due to three the current total fuel oil consumption is in market produces new ships for the industry
main factors: excess of 350 million tonnes per annum. at agreed prices and thereby takes cash
18% 4
reservations about the risks associated nations or groups of nations to consider
10%
3 with innovation in alternative propulsion the issue. The European Union, under the
methods. European Climate Change Programme II, is
2
Figure 1.1 The trend in carrying out a consultation on options to
1
cargo growth 1962 to 2011
In the wider context, a recent report by include shipping in its overall commitments
[Stopford 2012] 0
the Royal Society recommended that to greenhouse gas reduction. It has
1962
1965
1968
1971
1974
1977
1980
1983
1986
1989
1992
1995
1998
2001
2004
2007
2010
• Houston 380CST $800 be extracted at a sufficient rate and price The 18th and 19th centuries were times of
• Singapore 380CST to satisfy global demand. Furthermore, innovation, not just in hull form, structure
• Rotterdam 380CST $700
concerns have been expressed about the
• Fujairah 380CST $600 extraction procedures on the surrounding
and sail design but also in matters of ship
performance. For example, the introduction
environment and, in the case of the in 1761 of copper hull sheathing on
$500
United Kingdom, a recent report (Royal HMS Alarm (Lambert 2008), initially to
$400 Society and Royal Academy of Engineering, 2012) prevent attacks on the hull by ship-boring
has reviewed the hydraulic fracturing molluscs, showed significant benefit in
$300
processes involved. It concluded that the fouling prevention and hence propulsion
$200 risks associated with the extraction of shale efficiency. Figure 1.3 shows a subsequent
gas can be managed effectively as long as development of this in relation to one of the
$100
operational best practices are implemented later tea clippers, the Cutty Sark.
$
Figure 1.3 Copper sheathing on
and robustly enforced through regulation.
Jan 90
Aug 90
Mar 91
Oct 91
May 92
Dec 92
Jul 93
Feb 94
Sep 94
Apr 95
Nov95
Jun 96
Jan 97
Aug 97
Mar 98
Oct 98
May 99
Dec 99
Jul 00
Feb 01
Sep 01
Apr 02
Nov 02
Jun 03
Jan 04
Aug 04
Mar 05
Oct 05
May 06
Dec 06
Jul 07
Feb 08
Sep 08
Apr 09
Nov 09
Jun 10
Jan 11
Aug 11
Mar 12
Oct 12
Figure 1.2 Historical bunker prices the hull of the Cutty Sark
for 380 cSt marine fuel [Platts] [Courtesy J.Hensher]
60
40 43%
WELL IN CO2 knowledge. However, these activities have VI entered into force on 19 May 2005. It
transport greenhouse gas
emissions: 1990 –2009
0
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
EMISSION TERMS either transferred or are in the process of
transferring to other geographical locations;
applied retrospectively to new engines
of greater than 130 kW installed on
[DfT]
WITH OTHER FORMS chiefly to the Far East. Nevertheless, vessels constructed on or after 1st
70
60
50
40
20
10
0–1
1–2
2–3
3–5
5–8
8+
0–10
10–60
60–80
80–120
120–200
200+
and crude oil tankers
[Committee on Climate Change
(2011)] Container (‘000 TEU) Crude tanker ‘000 DWT)
WITH THE HULL aft end of the ship. In the case of faster
and more slender-lined ships, such as
terms of a retrofit, significant implications
usually arise for the ship system. From
EFFICIENCY, container and Ro/Ro ships, the propeller a ship owner’s perspective, it may be
Uaxial
3. Primary propulsion
-1 1
(m s-1)
options
[edited from Andriotis et al.
2008] 0.2 0.9
SPEED DIESEL and efficient ship propulsion. imposed in current and future emission parameters which include reducing the peak
ENGINES HAS BEEN 3.1 Diesel engines control areas. The result has been a number
of developments in marine diesel engine
temperature and duration of the process, by
much higher-pressure fuel injection over a
vi. Diesel engines are generally able to cope biofuels in widespread use are biodiesel EQUIVALENT TO distillates. This probability is further To power the current worldwide fleet of
with part load, transient and dynamic
behaviour in a seaway.
and bioethanol. Biodiesel is produced
from animal fats and vegetable oils such
THAT OF ABOUT influenced by the EU marine fuel sulphur
requirements at berth of 0.1% and inland
merchant ships, it is estimated that it would
require around 7.3 x 1018 J/year (MacKay,
as coconut, palm, rape seed, soybean and TWICE THE SIZE THE waterways of 0.001%. The Maersk Kalmar 2011). Using biofuels derived from natural
Disadvantages
i. Diesel engines produce CO2 emissions
tallow. These fuels are generally known
as Fatty Acid Methyl Esters (FAME) and
UNITED KINGDOM trials showed that while the automotive
biodiesel formulation was not optimal
sources such as vegetable oils would
require a land area equivalent to that of
as well as NOX, SOX, volatile organic are produced by reacting the vegetable oil for ship propulsion, the fuel was usable about twice the size the United Kingdom
compounds and particulate matter. or animal fat constituents with an alcohol during the trials. Furthermore, concerns (MacKay 2011). Oilseed rape, when used to
Therefore, they have to be made such as methanol. In contrast, bioethanol is over microbial growth were shown not produce biodiesel, has a power per unit
compliant with the MARPOL Annex VI produced by fermenting renewable sources to be an issue within the confines of the area potential of about 0.13W/m2 (MacKay,
requirements and included during an of sugar or starch, typically cassava, corn, trial; however, further investigation of this 2009). Notwithstanding the size of the land
EEDI evaluation of the ship. sorghum, sugar beet, sugar cane, and aspect was considered necessary in the required for this purpose, there is also the
ii. The SOX emissions are a function of the wheat. future. Similarly, as engine running and ethical question of whether it might be
sulphur content of the fuel used in the lubricant interaction times were relatively better to deploy such agricultural areas for
engine and to comply with regulations There are a number of chemical short within these trials, to arrive at world food production.
an abatement technology has to be compositions of FAME raw materials. definitive conclusions further sea trials and
employed. The blend levels used result in fuels having test bed running were recommended. The science of synthetic biology, in the
iii. There is now some contamination of the some variability in their cold temperature context of fuels, has focused on the
marine fuel supply by first-generation performance, degradability and stability. The processes involved in biofuel production of biodiesel and bioethanol. In
biofuels which needs to be carefully In turn, this has implications for handling, production from sugar or vegetable oils the longer term more advanced biodiesel
managed on board ships. storage, treatment, engine operations and are not particularly efficient and waste fuels are likely to be developed together
emissions. a significant quantity of the biomass or with the associated synthetic biology-based
organic matter. The underlying reason processes for efficient fuel production
FAME is able to hold high levels of water for this is that stalks and leaves, although in significant quantities (Royal Academy of
in suspension and water may also induce rich sources of sugars, are discarded Engineering 2009). Alternative synthetic fuels
hydrolytic reactions which break down because they are difficult to break down based on the branch-chain higher alcohols
the FAME to form fatty acids. These are with present technology. Consequently, and new types of E-coli as well as other
corrosive and can attack metal surfaces. an efficiency enhancement for these types of microorganisms, such as yeast,
Alternatively, if the water separates out processes must await the development of may make their appearance. In the case of
of the FAME fuel this may give rise to the necessary enzymes. algae-derived fuels, these are generally no
microbiological growth which can then lead more efficient at photosynthesis than land-
to the filter clogging. Corrosion problems In contrast to FAME the bioethanols are based plants; however, this efficiency can
have also been experienced when used with single chemical compounds which are be enhanced by water heavily enriched with
marine diesel engines. colourless, hygroscopic, miscible with water CO2. Even with this efficiency improvement,
and are volatile. However, since bioethanol algae-derived fuels are unlikely to satisfy
A recent trial centred on the container is hygroscopic and highly soluble in water, the demands of the worldwide marine
ship Maersk Kalmar (Lloyd’s Register 2011) small quantities of water can be dissolved industry.
endeavoured to evaluate the impact in fuel blends containing bioethanol and
of Fatty Acid Methyl Esters and marine separation of the ethanol can result when A further alternative fuel for compression-
distillate fuel containing FAME. The focus critical levels of water take-up are reached. ignition engines is di-methyl ether (DME).
of this trial was undertaken in the contexts This facilitates alcohol-rich water/ethanol This can be produced from the conversion
INJECTED VOLUME through the low formation and oxidisation have been experienced when used in
has been the Dual Fuel Diesel-Electric
systems on LNG carriers that are either
When liquefied, the storage space required
THAT HAVE BEEN add to the global warming burden. Similar conversions are feasible on ships.
A recent example is the chemical carrier
the world trade routes have LNG terminals
in the vicinity which serve land-based
v. Currently LNG fuel is considerably
cheaper than the conventional range of
CONVERTED TO RUN The coldness of LNG can be used to cool mv Bit Viking which had its twin diesel consumers and these facilities might be marine fuels.
SERGEANT WAS the tanker, Auris, while the liberty ship John
Sergeant was retrofitted with an industrial
to deliver low specific fuel consumption
together with a thermal efficiency in the Figure 3.6 ns Savannah
RETROFITTED WITH gas turbine. Then around 1968 the RoRo region of 43%. This engine is used as a
[Courtesy J.S. Carlton]
HOWEVER, A have been built, most notably the Russian may only produce some 3% of the high The era of nuclear power began with The design and regulatory process
LENGTHY PERIOD icebreaker classes with perhaps the most
famous being the Lenin, as well as a number
level waste developed by current nuclear
reactors and have a lower weapons
reactors that had low power output,
typically tens of MW. Over time, economies
To design and build nuclear-powered
merchant ships significant changes to the
OF RESEARCH AND of dual purpose ships engaged on specialist proliferation risk than conventional of scale have produced the latest normal design procedures are required.
Figure 3.7 Schematic have allowed the establishment of specialist The implementation of insurance principles
outline for through-
nuclear insurance pools which insure the in the merchant marine environment will
life fuel cost analysis
Ship life cycle liabilities associated with nuclear facilities. differ fundamentally from that which
Table 3.4 shows the conventions in force at applies to navies where governments take
present. a major role in underwriting the risk. This
is unlikely in the merchant service. This,
CONSIDERING THE If full plant ownership were contemplated
sea staff training programmes, analogous
a lower initial cost but then an operating
cost gradient reflecting the fuel
Furthermore, there are issues concerning therefore, raises further issues relating
LIFE CYCLE COSTS to those operated by the navies who consumption during the ship’s existence
the understanding of nuclear damage
for which operators must provide
to the insurance of nuclear-propelled
merchant ships: in particular, the stance
OF A SHIP, WHILE use this technology, would be required.
Nevertheless, even with the leasing
with the average reflecting oil price changes
over shorter time intervals; (Figures 3.7).
compensation in the event of an incident. of hull and machinery underwriters as
THE NUCLEAR model, assuming the leaser provides the If, however, fuelling for the life of the ship
Currently loss of life, personal injury, loss
of or damage to property and economic
distinct from that of P&I Clubs. In the
former case, nuclear technology and its
OPTION HAS A expert staff to operate the plant, some
level of expertise would still be required
were contemplated and possible for a
merchant ship, then the operating fuel costs
loss related to the foregoing are insurable. mechanical risks are comparatively well-
HIGHER INITIAL of nuclear operation by the ship’s officers. would become constant; that is, a straight
However, concerns remain: the full
insurability of the reinstatement of an
understood and, if not, lend themselves to
some level of probabilistic analysis of risk.
CAPITAL COST, THE In both respects the current STCW Code
requirements are deficient. Moreover,
line on Figure 3.7 rather than the saw-tooth
characteristic shown in the figure.
impaired environment, use or enjoyment Cover would be restricted to exclude any
GRADIENT OF THE training would need to have a reactor-
of the environment and preventative
measures. Additionally, in the maritime case
physical damage to the vessel’s machinery
arising from failure of the nuclear plant,
CURVE IS MUCH specific element with revision periods
and recertification being necessary. This
A nuclear option would be more difficult to
finance because the initial cost has to be
is the measurement of damage at sea. certainly that which results in radiation
SHALLOWER WITH would have implications for some current paid upfront and the owner becomes a price
Assessing the risk posed by nuclear
release. Current policy conditions have a
standard restriction that excludes that type
STEP INCREMENTS employment arrangements within the
merchant navy. Furthermore, shore-based
taker not a price setter: since there is no
choice but to take market rates to capture
propulsion is fundamental to the insurance of event. Some cover may be accessible,
WHEN REFUELLING facilities would need a nuclear safety income to amortise the cost of build. Clearly,
issue and Table 3.5 identifies the nuclear
perils, machinery risks and fire protection
but the capacity available to do so would
be restricted as underwriters reinsurance
IS REQUIRED organisation manned by suitably qualified
and experienced personnel.
for the nuclear option other cost elements
arise about which little is known at
issues that require assessment. programmes mirror that policy exclusion,
meaning any insurance share written would
present: these include the cost of finance,
The issues highlighted in Table 3.5 are be net without the benefit of reinsurance
Nuclear safety considerations will drive maintenance, pilotage, port dues, survey
principally the risk assessment principles of protection. Secondly and more importantly,
different shore infrastructure requirements fees and insurance. While these elements
land-based plants, however, in the marine issues such as ports of refuge, availability of
from those currently in place for are well known for conventionally propelled
case the issue is further complicated. It salvage services and formal vessel response
conventionally propelled merchant ships. ships, through-life fuel costs, while
is a mobile platform with limited internal plans are key. While hull underwriters would
These would impact on factories, shipyards, reflecting the underlying market trends,
space; has limited maintenance resources; not provide cover for the direct effect of
ports and dockyards throughout the are likely to be significantly influenced by
has operational imperative; risks arise from nuclear and radiological effects of reactor
whole life cycle of the nuclear propulsion future marine fuel policies. This is because
the existence of hostile zones and the failure and consequent contamination it is
plant and, in so doing, would be a major higher grades of fuel are, in present
attendant risk of a collision, grounding or likely that conventional cover will be in place
cost driver for nuclear powered merchant terms, considerably more expensive and,
foundering hazard. otherwise, including salvage and sue and
shipping. There would be a number of life furthermore, any introduction of carbon tax
cycle requirements that would need to be will only exacerbate this situation.
satisfied: (Appendix 6).
Insurance Nuclear perils Machinery risks Fire protection
As previously concluded when discussing The key principles of nuclear liability are Reactor characteristics Design authority, systems engineering Fire hazard
other related aspects of nuclear propulsion, established by international treaties which Barriers to release Adequacy or failure of maintenance Plant segregation and
the small modular reactor concept may be of influence national legislation and dictate – Predictive, preventive, corrective compartmentalisation
assistance in simplifying these issues. the scope of operator liability. Countries Reactor protection Equipment reliability Fire detection
are either signatories to the conventions
Radiation protection Plant protection Fire suppression
Cost models between nuclear and or have legislation that adheres to the
Accident mitigation Condition monitoring Fire water supply
conventional propulsion principles embodied within the conventions.
Considering the life cycle costs of a ship, As such, nuclear liability insurance policies Emergency planning Operating history Control of hazardous
operations, ignition sources
while the nuclear option has a higher initial must follow relevant national legislation
capital cost, the gradient of the curve is and often require government approval. Human factors OEM support Control of fire, loading and
housekeeping
much shallower with step increments General non-nuclear risk insurance policies
when refuelling is required. In contrast, have radioactive contamination exclusions; Regulatory framework Spare part availability and quality Fire team
conventional propulsion alternatives have these fulfil the channelling principle and Table 3.5 Risk Terrorism and sabotage Values Fire drills
assessment issues
GREENHOUSE GAS • Confirmation that the route assumed has and particulate emissions. OF A SIGNIFICANT merchant ships. New battery chemistries include metal-
1980
1990
2000
2010
2015
them. As such, it would be prudent to keep a capital cost and financing; training and generally satisfy the marine propulsion post-lithium-ion battery technologies.
watching brief on the development of these retention of crews; refuelling and safe Dashed lines denote forecast data needs. In this sector significant power is
technologies with a view to implementation storage for spent fuel; the setting up Figure 3.8 World trends in rechargeable required and for all but the shortest of A report (IDTechEx 2011) explored the pattern
in the medium to long term. and maintenance of an infrastructure battery capacity (Source: Avicenne) coastal voyages, the power output has of patenting activities in the advanced
90
Efficiency %
Fuel cell and heat engine combined cycle
80
70
60
Hydrogen
50
Heat engine
40
Figure 3.10 Theoretical heat 30 gas by converting methane into hydrogen cell technology in Ships (FCSHIP) (2002–
PEMFC PAFC MCFC SOFC within the fuel cell itself; termed internal 2004) and New-H-Ship (2004–2006).
engine and fuel cell efficiencies
[Larminie and Dicks 2000] 0 reformation. The disadvantage is that These programmes assessed the technical
200
400
600
800
1000
carbon in the fuel is converted into CO2. feasibility of installing fuel cells on ships
Temperature ºC followed by a number of demonstrator
Until recently, fuel cell development in the projects (EC 2002–2006). The projects had
marine field has been limited, the exception a strong representation from the Nordic
engine and a fuel cell; Figure 3.10. The heat The proton exchange membrane fuel cell is being Air Independent Propulsion for countries, including Iceland, who saw fuel
engine limit is calculated using the Carnot classified as low temperature and is being submarines and Autonomous Underwater cells as a catalyst for developing a hydrogen
cycle with a lower reservoir temperature developed for the automotive market, Vehicles. The first practical application of economy. Nordic countries, in particular
of 100 ºC. The fuel cell is supplied directly among other applications, in the 1–300 a fuel cell for motive power in a submarine Iceland, have huge reserves of hydro- and
with gaseous hydrogen and oxygen, not kW range. The phosphoric acid fuel cell was in 1964 when Allis-Chalmers produced geothermal power with which to produce
air. With the exception of fuels cells used is also low temperature and has a higher a 750kW fuel cell for the Electric Boat green hydrogen: that is, production without
in space and submarines, air is substituted power band, typically 10kW to 1MW, but Company to power a one-man underwater significantly adding to the greenhouse
for oxygen as one of the reactants. Using is not suitable for marine applications due research vessel. More recently, Siemens, gas burden. A more recent project moved
air, with the normal 21% oxygen content, to the nature of its electrolyte. The direct at the behest of the German government, away from hydrogen as a fuel, MC-WAP –
reduces efficiency but this is offset by the methanol fuel cell is a third low temperature developed a successful 120kW PEMFC fuel molten-carbonate fuel cells for waterborne
free supply as in the case of diesel engines. fuel cell which uses methanol as its cell for the German navy. A pair of these applications (2005–2011). The purpose of
hydrogen source. The high temperature units is used for the AIP pack in the Class this initiative was to study the application of
The high temperature fuel cells have the fuel cells, molten carbonate and solid 214 submarines which were constructed the molten carbonate fuel cell technology
potential to achieve efficiencies similar to oxide fuel cells, can be built for much for a number of navies, including those onboard large vessels, such as Ro/Pax,
if not better than those of large marine larger powers from a few kilowatts up to of South Korea and Greece. The Class Ro/Ro and cruise ships. This included the
diesel engines, especially if they are 10MW and, therefore, are candidates for 209 boats, which were mainly produced design, construction, installation on board
combined with a steam plant to make use main propulsion as well as auxiliary power for export, are offered with a 6m long and testing of a 500 kW auxiliary power unit,
of their thermal output. Table 3.6 shows generators. AIP extension and retrofitting to existing powered by MCFC and fuelled by diesel oil.
an alternative evaluation together with boats is an option. Both submarine types Project METHAPU (Validation of renewable
comparative specific powers and power A major issue for fuel cells is their fuels: carry liquid oxygen, internally for the 209 methanol based auxiliary power systems
densities. While efficiencies are similar, oxygen can be obtained from air but and externally for the 214, and store the for commercial vessels) (2006–2010)
diesel engines significantly outperform fuel hydrogen is more of a challenge. One hydrogen in external metal hydride tanks. developed a methanol/air SOFC for use
cells in terms of specific powers and power option is a direct supply of hydrogen, but Fuel cells are also used for autonomous in marine applications. A prototype 20kW
densities. at present bulk storage is problematic, underwater vehicles; the Hugin series, built unit, produced by Wärtsilä, was installed
(Section 3.9), and the infrastructure by Kongsberg, uses an aluminium-oxygen aboard the Swedish Wallenius Lines car
In Table 3.6 the values are roughly is lacking. The external reformation of semi-fuel cell. The hydrogen peroxide fuel, carrier mv Undine to assist in auxiliary
estimated and based on available product diesel is an alternative and is seen as a electrolyte and the anodes reportedly power production. So far the programme
documentation for the fuel cells as well as viable alternative for the military which require frequent replacement. has demonstrated the ability of SOFC
DNV’s Internal Report No. 2010–0605 for uses high distillate fuel. However, it is technology to withstand the demands of
the combustion engines. Estimated electric more challenging to reform the low-cost, Some small ferries have been used to the marine environment and data analysis
efficiencies are based on the lower heating heavy fuel oil commonly used by the demonstrate fuel cell technology. At is proceeding. While methanol requires a
value of the relevant fuel and specific power merchant marine. A more realistic shorter- Expo2000 the msWeltfrieden was fitted number of additional precautions, when
and power density are compared for two term scenario for marine fuel cell power with a 10kW PEM fuel cell, where the compared to conventional fuels, it was
types of fuel cell power packs and two types generation would be operation by natural hydrogen was stored in metal hydride. Since demonstrated that it could safely be used
of internal combustion engine. gas. A number of high temperature fuel cells 2008 ZEMSHIPS’ (zero emissions ships) without major deviations from operating
are capable of operating directly on natural Alsterwasser, a 100-person passenger procedures or ship constructional methods.
ferry, has been in use on the Alster River in Moreover, it was shown that the use of
Hamburg. This ferry is powered by a pair of this fuel would present no greater risk to
48kW PEM fuel cells using air and hydrogen, the ship, its occupants or the environment
Electric power generator Electric efficiency Specific power) Power density the latter being stored as pressurised gas. than would normally be attributed to
(%) (kW/m2 (W/kg)
conventional marine machinery. PaFCXell
Fuel cell (MCFC) 45–50 3 15
The European Commission under the is a German-funded project currently
Table 3.6 Characteristic Fuel cell (HTPEM) ≈ 45 30 60 5th, 6th and 7th Framework programmes underway to investigate the integration of
properties of two fuel
Marine diesel (4 stroke) 40 80 90 has funded studies, research and small PEM fuel cells into the auxiliary power
cell types and two types
of combustion engines. demonstrators. Early projects included fuel generation grid of a cruise ship.
Marine gas (4 stroke) 45 80 90
[DNV 2012]
THE MILITARY IS for the installation of fuel cells. An additional benefit for the military is that fuel cells and necessitate complex onboard pre-
provide a small but significant proportion of
the total propulsive power. However, the
are very quiet compared to diesel engines. A detailed concept study was conducted
THAT FUEL CELLS into replacing a diesel generator set for the US Coastguard’s USCGC Vindicator by a
processing to take place. They would
in this case be a significantly more
vorticity produced by a rotor is complex and
ARE VERY QUIET 2.5MW MCFC fuel cell. The package included a fuel reformer for low sulphur NATO expensive way of generating electricity
a full understanding of the mechanisms
is still evolving, principally through the
standard F-76 distillate fuel: the reformer separated the fuel into hydrogen and
COMPARED TO carbon dioxide. The US Office of Naval Research developed a 2.5MW ship service
than conventional methods.
iii. Fuel cells produce DC electrical output
means of computational fluid dynamics.
DIESEL ENGINES fuel cell which was based on a MCFC and will reform naval fuel. The goal was to and, hence, are not so suited to ships
The vorticity in the wake of a rotor raises
the issue of vortex interaction if more
achieve their objective using commercial or near commercial technologies and for with mechanical transmission systems.
than one rotor is fitted to a ship. This
it to be highly reliable, maintainable and self-contained with respect to water and iv. Fuel cells have lower specific powers and
requires exploration for a particular design,
energy balance. The steam reformation of NATO F-76 was demonstrated for over power densities than diesel engines.
particularly with respect to any interference
1,400 hours and has fuelled a sub-scale MCFC for 1,000 hours. It also demonstrated
with the ship’s superstructure or high
adequate tolerance to salt, shock and vibration.
freeboard under certain wind conditions.
WHEN POWER IS
PROVIDED BY WIND
SOURCES THIS WILL
TEND TO ALTER THE
DESIGN BASIS OF
THE PROPELLER.
SOME ALLOWANCE
OF THE AVERAGE
POWER TO BE
DERIVED FROM THE
WIND, THEREFORE,
NEEDS TO BE TAKEN
INTO ACCOUNT IN Figure 3.15 Application of a kite to assist propulsion © Sky Sails Figure 3.16 An image of a combination of solar and wind energy from Solar Sailor
DESIGN IN ORDER In the case of the Baden-Baden two rotors, context of an augmentation of propulsive Solar energy generation capability, even if efficiency
TO OPTIMISE 18m high and 2.7m in diameter, were fitted power. There are, however, fluctuations Photovoltaic methods offer an approach for could be improved to 100% (MacKay 2009).
in place of the previously fitted three masts. in the loadings derived from the sails and As such, coupled with a maximum attainable
THE OVERALL
limited amounts of power generation on
It was found that the ship could sail much while there is a broad linearity of resultant board ships and trials have demonstrated specific power from the sun at given global
PERFORMANCE OF closer to the wind than when previously load when considered in the context of wind that some benefit is available for auxiliary locations and the generally limited available
under sail and in 1926 the ship made a speed, there can be significant scatter in the deck area suggest that the power attainable
THE SHIP
power requirements. However, the
successful crossing of the Atlantic Ocean. results and this has to be taken into account maximum contribution is small when would only be sufficient to augment the
Subsequently, another 3,000-tonne cargo- in the control system design. Fluctuations of compared with the power required to drive auxiliary power demands.
passenger was ordered, the Barbara, and this nature require attention in the fatigue the ship (Mackay 2011).
sailed between Hamburg and Italy for six and structural design of the installation. Conceptual proposals have been made
years. In this case the rotors differed in that The average raw power of sunshine is a to increase the available area for energy
they were 17m high and 4m in diameter, Soft sails and kites, Figure 3.15, have variable depending upon the latitude and capture from the sun by arrangements of
rotating at 150rpm and they were three in been explored experimentally on modern the angle at which the photovoltaic cell solar panels on mast-like structures arranged
number. The problem, however, remains merchant shipping. Their contribution in the is positioned relative to the sun. In the along the deck, sometimes in combination
that if there is no wind the ship becomes ahead and leeway directions is a function of United Kingdom, the average value over the with wind augmentation; (Figure 3.16).
becalmed in the absence of some other the relative magnitude and direction of the year is about 100 W/m2 on a horizontally Again, the number of masts that can be
form of power: this, however, is a problem ship and wind speed. mounted surface. Throughout the world the accommodated is dependent on the type
for all types of ship where wind is a source variation in power availability under average of ship and its duty as well the attitude of
of power. In the case of wind turbines mounted on cloud cover is typically between 87 W/m2 the panels with respect to the sun in order
Figure 3.13 E Ship 1 © Roberto Smera ships for the generation of electric power, in Anchorage to 273 W/m2 in Nouakchott to maximise the panels’ effectiveness. It
More recently, the E-Ship 1, a 10,500 dwt similar considerations apply in that an on the coast of Mauritania. However, the is likely that these arrangements will only
vessel shown in Figure 3.13, was built in adequate differential wind speed over the effect of cloud cover is significant in terms be effective in the sense of an augment to
2010. In addition to being fitted with two turbine rotor is required. For small ships of the energy that can be derived from the auxiliary power requirements.
3.5 MW diesel engines, E-Ship 1 has four and leisure boats gyroscopic couples from sun using this technology. Consequently,
Flettner rotors: two aft, port and starboard, a wind turbine also need to be taken into weather conditions and position on the Some potential advantages and
and two forward behind the bridge and account to prevent stability issues in a planet are significant influencing factors in disadvantages of the technology:
accommodation structure. With this seaway. developing the potential of solar power. Advantages
arrangement the ship is capable of a i. Power derived from the wind is free from
service speed of 17.5 knots. When power is provided by wind sources There is design potential to adopt a range exhaust pollutants.
this will tend to alter the design basis of of rigid and flexible technologies. However, ii. Partial propulsion benefits can be
Apart from leisure craft, the principal usage the propeller and lead to an off-design the principal constraint is the ability to find achieved through wind-based methods.
of sail power today is in some aspects performance in some operating conditions. a large deck surface area on the ship which iii. Solar power has been demonstrated to
of the luxury cruise market or with sail Some allowance of the average power to does not interfere with cargo handling augment auxiliary power.
training ships. However, wing sails have be derived from the wind, therefore, needs or other purposes for which the ship was
been used and a number of trials have to be taken into account in the propeller designed. In this context car transporters Disadvantages
been undertaken in recent years. The mv design in order to optimise the overall are an obvious candidate for the application i. Wind power systems rely on the wind
Ashington, Figure 3.14, provides an example performance of the ship. of this technology. strength to be effective.
of wing sail application and sea trials have ii. The use of some wind-based systems
shown that benefit can be obtained in the Resulting from the laws of physics, this rely upon adequate control system
Figure 3.14 mv Ashington wing sail application technology inherently suffers from low technology being installed on board
© Mercator Media 2013
the ship.
3 x 368kVA G1 G2 G3 share
supply
Generators
400V, 50Hz, 3ph
Cos Ø = 0.9
ships
service ˜ ˜ ships
service
Emer
Swbd
of this stored compressed air (without using network would need to be developed.
Figure 3.17 375 kW 375 kW
it in the compressor of a prime mover), low- ii. The size, pressure rating and cryogenic Propulsion plant of 0–615 RPM M1 M2 0–615 RPM
grade heat must be provided to supply the capabilities, in the case of nitrogen, of the Raasay hybrid
ferry [Courtesy CMAL]
needed energy. Sea water heat exchangers the ship storage tanks will determine the 375 kW
Prop 1 Prop 2
375 kW
are a possible source of this heat. The amount of energy storage and hence
same situation arises with liquid nitrogen: usefulness of the concept.
a source of low-grade heat is required to iii. There is an attendant blast risk with
drive the evaporation and create a useful high pressure tanks should fracture be
pressure. initiated.
iv. Corrosion can be a significant issue
Being energy storage media they have the in salt-laden environments with high 3.12 Hybrid propulsion grid when the vessel is moored in harbour
for the night. On low load sailings the ship
advantage of generating no CO2, NOX or SOX pressure tanks.
emissions to the atmosphere when in use v. Largely untried in the marine industry can also be operated by only the batteries
on board the ship. for propulsion purposes. Hybrid propulsion is an option where one feeding the electric motors; (Figure 3.17).
vi. These are low energy density methods or more modes of powering the ship can
Some potential advantages and of energy storage and, therefore, are be utilised to optimise performance for In this case the principal reasons for
disadvantages of the technology: likely to be suitable only for short sea economic, environmental or operational considering hybrid propulsion were:
Advantages routes. reasons. Most commonly today the different • greater redundancy
i. Compressed air and nitrogen generate powering modes feed a common electrical • reduced fuel consumption
no CO2, NOX or SOX emissions to the bus bar from which power can be drawn • reduced impact of CO2 emissions and
atmosphere when in use on board a ship. for various purposes. This, however, need other pollutants
ii. Uses land-based sources of non-fossil not necessarily be the case since many • uncertainty of future fuel costs
fuel power for creation. examples of mechanical linkages between • insurance against increasing
iii. Tank storage technologies are well independent power sources have been environmental legislation
understood. designed and operated in ships, both past • noise reduction
and present. Typical examples are to be • possibility to operate in zero emission
found with 10,500 dwt E-Ship which was mode when the ship is in port
built in 2010, Section 3.8, and COGAG and • lower maintenance
CODAG naval vessels. The Royal Navy’s
Type 45 destroyer’s is another typical It is estimated that this hybrid diesel-electric
example where an integrated electric propulsion system will use at least 20% less
propulsion system comprising two WR21 fuel for the ship than an equivalent diesel-
gas turbine alternators and two diesel- mechanical propulsion system operating at
electric generators supply propulsion design speed with the vessel fully loaded.
electric induction motors at 4.16 kV. This fuel saving, in overall terms, relies on
Similarly, with the Viking Lady in its the shore power component being derived
deployment of dual-fuel generator sets from renewable sources. There will also be
and a fuel cell; Section 3.7. consequent reductions in CO2 emissions and
at lower speeds and light loaded conditions
The choice for a hybrid option can also greater fuel savings can be achieved. In port
be location dependent. For example, the the ship is capable of operating on batteries
new buildings to the order of CMAL for only with zero ship-produced emissions.
the inter-island ferry service between
the Islands of Skye and Raasay in the Hybrid propulsion, therefore, permits
Hebrides where there is a strong desire to a further degree of design flexibility to
preserve the environment. In this case the enable a ship to be configured to equitably
propulsion system comprises diesel engines balance the constraints of economics and
and a system of batteries. In this case the the environment by combining different
batteries can either be recharged from power sources to meet the demands of the
the diesel engines or from the land-based operational profile.
4. Further propulsion
vessels. A variant of these propellers is the As propeller-specific loading increases, to
CLT propeller which attempts to enhance avoid the unwelcome effects of cavitation
propulsion efficiency by the use of blade the blade area has to increase which
the need for a ship engineering systems overall efficiency over the entire operational
approach to the ship design problem: profile. Apart from providing a means of
particularly in achieving the appropriate enhancing overall efficiency in this way, the
combination of power absorption, shaft controllable pitch propeller has advantages
rotational speed, ship speed and inflow to in ship manoeuvring or dynamic positioning
the propeller together with adequate hull situations. While for most seagoing ships
clearances and static pressure. fixed and controllable pitch propellers
provide acceptably efficient propulsion
Figure 4.3 A contra-
Controllable pitch propellers provide, solutions, a further propulsor variant is the rotating propeller
unlike fixed pitch propellers whose only ducted propeller. system incorporating
operational variable is rotational speed, an a podded propulsor
[Courtesy ABB]
extra degree of freedom because in addition Ducted propellers comprise two principal
to possible rotational speed changes the components: an annular duct surrounding
blades have the ability to change blade a propeller which operates inside the duct.
pitch; Figure 4.2. Nevertheless, for some These propulsors have found extensive
trainable about a common pod strut. propeller configuration. Contra-rotating
propulsion applications, particularly those application where high thrust at low speed
Azimuthing thrusters have been in propellers have been of considerable
involving shaft-driven generators, it may is required; typically in anchor handling,
common use for many years for dynamic theoretical and experimental interest as
be desirable from an overall efficiency towing and trawling situations when the
positioning and situations where high well as having been the subject of some full
point of view for the shaft speed to be held duct contributes some 40 to 50% of the
levels of manoeuvrability are needed. The scale development exercises. While they
constant and vary the power absorption by propulsor’s total thrust at or near zero
essential difference between azimuthing have found significant application in small
adjusting the blade pitch: thereby, reducing ship speed. Ducts, in addition to being
propellers and a further variant, the high-speed outboard units, the mechanical
the number of propeller operating variables fixed structures rigidly attached to the
podded propulsor, is where the engine problems associated with two long shafts
to one. While this latter arrangement can be hull as seen in the Figure, are in some
or motor driving the propeller is sited: if rotating co-axially in opposite directions
helpful for overall energy efficiency, it may cases designed to be steerable which
the engine or motor driving the propeller have generally precluded them from wider
introduce additional cavitation difficulties. then obviates the need for a rudder since
is sited in the ship’s hull then the system is use. Interest in the concept has been cyclic,
the thrust can then be vectored by the
termed an azimuthing propulsor and most however, an upsurge in interest in 1988
Where two or more design operating points azimuthing duct.
commonly the mechanical drive would be resulted in a system being fitted to a 37,000
are required for the ship, controllable pitch
of a Z or L type to the propeller shaft. In dwt bulk carrier and subsequently to a
propellers may provide a better solution As an alternative to steerable ducted
the case of a podded propulsor, the drive 258,000 dwt VLCC in 1993. More recently
in terms of efficiency by accepting some propellers there are either non-ducted
system comprises an electric motor directly a variant of the original contra-rotating
efficiency penalty in particular operation or ducted azimuthing propulsors where
coupled to a propeller shaft, supported concept has been proposed and fitted to
conditions in order to achieve a higher both propeller and duct, if fitted, are
on a system of bearings, in the pod. The some ships. This comprises the combination
propellers associated with these latter of a traditional propeller, driven from a
propulsors have been of the fixed pitch, conventional line shaft, as the forward
non-ducted type, whereas azimuthing member of the pair with a podded propulsor
units have either fixed or controllable pitch acting as the astern component: Figure 4.3.
propellers. Currently, the largest size of Furthermore, such an arrangement has
podded propulsor unit is around 23 MW and the potential benefit of removing the need
their use has been mainly in the context of for a rudder since the azimuthing podded
cruise ships and ice breakers, where their propulsor provides the steerage capability
manoeuvring potential is fully exploited. for the ship.
vanes are constrained to move about their Yamato 1. This 150-tonne craft used liquid
spindle axis relative to the rotating disc in a helium-cooled superconducting magnets to
predetermined way by a governing linkage. achieve the required high magnetic fields;
While having comparatively low efficiency, however, the achieved speed was around
vertical axis propellers have significant 8 knots.
advantages when manoeuvrability or
station keeping is a high ship operational An anticipated benefit of MHD drives
priority since the resultant thrust can was that they were expected to be near
be varied and readily directed along any silent in operation and hence became of
navigational bearing. considerable interest to the submarine
community. However, in practice this
Waterjet propulsion has found application proved not to be the case. The production
on a variety of small high-speed craft and of bubbles at the electrodes creates
ferries while its application to larger craft is broadband noise emissions that span a
growing with tunnel diameters of upwards frequency range from 2kHz to 20 kHz and
of 2 m. Waterjets, Figure 4.4, potentially beyond, but with most of the energy in the
offer a relatively efficient solution in difficult range 2kHz to 6kHz. This noise is created
hydrodynamic situations for conventional principally through coalescence of bubbles
propellers together with very good having diameters between 0.075mm
manoeuvrability. and 0.15mm which become spherical as
they move away from the walls of the
Magnetohydrodynamic propulsion duct and hence become effective omni-
can provide a means of ship propulsion directional acoustic sources. Although MHD
without the need for propellers or paddles. principles have been used successfully in
It is based on the Lorentz force equation electromagnetic rail guns and in liquid metal
derived in the 19th century. The idea pumps, they have proved less successful for
of electromagnetic thrusters was first marine propulsion.
patented in the USA in 1961 (Rice 1961). In
the early 1990’s Mitsubishi Heavy Industries
built the MHD powered demonstration ship
Wake equalizing duct The thrust of an MHD drive is proportional to B2 where is the conductivity of the liquid being
pumped; in the case of a ship this being sea water. The necessary magnetic fields can be large even
Asymmetric stern
by modern standards. For torpedoes with a high top speed it may be necessary to create fields in
Grothuis spoilers the range 15T to 20T, however, for ships and submarines at typical speeds the magnetic field can be
Semi or partial stern tunnels Devices which operated on the flow lower, around 5T to 10T. This, however, raises serious concerns around magnetic stealth in relation
before the propeller. to warships.
Mewis ducts
Reaction fins
The electric field has certain detrimental consequences. Unlike fresh water, in which hydrogen
Mitsui integrated ducted propellers
appears at the cathode and oxygen at the anode, in seawater trace elements which typically are
Hitachi Zozen nozzle ions of sodium, chlorine, magnesium, sulphur, potassium and calcium give rise, in addition to oxygen,
Increased diameter/low rpm propellers to the production of other chemical species and to chlorine gas at the anode. The high pH at the
Propellers with end plates cathode leads to scale production, typically of calcium hydroxide or magnesium hydroxide, which are
Operation at the propeller electrically insulating. Consequently, over a period of a few days the current can reduce by 12% and
Keppel propellers
with it the effectiveness of the drive. Where copper or aluminium anodes have been used, these can
Propeller boss cap fins be severely corroded as CuO2, AlO2, or their chlorides are produced and hence careful selection of
Grim vane wheels electrode material is necessary. The electrolysis process produces gases at the electrodes and these
Devices operating just behind or at the have the effect of blanketing the electrodes and hence the cathode is best placed at the bottom of
Table 4.1 Energy saving Additional rudder thrusting fins
propeller
and flow conditioning the duct to encourage hydrogen to rise into the induced flow and be swept out of the duct.
Rudder bulb fins
devices [Carlton, 2012]
WITHIN THE SHIP necessary compromises that have to be and temporary roughness. The former and, while relatively expensive, can be
DESIGN PROCESS 4.3 Hull design and made between resistance and propulsion,
stability, seakeeping and manoeuvrability
refers to the amount of unevenness and
condition of the hull plating in terms of the
effective in preventing fouling when used
in the correct circumstances. Many of
IT IS IMPORTANT appendages in order to meet the desired operational bowing of the ship’s plates, weld seams and these products are under evaluation by
profile. During this process, it is essential to the condition of the steel surface, while the shipowners to see how well they satisfy
TO CONSIDER A ship’s propulsive efficiency comprises
recognise that the propulsor has to operate latter principally accounts for fouling and their particular needs: among other
Liq
15 30
ui
High-temperature superconductors were
d
Figure 4.5 Superconductor motors and generators
he
20 40
liu
m
are significantly smaller and lighter than conventional discovered in 1986, but their production 25 50
rotating machines. This photo shows a 36.5 Disadvantages 60
as useful conductors is still not fully
megawatt superconductor ship propulsion motor that i. A cryogenic cooling system has to be
Liq
industrialised: they are expensive and T(K) PbMo6S8
ui
was designed and manufactured by AMSC for the U.S. µoHc2(T)
d
provided for the current and expected
hy
Navy. This machine, which successfully passed land- difficult to make and require particular
dr
geo
future generations of machines and
n
based testing, was less than half the size and weight
grain alignments. Although a new simpler
of a conventional motor of the same power rating. continued operation of the motor will
Photo courtesy of AMSC superconductor material, magnesium Typical current, field and temperature dependencies of superconductivity.
be dependent on the reliability of the
diboride, was discovered in 2001, its lower
cooling system.
critical temperature and sensitivity to High temperature superconductivity was first reported in a paper published in April 1986. This
ii. The technology has yet to be proven at
magnetic fields mean that its applicability paper by Bednorz and Muller described an insulating barium-lanthanum-copper-oxygen ceramic
sea.
to rotating machinery is still a matter of compound with a previously unheard-of critical temperature of 30°K. In less than a year of their
research. publication a second compound, this time of yttrium-barium-copper-oxygen (YBCO), was identified
with a transition temperature of ~96°K. In 1987, Bednorz and Alexander received the Nobel Prize
for their work and an urgent search started for additional high-temperature superconductors. At
DESPITE BEING DISCOVERED OVER 100 YEARS the present time, many high-temperature superconductors with critical temperatures above 96°K
have been identified, and many more completely new classes of superconducting materials have
AGO, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY REMAINS AN been discovered. Nevertheless, the current front-runner for most engineering applications involving
ACTIVE AREA OF FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH magnetic fields is YBCO, discovered in 1987, but it has taken more than 20 years to develop effective
engineering conductors using it. One difficulty is that the grain alignment required means that the
conductors are flat tapes, not round wires, which makes winding coils more complicated and limits
the design of coils and hence the machines that can be built using them.
FASTEST OR THE potential for causing damage (Section 2.3), performance of the ship. Condition
monitoring, performance measurement
maintaining speed in storms or poor
MOST ECONOMIC weather causes added resistance due to and maintenance practices are therefore
the wind and waves, the magnitude of a critical component in keeping the
which is dependent on the severity and plant in optimal condition. Furthermore,
direction of the weather relative to the unmotivated crews, for whatever reason,
ship. This increases fuel consumption. are unlikely to maintain a ship at its peak
Alternatively, if speed is reduced through performance. Alternatively, a poorly
adverse conditions, estimated times of designed machinery space with limited a minimum level. These types of capability environmental consequences. Slower ship
arrival can be extended with consequent access problems to components can have been under development since speeds can be prescribed for the initial
implications for docking slot availability. also be a disincentive to conduct proper the mid-1970s, and with progressive design or as an imposition on an already
The principal idea, therefore, is to use maintenance activities. increases in instrumentation and predictive faster design of ship, given that the main
updated weather forecast data and choose capabilities have become increasingly more engine’s slow running constraints are
an optimal route through calmer sea areas Notwithstanding the influence of poor powerful. There is nevertheless still scope satisfied. In this latter case the propeller
or areas that have the most downwind weather on fuel consumption, in a recent for the development of these methods. may also be modified or redesigned to
tracks based on predictive and optimisation study centred on a ferry sailing between further enhance the propulsive efficiency
methodologies. Such approaches rely Stockholm and Helsinki some 7% less fuel In addition to decision support methods, of the ship because of the lower specific
on a knowledge of the ship’s calm water consumption was achieved by optimising there is the ability to sail the ship at slower thrust loading: Section 4.1. The dangers of
resistance and added resistance in waves. the ship’s speed during the passage in speeds with the attendant advantage of under-powering a ship, discussed in Section
These systems have been deployed in conjunction with crew training. These reductions in fuel consumed. This carries 2, must also be recognised if potentially
various forms of complexity over the last savings were achieved using real-time the implication of longer voyage times as hazardous situations are to be avoided.
thirty or so years to good effect. However, decision support systems to advise the well as for the accountancy notion of the
the increasing sophistication of weather crew about ship operation, route planning cost of goods in transit, but in addition
forecasting over that period has permitted a and navigation with the goal of optimising to the fuel savings it also has beneficial
continuing enhancement of the technique. energy use and maintaining emissions to
A range of ship propulsion options have perspectives within the marine and related
been considered. While some are applicable industries. The actual progress will be
in the short term, others are medium- and dependent on the pace of technological
long-term options, due to the necessary development, commercial motivation,
technical, commercial and political public perception and political acceptability.
developments. Some are unlikely to come
to fruition within a reasonable timescale. Appendix 10 considers the applicability of
the various options discussed in this report
Figure 5.1 develops a perspective on the to a range of ship types. Within these ship
likely progress towards maturity of the types, both new and existing ships are
propulsion methodologies as seen currently considered as well as operational practice.
from the technical and research funding
Diesel engine
H2 infrastructure Hydrogen
Gas turbines
Hybrid propulsion
Nuclear propulsion
Energy storage
breakthrough
Battery main propulsion
Conventional propulsors
Waterjet propulsion
Hydrodynamic New hull forms & energy saving devices
Figure 5.1 Potential enhancements
New hull coatings
phasing of different
propulsion technologies MHD propulsion
in time
6. Conclusions
therefore good reason to keep machinery Short-term options:
well-maintained, particularly in view of In the short term, the diesel engine is
the increasing levels of complexity. In this currently the most widespread marine prime
respect, demotivated crews, for whatever mover for ship propulsion. Moreover, diesel
reason, are unlikely to maintain the ship at engine technology is a well-understood
its peak performance: conversely, a poorly and reliable form of propulsion and auxiliary
designed machinery space which has power generation technology and engine
accessibility problems will militate against manufacturers have well-established
proper maintenance activities, however repair and spare part networks around
well the crew are motivated. the world. There is also a supply of trained
engineers and their training requirements
The hull and machinery insurance impact are well known and established facilities
of most of the systems considered in exist for the appropriate levels of training.
this report, with the exception of nuclear In the immediate future methods for
THE CONDITION It is evident that to optimise the potential
benefits of a propulsion option, or
With regard to ship operation, it has been
demonstrated that weather routing of ships
propulsion, is likely to be relatively reducing emission levels exist and there
low. Indeed, they are unlikely to merit are continuing programmes of research
OF A SHIP’S combination of options, in terms of between ports to avoid poor weather and specific consideration beyond insurers and development being undertaken by
MACHINERY HAS efficiency and minimising the impact
on the environment, an integrated ship
storms, with the consequent influence on a
ship’s added resistance, has important fuel
understanding any new technology and the engine builders. At present engine
the costs associated with repairs. A caveat builders are generally confident of meeting
A SIGNIFICANT design procedure based on a systems consumption benefits. Similar benefits are to that, however, could be the market’s MARPOL Annex VI Tier 3 requirements by
INFLUENCE engineering approach must be employed.
Fundamental to this process is the proper
also realisable when ship speed is optimised
during voyages as well as investing in
previous experience with new systems combinations of primary and secondary
which may encourage underwriters to methods. Furthermore, all grades of fuel
ON FUEL definition of the intended ship’s operational appropriate crew training so they fully impose higher policy deductibles or self have a worldwide distribution network and
CONSUMPTION profile and the perceived tolerance on this
profile to meet future market fluctuations.
understand the implications of actions they
may take. In this context, real-time decision
insured retentions. Cover might be modified, are readily obtainable. However, there is
or the insured forced to run a higher now some contamination of the marine fuel
AND EMISSIONS When this profile is combined with the support systems with the goal of optimising self-insured retention, in cases of truly supply by first-generation biofuels and this
PERFORMANCE anticipated future daily fluctuations in
the ship operating and fuel costs, a design
energy use and minimising emissions are
helpful in achieving these fuel savings.
prototypical technology. This is because the needs to be carefully managed on board
fear of costly repairs and the prototypical ships. Nevertheless, diesel engines produce
space can be defined within which the ship nature of a system may prompt hull and CO2 emissions as well as NOX and SOX,
system can be contemplated. Furthermore, There is the ability to invoke slower ship machinery underwriters to restrict cover in volatile organic compounds and particulate
anticipated changes in environmental or speeds since this will result in reductions some way and to charge higher premiums to matter, albeit through reduction measures
legal frameworks should be introduced into in fuel consumed and have beneficial reflect any new technology. Nevertheless, in reduced quantities. It should, however, be
this design space definition. environmental consequences. These the transfer of a land-based technology noted that the quantity of SOX produced is
slower speeds can be prescribed for the together with that experience to a marine a direct function of the amount of sulphur
Within a ship system design approach, initial design or as an imposition on an environment may help in that respect. present in the fuel burnt.
consideration must be given to the already faster design of ship; given that the
integration of the various subsystems limitations arising from the main engine’s The adoption of alternative propulsion Natural gas is a fuel that can be used in
and their relative influences upon each slow steaming constraints are satisfied. options will be dependent on the price reciprocating engines and is a known
other. This should include the prime In this latter case further performance of fuels, the impact of present and technology. Service experience with
mover or fundamental power source; fuel benefits can gained from redesigning or future environmental legislation and the dual-fuel and converted diesel engines,
characteristics; the hull form together with modifying the propeller to accommodate likelihood of carbon tax introduction. In the albeit limited at the present time, has
the challenging of any constraints imposed the resulting lower specific thrust loading. case of fuel price, recent experience has been satisfactory. Indeed, it is relatively
upon it; the propulsor type and the creation Notwithstanding any benefits derived from demonstrated a trend towards increase easy to convert many existing marine
of conditions to achieve the maximum slow steaming, there is an operational risk superimposed with strong fluctuations. engines to burn LNG and currently this
efficiency possible; the minimisation of in fitting ships with too small engines, to However, there is debate whether the fuel is considerably cheaper than the
appendage resistance and the inclusion of meet environmental design indices or other presently observed trends will be carried conventional fuels. LNG fuel, while not
other appropriate energy-saving devices. criteria, as the ships may have insufficient forward into the future. Set against this free of harmful emissions, has benefits in
Furthermore, hull coatings are an essential power to navigate safely in poor weather. background the propulsion options in the terms of CO2, NOX and SOX emissions given
engineering consideration in achieving short-, medium- and long-term time frames that methane slip is avoided during the
optimal powering, since for many ships The condition of a ship’s machinery has a can be considered. bunkering and combustion processes. In
the frictional resistance is a significant significant influence on fuel consumption the worldwide context, there is a general
proportion of the total ship resistance. and emissions performance. There is lack of a bunkering infrastructure at
MARINE MARKET on order to utilise LNG fuel. in marine engines. For the future, synthetic
fuels based on branch-chain higher alcohols
SURROUNDING THEM, plant: particularly in the case of PWR
designs. The conventional methods of
ship market. At present the size of the
necessary battery pack would preclude their
AND REPRESENT Gas turbines have successfully been used and new types of microorganisms and algae OFFER A POTENTIAL design, planning, building and operation use as the sole means of propulsion in all
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EGR Exhaust gas recirculation C Centigrade
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GT Gross tonnage Hz Hertz [Cycles/second]
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HFO Heavy fuel oil J Joules [Energy: 1 Joule = 1 Newton.m]
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ICAO International Civil Aviation Organisation m metre [1m = 1000 mm]
I.MarEST, London. November 2012 Engineering’s Working Group. 2011
IEEC International Energy Efficiency Certificate mm millimetres
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DNV, 2012. Fuel cells for ships: Research and Innovation, Position Transport (Japan): The Survey on Transport Energy
LNG Liquid natural gas MWe Megawatts electrical
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LPG Liquid petroleum gas N Newton [Force: 1 N = 0.10197 kilograms force (kgf)] 2004
fuel%20cell%20pospaper%20final_tcm4-525872.pdf
MARPOL Marine Pollution Convention [IMO] nm Nautical mile
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MCFC Molten carbonate fuel cell pH Logarithmic measure of acidity [pH=1 Acid; pH=12 Alkali]
A Re-Examination. Dundee Securities Corporation, Proc. Lloyd’s Register Technology Days 2010. Lloyd’s
MCR Maximum continuous rating [of an engine] ppm parts per million Register, London
August 30, 2007
MEPC Marine Environmental Protection Committee [IMO] rpm revolutions per minute
EC 2002-2006. European Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Projects Rice 1961. Rice, W.A. US Patent 2997013, 22 August 1961
MHD Magnetohydrodynamic s second
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SMR Small modular reactor Deadweight The difference between the weight of water
displaced by the ship and its lightweight . www.greenship.org Stanford 2. http://npl-web.stanford.edu/archive/all-electron-
SOFC Solid oxide fuel cell
Greig 2002. Greig, A. Fuel cells and issues for their use in warships. battery/
Displacement The amount of water displaced by the ship.
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teu Twenty-foot equivalent [container] units
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US United States of America propulsion. Trans INEC, IMarEST, Edinburgh, 2012
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Appendices
Appendix 1 Appendix 2
Terms of reference Membership of the working group
The terms of reference of the Royal Academy of Engineering’s Alternative Methods of Chairman
Ship Propulsion Working Group are as follows: Professor JS Carlton FREng City University London
1. To assess the future prospects of current methods of merchant ship propulsion in Members
terms of environmental impacts and sustainability.
Mr J Aldwinkle Anthem Corporate Finance
2. To explore the feasibility of employing alternative means of propulsion for merchant Mr J Anderson Caledonian Marine Assets
ships with particular focus on nuclear power. These alternative means are to be Professor C Arcoumanis FREng City University London
placed within the contexts of other existing or known potential ship powering
Mr D Balston Chamber of Shipping
options.
Mr A Bardot International P&I Clubs
3. The working group is to comprise representatives from a range of marine and other Mr C Beall Shell Shipping Technology
related and interested communities based either in the United Kingdom or abroad.
Mr M Bowker Institute of Marine Engineering,
Science and Technology
4. A broad range of ship types, sizes and trading patterns are to be considered.
Professor R Bucknall University College London
5. The scope of the discussions are to include, but not necessarily be limited to, the Mr W Catford Surrey University
technical, operational, commercial, regulatory, risk, legal, environmental, public Mr J Cheetham Lloyd’s Register
acceptability, and health and safety considerations.
Mr J Clench City University London
6. Publicly available reports are to be produced at appropriate stages in the work of the Mr S Clews BP Ltd
working group. Mr D Davenport-Jones American Bureau of Shipping
Mr M Drayton The Baltic Exchange
7. The governance of the working group is to be vested in an elected Chair and Deputy
Chair in whom and through whom the terms of reference are to be implemented and Mr A Duncan Caledonian Marine Assets
publications authorised in accordance with the requirements of the Royal Academy Mr M Edmondson Chubb Insurance
of Engineering. Dr M El-Shanaway International Atomic Energy Authority
Mr S Firth MOD(N) Submarine Operating Centre
Mr D Forbes Rolls Royce plc
Mr A Goldsworth Rolls Royce plc
Dr A Greig University College London
Rear Admiral N Guild FREng Engineering Council
Mr S Hall American Bureau of Shipping
Mr D Hankey BAE Systems
Ms E Hauerhof City University London
Mr V Jenkins Lloyd’s Register
Mr C Joly Carnival CTS
Appendix 4 Appendix 5
Statement from Vice-President of the European Commission A ship systems approach
SiimKallas and EU Commissioner for Climate Action Connie
Hedegaard, October 2012. One starting point for a ship systems approach is Safety
to consider the plant requirements and undertake Financial costs
a stakeholder mapping exercise. However, the ship Market influences
“Shipping is a global industry and needs global solutions to address its environmental
owner is only one of a complex network of stakeholders Stakeholder requirements
footprint. As a result, we are all working towards an internationally agreed global
relating to the ship and its operation and their collective Technical development risks
solution to decrease greenhouse gas emissions from ships. The International
desires and requirements have to be relaxed such that Management understanding
Maritime Organisation made a significant and highly welcome step forward in July
a common perspective is reached. Capturing the views Warranty and servicing costs
2011 with the Energy Efficiency Design Index. But this measure alone – which
of these bodies can be difficult, but if it is not done Legal and statutory implications
is applied only to new ships from 2015 – will not be enough to ensure shipping
effectively then key requirements may be missed and, Public liability and insurance costs
emissions are reduced fast enough. Discussions about further global measures are
if significant, there is a high probability that the ship
ongoing at IMO level, but we need intermediary steps to quickly deliver emissions Table A5.1 Risk factors in new propulsion developments
may be unable to effectively trade.
reductions, such as energy efficiency measures also for existing ships.
The mode of operation required will determine a ship’s There are different types of risk: human risk;
At EU level, we consider several options, including market-based mechanisms. technological risk; process risk and financial risk.
specific design requirements. This will impose different
A simple, robust and globally-feasible approach towards setting a system for Technical risk relates to the deployment of novel or
requirements on the ship’s subsystems, including the
monitoring, reporting and verification of emissions based on fuel consumption is variations of proven technology and the consequent
prime source of power. These requirements, in turn,
the necessary starting point. This will help make progress at a global level and feed availability of the ship to undertake its commercial
will be heavily dependent upon the meta-solution,
into the IMO process. It’s therefore our joint intention to pursue such a monitoring, role. Each of these risk elements has to be considered
including the routes and the cargos being shipped as
reporting and verification system in early 2013. At the same time, we will continue separately and uncertainties associated with each risk
well as the sea states and other external factors. To
the debate with stakeholders on which measure can successfully address the EU’s category identified.
then move from a requirements specification to the
greenhouse gas reduction objectives.
system solution and integrate the various technologies
effectively, a functional understanding of the system is Failure mode and effect analysis is frequently helpful
The shipping industry itself is best placed to take the lead in delivering fast and in de-risking proposed conceptual designs, given that
needed. This principally separates the various functions
effective greenhouse gas emission reductions – thereby cutting cost and making the it is executed competently. Failure in this context is
and shows the required essential flow of information
sector fit for the future. The Commission is ready to play its part, in the EU and at formally defined as an unplanned transition to a state in
between them. When complete, the intended function
IMO level.” which the system either cannot perform at all or cannot
of the system can then be understood and used as a
framework for the ship design process, after which the properly perform its intended function: both being
requirements for the various subsystems of the ship potentially dangerous. To consider a failure as a point
can be defined from the functional model. To improve event which occurs at a well-defined instant of time is
the understanding of the entire ship system, sensitivity frequently a serious oversimplification. Whenever there
analyses can then be undertaken. is a steady degradation of performance together with
an arbitrary criterion of failure, appreciable information
When a departure is made from conventional modes of may be lost by studying only the time to failure.
propulsion, increased attention should be paid to the However, for high-integrity systems actual failure may
system reliability and, by implication, its availability. be so rare that it will not provide useful information. In
Furthermore, it needs to be recognised that costs this context, Weibull lifetime modelling and Bayesian
for design changes generally increase significantly statistical approaches can be helpful and from these a
between each of the project stages. However, the design for reliability process can be defined.
quality of data and with it increased certainty, during a
design and production exercise tends to increase as the The conclusion of this process is that the solution
project progresses. Therefore, in order to manage risk may appear to a ship owner to be what was originally
throughout the life cycle it is necessary to identify risks, desired, but having been through a systems
then quantify those risks and communicate them. engineering process ensures that it generally satisfies
all stakeholder requirements.
The range of risks associated with the development
of novel forms of propulsion in merchant ships can be
appreciated from Table A5.1.
HALF LIFE
Radioactive half life is defined as the time it takes stable, non-radioactive helium. If we originally
for the amount of a radionuclide to fall to one half take 1 million atoms of tritium (3H), after 12.3
of its original value. Take for example tritium, years (half life) we would have 500,000 atoms of
which has a radioactive half-life of 12.3 years radioactive tritium left, with the other 500,000
and emits a very low energy beta particle when it atoms having radioactively decayed to non-
undergoes radioactive decay and transforms to radioactive helium (3He).
Appendix 6
fissionable material, does not imply that the fuel will heat and the cooling system needs high reliability.
Further aspects relating to nuclear have a longer life in a reactor since other factors such as Furthermore, due to fission product activity, systems
merchant ship propulsion corrosion resistance or fuel element fatigue influence and components containing fuel salt are highly
life expectation. Therefore, it is likely that a standard radioactive and remote maintenance equipment is
civil fuel of around 5% enrichment would be used in needed. This also applies to the off-gas and drain
Fission process
any merchant shipping application. Although not a tank systems. Additionally, the bare graphite used in
Nuclear fission is induced when a free thermal neutron The simultaneous and progressive fission of a large
CO2-producing energy source, nuclear power produces the core is susceptible to distortion and damage in
is absorbed in a large atom such as 235U or 239Pu. number of atoms therefore creates a very large number
waste products because following fission a number of a high neutron flux. Finally, the fuel in a molten salt
Absorption of this type causes instability and can set of fission products which are highly radioactive isotopes
radioactive products remain; many of which have long reactor is dispersed and this complicates the shielding
up vibrations within the nucleus which cause it to of many varied and different elements, all of which,
half-lives requiring a considerable period of storage requirements which are notably different to those of
become distended to the point where it splits apart as soon as they are created, start to decay, giving
before they cease to pose a radiological hazard. a PWR. The requirement to also thermally insulate the
under mutual electrostatic repulsion of the parts. off energy and radiation in the form of beta particles
hot compartments exacerbates the naval architect’s
If this happens, the atom splits into fragments and (electrons) and gamma rays. The fragments go through
Molten salt reactors problems.
energy is released. In the case of 235U, if a free neutron several stages of decay before becoming more-or-less
Molten salt reactors operate at atmospheric pressure
is absorbed into an atom, the 235U is converted into stable elements. Quite soon after becoming critical and
and in this way avoid accident sequences that with Ship concept design
236
U which is highly unstable because of the neutron starting operation, the reactor core contains more than
other types of reactor originate with low pressure. Nuclear propulsion, if applied to merchant ships,
to proton ratio. Fissionable nuclei break-up occurs in 200 radioactive species (radionuclides).
The molten salt reactor operates at high temperature would permit further concepts in ship design to be
a number of different ways: indeed the 235U nucleus
which, with appropriate generating plant, gives high contemplated. For example, because nuclear fuel
may break up in some 40 or so different ways when Thus energy in the form of heat and radiation is
thermal efficiency and high power to weight and size is relatively cheap, the conventional operating cost
it absorbs a thermal neutron. Typically, this might be created not only by the fission chain reaction itself, but
ratios. With regard to the high temperatures, there implications of high-speed operations do not apply.
to split into two fragments, 140Xe and 94Sr as well as continues to be given off after the reactor is shut down
is a large (≈500 ºC) margin between the operating It might, therefore, become desirable to operate a
emitting two neutrons: alternatively, the split may take by the insertion of control rods which soak up neutrons
temperature and the boiling point of the fuel salt, container ship at 35 knots or a tanker at 21 knots in
the form of 147La and 87Br fragments plus two neutrons. and stop the chain reaction. The energy of decaying
allowing time to react in the event of loss of decay contrast to the lower conventional speeds. Such a
All of the fission fragments are initially radioactive and fission products is known as decay heat.
heat cooling. It is inherently stable and load following, concept might save the deployment of one ship on
the majority then undergo a decay process to stable
with a quick response. a liner route when moving a fixed volume or weight
daughter elements. For example, the 140Xe and 94Sr Fuel enrichment
of cargo. Alternatively, it could give flexibility with a
fragments are unstable when formed and, therefore, In PWR reactors only a small percentage of naturally
There is an abundant world supply of thorium, which full complement of ships to accommodate predicted
undergo beta decay. During this decay process the occurring uranium is fissionable, 235U, which implies
is used in the reactor in its natural state, requiring no increasing trade volumes. A further design dimension,
fragments emit an electron each after which they both that uranium has to be enriched in its 235U component.
separation or pre-use processing. The earth’s crust due to the small mass and volume of fuel consumed,
become stable. The emitted two or three neutrons While it is possible to achieve virtually any level of
contains three times as much thorium as U238. may give scope for increased cargo deadweight
which themselves, after having their speed and energy enrichment that is desired, uranium for use in civilian
Moreover, the fuel salt can be contaminated so as capacity or, alternatively, provide greater flexibility in
moderated, may be captured by other 235U nuclei in an programmes is generally around 5% of 235U. Levels of
to confer virtually insurmountable resistance to hull design to satisfy other constraints which might not
ongoing process called a chain reaction. Simultaneously enrichment of 20% or greater are subject to stringent
proliferation and its use in nuclear weapons. normally be able to be relaxed. If the former of these
with the formation of the emission fragments is the controls due to international safeguards and nuclear
options were taken, the propeller power density might
emission of gamma rays. weapons proliferation concerns and are only used
After reprocessing, the wastes are predominantly become too large for an acceptable propulsion solution
in specialist or military applications. Furthermore, an
short-lived fission products with relatively short half- using a single screw. This might dictate that a twin or
increase in enrichment level, because there is more
lives. In a waste repository, safe radiation levels would triple screw option was selected and while increasing
be reached in 300 years, as opposed to the tens of building costs, might have helpful steering or propulsion
DECAY HEAT thousands of years of actinides with much longer redundancy aspects.
half-lives.
Decay heat is the heat produced by the radioactive which will decrease to about 2% of the pre-
As with many other aspects of the design process for
decay of radioactive fission products after a shutdown power level within the first hour after
Set against these advantages there are some a nuclear-propelled ship, the design of the control
nuclear reactor has been shut down. The amount of shutdown and to 1% within the first day. Decay
disadvantages of this technology. Pipes and system and the system integrity would form a central
radioactive materials present in the reactor at the heat will then continue to decrease, but it will
components comprising the salt systems must be feature of the safety case. Indeed, it would be a
time of shutdown is dependent on the power levels decrease at a much slower rate. Decay heat will
maintained above the high melting temperature of complex matter to construct a fully integrated safety
at which the reactor operated and the amount of be significant weeks and even months after the
the salt until emptied by draining to the drain tank. case for a ship-borne reactor plant and its supporting
time spent at those power levels. Typically, the reactor is shut down, thus the need for ongoing
Isolating the ship’s structure and other compartments shore infrastructure to support a nuclear powered
amount of decay heat that will be present in the reactor cooling. Hence, nuclear powered ships , like
from the high-temperature systems and compartments merchant ship. This is because a mobile reactor plant
reactor immediately following shutdown will be nuclear power stations, require auxiliary generated
is arguably the main problem facing the ship designer. needs to be able to operate independently at sea and
roughly 7% of the power level that the reactor electrical power for reactor cooling or general ship
Also, fuel salt drained from the reactor into the in at least two different dry-docks or ports: probably
operated at prior to shutdown, services when the reactor is shut down.
drain tank requires to be cooled to remove decay more if the ship undertook current commercial trading
patterns. However, to minimise complexity, duplication Nuclear safety considerations will drive different shore Operation: There would need to be some interaction used nuclear fuel they would be more demanding.
of systems and cost, it would be important that the infrastructure requirements from those currently in with shore infrastructure whenever cargo is loaded or Again, these issues could be simplified if the
designs of the reactor plant and shore infrastructure place for conventionally propelled merchant ships. unloaded and, more particularly, if the reactor had to advantages of a plant modular approach were adopted
are coherent. In particular, a key objective for the mobile These would impact on factories, shipyards, ports be shut down for unplanned repair. The repair facilities with complex work undertaken off-ship or even offsite.
reactor plant would be to minimise the nuclear safety and dockyards throughout the whole life cycle of employed would have to consider the use of high-
demands placed on the shore infrastructure. the nuclear propulsion plant and, in so doing, would integrity power supplies, cooling water supplies to Decommissioning: The principle of designing reactor
be a major cost driver for nuclear powered merchant remove decay heat, and the ability to handle low-level plant with decommissioning in mind should apply.
Within the space available on a large merchant ship it shipping. There would be a number of life cycle radioactive discharges. The operation of nuclear- However, by the time marine plant decommissioning
may be possible to include many of the support systems requirements that would need to be satisfied: powered merchant ships in ports close to centres of and disposal are likely to become issues for nuclear-
that are required when a reactor is shut down for repair population will require appropriate nuclear emergency powered merchant ships, effective arrangements
or refuelling. For example, alternative cooling water Design: A design assessment would be required to response plans and arrangements to be put in place for land-based nuclear plants may be in place. When
systems for decay heat removal and high integrity justify the intended type of reactor plant to be used in which may, in certain quarters, have some negative these have been established they could absorb the
electrical power supplies could be supplied. However, the ship. effects on public perception. Entry into navigationally relatively small contribution from the maritime domain,
with a small number of shore facilities supporting a difficult port approaches would also require appropriate particularly if modular construction and deconstruction
relatively large number of ships, it may be more cost- Manufacture: Special facilities would be required for assistance and emergency response arrangements. is employed. If repositories have not been established
effective to install these facilities on the dockside. By the manufacture of reactor plant components, and in Indeed the operation of LPG carriers already addresses by then, the currently established plan of holding spent
adopting a modular approach to nuclear plant design, the case of the reactor core these facilities would be similar issues. The use of offshore terminals might fuel in surface cooling ponds could be utilised.
typical of small modular reactors, work on a complete need to be within a licensed site. The factories already form the basis of an appropriate goods distribution
reactor plant module could be carried out at specialist in place for civil nuclear programmes could, however, solution but would add cost to the transportation chain. A number of dismantling options are available. The
facilities offsite, thereby easing dockside nuclear safety most likely be used. Clearly, it would be desirable to use ports remote from immediate dismantling and safe storage options have
requirements. Clearly, a system engineering approach the general public access and to design reactor plants been used, in part, for the Otto Hahn and Savannah
is required to consider these and other issues, thereby Build and commissioning: Although aspects of to minimise dependence on shore facilities when shut respectively. Indeed, the Otto Hahn, following its
ensuring an optimum design solution for both merchant conventional marine plant require clean conditions down for repairs. Additionally, within the operational successful period as a nuclear-propelled merchant
ship and shore infrastructure. for assembly, the requirements for nuclear plant in framework there would be a need to introduce security ship demonstrator, went on to have a long career as a
cleanliness, quality assurance, procedural control and measures to protect nuclear material on a mobile diesel-propelled cargo ship.
Safety and life cycle issues inspection would be demanding. This implies fabricating platform.
Radiation is a hazard to health, so the core of a nuclear as much of the reactor plant as possible in dedicated Cost models
reactor, where the fission takes place, must be shielded manufacturing facilities offsite and then installing Refuelling and major maintenance and repair: Figure A6.1 shows the historical trend in uranium
to prevent radiation reaching the operators and the completed modules: this again might favour integral Currently available reactor plants for merchant oxide prices, from which some volatility can be seen.
general public. Furthermore, barriers must be provided reactor plant designs and small modular reactors. The ships would require refuelling at regular intervals. However, only around 52% of the cost of uranium fuel
to ensure that highly radioactive particles stay within presence of nuclear fuel onsite requires facilities to be To minimise ship downtime, these periods might comprises the cost of uranium, to which enrichment
the core. In a nuclear power station, the final barrier to designed to consider a range of external hazards, from be planned to coincide with routine dockings and and fabrication costs of approximately 26% and
the escape of radioactive particles to the environment earthquake to aircraft impact. Furthermore, reactor major maintenance, inspection or repairs. The shore 7% respectively must be added: the balance of the
is the containment building housing the nuclear plant. plant commissioning would require high-integrity infrastructure requirements would be similar to those total cost being conversion and waste processing
electrical and cooling water supplies, facilities to for the build and commissioning phases, however, due and storage costs (Dundee 2007). Figure A6.2 records
The escape of radioactive particles from the core handle radioactive discharges, and robust emergency to the increased radiological hazard associated with the historical trends in electricity productions costs
constitutes a nuclear accident, which may be quite response arrangements. The latter requirements would
small, easily contained and relatively harmless; or be simplified if the shipyard was distant from large
large, as in the cases of Chernobyl and Fukushima. A centres of population. Within the shipyard, docks, tidal
nuclear accident could result from core damage, such berths and cranes would also require safety cases,
as distortion or melting, as a result of failure of the and special arrangements would be needed to ensure
Uranium oxide price (USD/lb) 140
• Coal 12
systems which take away the heat from fission and the safe exit from the shipyard. Throughout the build
120 • Gas 10
decay heat after shutdown. Hence the safety case for and commissioning a significant level of regulatory 100 • Nuclear 8
a nuclear power plant not only demonstrates that the oversight would be expected. 80
• Petroleum 6
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
0
heat when it is operating and the decay when it is shut
Jan 1
1995
Jan 1
2000
Jan 1
2005
Jan 1
2010
down.
Figure A6.1 Historical trends in uranium oxide prices Figure A6.2 US Electricity production costs 1995–mid 2008
[InfoMine.com] [NEI Global Energy Decisions]
5. Preparation for the safety assessment Defence in depth and safety margins Management, use and Maintenance References for Appendix 7
The first stage of carrying out the safety of the Safety Assessment
13. Assessment of defence in depth 7.1 Fundamental Safety Principles:
assessment shall be to ensure that the necessary
It shall be determined in the assessment of defence 22. Use of the safety assessment Safety Fundamentals. IAEA Safety Standards Series
resources, information, data, analytical tools as well
in depth whether adequate provisions have been The processes by which the safety assessment No. SF-1, IAEA, Vienna, 2006.
as safety criteria are identified and are available.
made at each of the levels of defence in depth. is produced shall be planned, organised, applied,
7.2 Safety Assessment for Facilities and Activities.
6. Assessment of the possible radiation risks audited and reviewed.
General Safety Requirements Part 4, No. GSR Part 4,
The possible radiation risks associated with the Safety Analysis
23. Use of the safety assessment IAEA, Vienna, 2009.
facility or activity shall be identified and assessed.
14. Scope of the safety analysis The results of the safety assessment shall be
7.3 International Basic Safety Standards for the
7. Assessment of safety functions The performance of a facility or activity in all used to specify the programme for maintenance,
Protection against Ionizing Radiation and for the
All safety functions associated with a facility or operational states and, as necessary, in the post- surveillance and inspection; to specify the
Safety of Radiation Sources.
activity shall be specified and assessed. operational phase shall be assessed in the safety procedures to be put in place for all operational
IAEA Safety Series No115, IAEA, Vienna, 2006.
analysis. activities significant to safety and for responding to
8. Assessment of site characteristics
anticipated operational occurrences and accidents;
An assessment of the site characteristics relating to 15. Deterministic and probabilistic approaches
to specify the necessary competences for the
the safety of the facility or activity shall be carried Both deterministic and probabilistic approaches
staff involved in the facility or activity and to make
out. shall be included in the safety analysis.
decisions in an integrated, risk-informed approach.
9. Assessment of the provision for radiation 16. Criteria for judging safety
protection Criteria for judging safety shall be defined for the 24. Maintenance of the safety assessment
It shall be determined in the safety assessment for safety analysis. The safety assessment shall be periodically
a facility or activity whether adequate measures are reviewed and updated.
17. Uncertainty and sensitivity analysis
in place to protect people and the environment from
Uncertainty and sensitivity analysis shall be
harmful effects of ionising radiation.
performed and taken into account in the results of
10. Assessment of engineering aspects the safety analysis and conclusions drawn from it.
It shall be determined in the safety assessment
18. Use of computer codes
whether a facility or activity uses, to the extent
Any calculation method and computer codes used
practicable, structures, systems and components of
in the safety analysis shall undergo verification and
robust and proven design.
validation.
11. Assessment of human factors
19. Use of operating experience data
Human interactions with the facility or activity
Data on operational safety performance shall be
shall be addressed in the safety assessment, and
collected and assessed.
it shall be determined whether the procedures and
safety measures that are provided for all round
Documentation
operational activities, in particular those that are
necessary for implementation of the operational 20. Documentation of the safety assessment
limits and conditions, and those that are required The results and findings of the safety assessment
in response to anticipated operational occurrences shall be documented.
and accidents, ensure an adequate level of safety.
Independent verification
12. Assessment of safety over the lifetime of a
facility or activity 21. Independent verification
The safety assessment shall cover all the stages in The operating organisation shall carry out an
the lifetime of a facility or activity in which there are independent verification of the safety assessment
possible radiation risks. before it is used by the operating organisation or
submitted to the regulatory body.
Appendix 8 Appendix 9
The energy efficiency design index Calendar for main emission legislation events 2010–2020
The computation of the actual EEDI for a specific ship ship speed and capacity. It will also be seen that in both 1 July 2010 Tier II NOX limit for new engines [Global]
design, for which the Index applies, is achieved through the numerator and denominator there are number
1 July 2011 US Caribbean Sea ECA adopted at IMO MEPC 62
the use of following relationship which embraces the correction factors included which adjust the value of
four CO2 potentially producing components in the the Index for particular circumstances. The actual EEDI 1 Jan 2012 Cap on sulphur content of fuel(a) 4.50% to 3.50% [Global]
numerator while in the denominator is the product of is then given by:
1 Aug 2012 North American ECA took effect SOX and NOX(b) [Local]
1 Jan 2014 US Caribbean Sea ECA takes effect SOX and NOX(b) [Local]
Actual EEDI =
1 July 2015 ECA cap on sulphur content of fuel 1.00% to 0.10% [Local]
fi .CDWT . .Vref . fW
where: Notes
a SOX emissions are being controlled by reducing the percentage of sulphur in the fuel.
CDWT capacity is the ship’s capacity measured in nPTI is the number of power take-in systems. It is permissible to use fuel with a higher sulphur content than the local limit so long
deadweight or gross tonnage at the summer PAE is the ship’s auxiliary power requirements is it can shown that by using some appropriate technology the SOX content of the
load line. In the case of container ships this is under normal seagoing conditions. [kW] exhaust is no higher than if fuel was burnt that is within the local limit.
taken as 70% of the deadweight. [tonnes]. b At Tier II until 1 Jan 2016 then Tier III.
PEAeff is the auxiliary power reduction due to the use
[MEPC 63/23 Annex 8].
of innovative technologies. [kW] c Subject to technical review to be concluded no later than 2013; this could be delayed.
CFAE is the carbon factor for the auxiliary engine
Peff is taken as 75% of the installed power for d Subject to feasibility review to be completed by 2018.
fuel. [gCO2/gfuel]
each innovative technology that contributes
CFME is the carbon factor for the main engine fuel. to the ship’s propulsion. [kW]
[gCO2/gfuel]
PME is the ship’s main engine installed power [kW]
EEDI is the actual energy efficiency design index for
PPTI is taken as 75% of the installed power for
the ship. [gCO2/tonne.nm]
each power take-in system. For example,
feff is a correction factor for the availability of propulsion shaft motors.[kW]
innovative technologies.
SFCAE is the specific fuel consumption for the
fi is a correction factor for the capacity of ships auxiliary engines as given by the NOX
with technical or regulatory limitations in certification. [g/kWh]
capacity.
SFCME is the specific fuel consumption for the main
fj is a correction factor for ships having specific engines as given by the NOX certification.
design features: for example, an ice breaker. [g/kWh]
fw is a correction factor for speed reduction due Vref is the ship speed under ideal sea conditions
to representative sea conditions. when the propeller is absorbing 75% of the
M is the number of propulsion shafts possessed main propulsion engine(s) MCR when the ship
by the ship. is sailing in deep water.
neff is the number of innovative technologies
contained within the design.
nME is the number of main engines installed in the
ship.
Appendix 10
Potential applicability of measures and options discussed
Ship type Tanker/Bulk carriers Container ships Ro/Ro & ferries Cruise ships Ship type General cargo ships Offshore support vessels Tugs Fishing vessels
NB ES Op NB ES Op NB ES Op NB ES Op NB ES Op NB ES Op NB ES Op NB ES Op
Biofuels Biofuels
Nuclear Nuclear
Batteries Batteries
Hydrogen Hydrogen
Slow steaming and/or propeller mod. Slow steaming and/or propeller mod.
The above options do not take account of time frame in that some options would have a relatively long lead time; see Figure 5.1. The above options do not take account of time frame in that some options would have a relatively long lead time; see Figure 5.1.
Additionally, the presence of a shaded block suggests there may be merit in considering these options for many cases of ships Additionally, the presence of a shaded block suggests there may be merit in considering these options for many cases of ships
conforming to the general type. The absence of a shaded block does not necessarily imply there is no merit in the option for the conforming to the general type. The absence of a shaded block does not necessarily imply there is no merit in the option for the
class of ship since many variants, including operational profiles, exists within ship types. class of ship since many variants, including operational profiles, exists within ship types.
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