Chapter II : AC-DC Converters (Rectifiers)

II.1 Introduction
II.2 Uncontrolled rectifiers
II.2.1 single-phase rectifiers
II.2.2 Three-phase rectifiers
II.3 controlled rectifiers
II.3.1 Single-phase rectifiers
II.3.2 Three-phase rectifiers
II.4 PWM Rectifiers
II.5 Terminology (table2)

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II.1 Introduction
AC/DC converter is also known as ‘‘Rectifier’’. Usually the AC input to the circuit is
a sinusoidal voltage source that operates at 120 V, 60 Hz or a 230 V, 50 Hz, which
are used for power distribution applications.
The AC voltage is rectified into a unidirectional DC voltage, which can be used
directly to supply power to a DC resistive load or control a DC motor. In some
applications the DC voltage is subjected to further conversion using a DC/DC or
DC/AC converter. A rectifier is typically used as a front-end circuit in many power
system applications. If not applied correctly, rectifiers can cause harmonics and low
power factor when they are connected to the power grid.
As shown in Fig. II.1, rectifiers are usually used in either single-phase or three-phase
applications, but multi-phase topologies are possible for high power applications.

Fig.II.1 Classifications of rectifier circuits

Switches that are used in rectifier’s designs can be either uncontrolled (diode) or
controlled devices (thyristor). Single-phase rectifiers can be classified as either half-
wave or full-wave circuits. Three-phase rectifiers are classified based on the number
of pulses of the rectified output voltage, i.e., 3-pulse rectifiers, 6-pulse, 12-pulse,
…etc.

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There are circuit topologies, such as one-quadrant, two-quadrant, and four-quadrant,
for half- or full-wave types. Some of them are uncontrolled, and others are fully
controlled depending on the combination of diodes and thyristors, which are usually
classified as semi-controlled or hybrid rectifiers.

II.2 Uncontrolled rectifiers

II.2.1 Single-Phase Rectifiers
Single phase rectifiers, as already discussed, are extensively used in low power
applications particularly for power supplies to electronic circuits. They are also found
useful for supplying small dc loads rarely exceeding 5 KW. Above this power level
three phase ac – dc power supplies are usually employed.

Fig II.2 Single-Phase Rectifiers Diode Bridge

A) half-wave rectifier resistive load

The circuit is illustrated in Fig. II.3(a), and the resulting waveforms are shown in
Fig. II.3(b).

(a) (b)

Fig II.3 (a) Single-phase uncontrolled rectifier, and (b) output voltage waveforms
(Resistive load)
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The output waveform has an average value (the required DC component), which
can be calculated using Eq. (II.1) as,

(II.1)

 Form factor
The form factor can be calculated using Eq II.2

(II.2)
 Ripple Factor
The ripple factor can be calculated using Eq II.3

(II.3)

B) half-wave rectifier inductive load

In the case of inductive load (inductance L). The circuit is illustrated in Fig. II.4(a),
and the resulting waveforms are shown in Fig. II.4(b).

Fig II.4 (a) Single-phase uncontrolled rectifier, and (b) output voltage waveforms
(inductive load)

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The output waveform has an average value:

C) Inductive load with freewheeling diode (FWD)

In this half-wave rectifier, freewheeling diode is connected in parallel with the
load.

This diode serves two main functions

1) It prevents reversal of load voltage except for small diode voltage-drop.

2) It transfers the load current away from the main rectifier, thereby allowing all
of its diodes to regain their blocking state.

a) b)
Fig II.5 (a) Single-phase uncontrolled rectifier with freewheeling diode, and (b)
output voltage waveforms (inductive load)

D) Full-wave rectifier resistive load

Single phase uncontrolled half wave rectifiers suffer from poor output voltage
and/or current ripple factor, we can using a full wave rectifier, they use more
number of diode but provide higher average output voltage.

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 D-1) split supply (Center tap) Full wave Rectifier:
 This circuit consists of two diodes.
 A centre tapped secondary winding is used to conned two diodes
 The centre point is the neutral point.
 The total secondary voltage is divided into two parts.

Fig. II.6 split supply (Center tap) Full wave Rectifier and its waveform (resistive
load)

Fig. II.7 Center tap Full wave Rectifier and its waveform (inductive load)

The Average voltage can be calculated by

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And the Ripple factor

II.2.2 Full wave Bridge Rectifier (Graetez Bridge)

contains four diodes D1, D2, D3 and D4 connected to form a bridge.

a) b)

c) d)
Fig II.8 : a) Diode bridge in various packages, b) A hand made diode
bridge. The wide silver band on the diodes indicates the cathode side of the
diode. c) full-bridge (FB) rectifiers diagram , and d) waveforms

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Fig II.9 : full-bridge rectifiers diagram and its waveforms (resistive load)

250

200

150

100

50

-50

-100

-150

-200

-250
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Fig II.10 : full-bridge rectifiers diagram and its waveforms (inductive

load)

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II.2.2 Three-Phase Rectifiers
A) three pulses rectifier
The output is defined in terms of the number of pulses per one cycle of the input
voltage. The 3-pulse rectifier is a basic three-phase rectifier circuit (connected to a
three-phase system), and can be used as building block for most of other three-phase
rectifiers. Each of the three-phase input voltages can be determined using Eq. ( II.4 ).
The operation of a three-phase 3-pulse rectifier is shown in Fig. II.4 a, b.

(II.4)

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 Fig. II.12 3-pulse rectifier circuit (P3): a) circuit and b) waveforms

A diode will turn-on when its voltage is higher than the other two diodes and will
conduct, the output voltage has 3 pulses, during one cycle of the input. Therefore, the
fundamental frequency of the output voltage is three times the frequency of the input
voltage. The DC voltage, given by Eq. (II.5), is higher than the output voltage of a
single-phase full-wave rectifier. Of course, the drawback is the need of a three-phase
source, which is most common for industrial applications.

(II.5)

B) Six pulses rectifier

The circuit shown in Fig. II.13 is known as a 6-pulse rectifier, and it is the building
block for all high power multiple-pulse rectifier circuits.
Two 6-pulse rectifier circuits can be connected for building 12-pulse rectifiers. If the
two rectifiers are connected in series, the resulting circuit is shown in Fig. II.14 a and
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is suitable for high voltage, whereas the converter is connected in parallel as shown in
Fig.II.6 b, the circuit is suitable for high current

Fig. II.13 6-pulse rectifier circuits (PD3): a Y -connected source, and b D-connected
source

The fundamental frequency of the output voltage is six times the frequency of the
input voltage. The DC voltage, given by Eq. (II.6), is higher than the output voltage
of three pulses rectifier.

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 (II.6)

C . Twelve-pulse rectifiers
Although better than single-phase rectifiers or three-phase half-wave rectifiers, six-
pulse rectifier circuits still produce considerable harmonic distortion on both the AC
and DC connections. For very high-power rectifiers the twelve-pulse bridge
connection is usually used. A twelve-pulse bridge consists of two six-pulse bridge
circuits connected in series, with their AC connections fed from a supply transformer
that produces a 30° phase shift between the two bridges. This cancels many of the
harmonics the six-pulse bridges produce.
The 30 degree phase shift is usually achieved by using a transformer with two sets of
secondary windings, one in star (wye) connection and one in delta connection.

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 12 pulses diode rectifiers

Fig. II.14 12-pulse rectifier circuits: a high voltage 12-pulse rectifier, and b high
current 12-pulse rectifier

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II.3 Controlled rectifiers
II.3.1 Single-phase rectifiers
A. Half Wave rectifiers

Fig. II.15 Single phase Half Wave controlled rectifier and its waveform (resistive
load)

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Fig. II.16 Single phase Half wave controlled rectifier and its waveform (inductive
load)

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 B. Full Wave rectifiers

Fig. II.17 split supply (Center tap) Full wave Rectifier and its waveform (resistive
load)

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Fig. II.18 split supply (Center tap) Full wave Rectifier and its waveform (Inductive
load)

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 Fig. II.19 single phase Full bridge rectifier and its waveform (Inductive load)

C. Hybrid bridge rectifier

This rectifier type provide a freewheeling phase

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Fig. II.20 Symmetric hybrid bridge rectifier and its waveform (Inductive load)

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Fig. II.20 Asymmetric hybrid bridge rectifier and its waveform (Inductive load)

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II.3.2 Three-phase rectifier
A. Three pulse rectifier

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 Fig. II.21 Three pulse rectifier and its waveform (Inductive load)

Where:
α, firing angle of the thyristor

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B. Six pulses rectifier

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 =/6 =/3

Fig II.22 Six pulse rectifier and its waveform (Inductive load)

The output voltage is reduced by the factor cos(α):

In practice, the supply inductance causes a reduction of DC output voltage with

increasing load, typically in the range 10–20% at full load.
The effect of supply inductance is to slow down the transfer process (called
commutation) from one phase to the next. As result of this, there is a period of
overlap during which three devices in the bridge are conducting simultaneously.
The overlap angle is usually referred to by the symbol μ (or u), and may be 20-30° at
full load.

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 Fig II.23 Three-phase bridge rectifier at alpha=0° without overlap

Fig II.24 Three-phase bridge rectifier at alpha=0° with overlap angle of 20°

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Fig II.25 Three-phase bridge rectifier at alpha=20° with overlap angle of 20°

Fig II.26 Three-phase bridge rectifier at alpha=40° with overlap angle of 20°

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 C. Application
Rectifiers are used inside the power supplies of virtually all electronic equipment.
AC-DC power supplies may be broadly divided into linear power
supplies and switched-mode power supplies. In such power supplies, the rectifier will
be in series following the transformer, and be followed by a smoothing filter and
possibly a voltage regulator.
The rectifiers are used for
- Detection of amplitude modulated radio signals.
- For welding, where control of the output current is required;
- Thyristors are used in various classes of railway rolling stock systems so that
fine control of the traction motors can be achieved.
- For higher-power applications, a 12 pulses diode rectifier is usually used. For
the very highest powers, each arm of the bridge may consist of tens or
hundreds of separate devices in parallel (where very high current is needed, for
example in aluminium smelting) or in series (where very high voltages are
needed, for example in high-voltage direct current power transmission).

Disassembled automobile alternator, showing the six diodes that comprise a full-
wave three-phase bridge rectifier

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 Three-phase bridge rectifier for a wind turbine.

Power transmission rectifier between Hydro One and Hydro-Québec grid for High
voltage Direct Current HVDC.

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II.4 PWM Rectifier

PWM rectifiers can be implemented as unidirectional or bidirectional as regarding

their power flow capabilities. A basic unidirectional boost version consists of an
uncontrolled diode bridge followed by a boost converter as shown in Fig. II.27 a.
When the switch is ON the inductor current increases proportionally to the input
voltage (which is sinusoidal). When the switch is OFF, the inductor current
decreases, and its energy is transferred to the capacitor, repeating such cycle with
variable input voltage. The boost converter regulates the capacitor voltage, and also
impresses a sinusoidal input current profile, which improves the input power factor.
Since this converter can operate in either Continuous Conduction Mode (CCM) or in
Discontinuous Conduction Mode (DCM), its control should be designed to be stable
and work in both conditions.
A three-phase version of the unidirectional boost rectifier is shown in Fig.27 b, but
the inductors are connected at the AC side.

Fig II.27 PWM rectifier: a single-phase, and b three-phase

In order to implement a bidirectional converter fully controlled switches replace the

diodes, as shown in Fig. II.28 a. This topology is called a current source rectifier
(CSR).

Fig II.28 PWM rectifier

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As shown in Fig. II.28 b. When the AC voltage is positive and the switch T2 is ON,
he inductor current increases proportionally to the AC voltage and when T2 turns-off
the inductor energy is pumped to the capacitor via diodes D1 and D 4.
Similarly, when the AC voltage is negative T4 is turned-on. When it turns-off the
energy flows via diodes D 2 and D 3. This topology is known as the voltage source
rectifier (VSR).

Fig II.29 Implementation of the three-phase VSR

The VSR is also known as Boost Rectifier with objective to provide a constant
voltage V0 at the output. The CSR and the VSR are dual from each other. Figure
II.29 shows the implementation of a three-phase version of the PWM VSR (with
IGBTs). The VSR requires a large capacitor across the output, it is inherently
bidirectional and can be applied in several applications where the line side converter
must be able to deliver energy back to the source, such as in locomotives, cranes, and
renewable energy sources connected to the DC link side.

The major advantage of using the Pulse Width Modulation technique is the reduction
of higher order harmonics. The PWM rectifier is generally used to obtain sinusoidal
input currents with slightest harmonic. The output voltage can be kept constant by a
voltage regulator.

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 Fig. II.30 PWM rectifier

Fig. II.31 Comparison between current specter of PWM rectifiers and those of 12
pulses and 24 pulses rectifiers

From figure II.31 we note that:

- The 12 pulses rectifier generates important harmonics (11 and 13).
- .With the 24 pulses rectifiers, the harmonics 11, 13, 35 and 37 are practically
eliminated, but at the expense of an increase in harmonics 23 and 25,
- The PWM rectifier reduces all harmonics less than 0.5% of the fundamental.

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II.4.2 Example of applications: Aircraft electrical system

An aircraft electrical system is mainly composed of

- Power sources
- Components ( control devices, conversion devices, protection devices)
- Power distribution system
- Electrical load

There are many occasion within an aircraft electrical system where it is required to
convert power from one form to another
- Conversion from DC to AC
- Conversion from 115 Vac to 28 Vdc
- Conversion from one Ac voltage level to another
- Battery charging ( from 115 Vac to 28 Vdc)

Following devices are uses for these purposes

- Transformers
- Rectifiers
- Transformer-rectifier units ( TRU)
- Inverters
- Transistors

- TRU rectifier
Transformer Rectifier Unit (TRU) is a device with the design circuit that combines
rectifier and transformer to convert AC into relatively smooth DC output.

Most large aircraft AC generator systems have dedicated TRUs, which operate
on the same principle, although they are slightly more sophisticated.
The TRU that is fitted an aircraft is typically supplied with 115 V 400 Hz three-
phase AC, which is stepped-down through a three- phase star-star wound
transformer and changed to DC by a six-rectifier bridge assembly. The output
from the TRU is then fed to the aircraft’s DC busbars. A typical unit is illustrated
below.
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Fig. II.30 Transformer Rectifier Unit TRU

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Fig. II.31 Transformer Rectifier Unit TRU 12 pulses for aircraft
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 Chapter 2 : AC-DC Converters (Table 2-Uncontrolled
rectifiers)
Anglais Français Arabe
Usually ( habitually) habituellement
sinusoidal voltage tension sinusoïdale
operates Fonctionne
Unidirectional unidirectionnel
resistive load Charge résistive
control a DC motor Contrôler un moteur à courant continu
Further conversion conversion ultérieure (supplémentaire)
Typically typiquement
Frond-end L’extrémité frontale
Low Faible
power grid Réseau électrique
High Elevé
Wave Onde, alternance
Half-wave Simple alternance
Full-wave double alternance
Pulses impulsions
waveform Forme d’onde
Average Moyanne
freewheel Roue libre
freewheeling diode Diode roue libre
Voltage drop Chute de tension
Main Principale
Bridge Pont
Ratio Proportion , fraction
Design Plan
Remain rester
Hybrid Mixte
Efficiency rendement
Peak Pic
Ripple factor Facteur d’ondulation
required suggéré
cycle Période
drawback inconvénient
common commun
either Soit

Chapter 2 : AC-DC Converters (Table 2bis)

Anglais Français Arabe
Smelting Fusion
Supply alimentation
Firing angle Angle d’amorçage
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Overlap Chevauchement, empiétement
simultaneously simultanément
Most La plupart
Aircraft Aéronef, avion
Although malgré
combines Combine
Smooth lisse
PWM – Pulse width MLI -modulation de largeur
Modulation d’impulsions
Slightly Légèrement
Below Au dessous
Above Au dessus
Fitted Placé, attaché….
Split divisé
stepped-down abaissée
Through A travers
Wound Bobiné
Busbars barres
eliminated éliminé
Reduces Réduit
at the expense au détriment de ‫على حساب‬
distortion Altération
Shift décalage
Cancels Annule, supprime
Sets Ensemble, appareils
welding soudage
railway Réseau ferroviaire
Fine Précis
wind turbine. éolienne
purposes But, fin

References:
1) Edison R. C. da Silva and Malik E. Elbuluk; E. R. C. da Silva Departamento de
Engenharia Eletrica, Universidade Federal de Campina Grande,Campina
Grande, Brazil, Rua Rodrigues Alves, 1090—Bela vista, Campina Grande, PB
CEP 58428-795, Brazil, M. E. Elbuluk The University of Akron, Akron, OH
44325, USA

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2) Ourabi.Lassaad , Électronique de puissance , support de cours , , I.S.E.T de
Bizerte,
3) Hasnaoui Othman B.A., Département de Génie Electrique, Support de cours et
TD d’électronique de puissance 1MSTGE, 2LAEEA et 2LFEEA, ESSTT,
Ecole Supérieure des Sciences et Techniques de Tunis
4) Alvaro Ortiz Monroy, Étude de montages redresseurs polyphasés pour le
réseau d’alimentation électrique des avions, maîtrise en génie électrique,
Maître ès Sciences (M.Sc.), université de Laval, Québec, Canada 2013.

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