Waste Manage Res 2004: 22-2: 108–114 Copyright © ISWA 2004

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Waste Management & Research
ISSN 0734–242X

Soil reinforcement with recycled carpet wastes

A root or fibre-reinforced soil behaves as a composite mate- Hossein Ghiassian

rial in which fibres of relatively high tensile strength are Gholamreza Poorebrahim
embedded in a matrix of relatively plastic soil. Shear stresses Department of Civil Engineering, Iran University of Science and
Technology, Narmak, Tehran, Iran
in the soil mobilize tensile resistance in the fibres, which in
turn impart greater strength to the soil. A research project
Donald H. Gray
has been undertaken to study the influence of synthetic Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University
fibrous materials for improving the strength characteristics of of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
a fine sandy soil. One of the main objectives of the project is
to explore the conversion of fibrous carpet waste into a value- Keywords: Fibre reinforcement, sand, shear strength, recycled
carpet waste, wmr 722–3
added product for soil reinforcement. Drained triaxial tests
were conducted on specimens, which were prepared in a cylin-
drical mould and compacted at their optimum water con-
Corresponding author: Hossain Ghiassian, Department of Civil
tents. The main test variables included the aspect ratio and Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology, Narmak,
the weight percentage of the fibrous strips. The results clearly Tehran, Iran.
show that fibrous inclusions derived from carpet wastes E-mail: hossghia@iust.ac.ir

improve the shear strength of silty sands. A model developed

DOI: 10.1177/073424X04043938
to simulate the effect of the fibrous inclusions accurately pre-
dicts the influence of strip content, aspect ratio and confin- Received 4 December 2003; accepted in revised form 11 February
ing pressure on the shear strength of reinforced sand. 2004

Notation

The following symbols are used in this paper. 345 effective minor principal stress
346 consolidation pressure
Af cross-sectional area of fibrous strips 37 deviatoric stress
AR aspect ratio of fibrous strips
B pore water pressure coefficient
Bf width of strips
Introduction
Cc coefficient of gradation of sand As the world population grows, so do the amount and type of
Cu uniformity coefficient of sand waste being generated. Many of the wastes produced today
Gs specific gravity of sand grains will remain in the environment for years to come. Waste
Gsf specific gravity of strips generation is much lower in developing countries, whereas
Ip plasticity index the USA has more than double the waste generation per cap-
Nf number of strips ita than many European countries. According to the US Envi-
Wf strip content (weight ratio of strips/drysoil) ronmental Protection Agency (US EPA 1992), the munici-
Ws dry weight of sand pal solid waste generated in the US is about 200 million tons
11 axial strain per year, among them about 38% being paper products, 8%
12 volumetric strain plastics, and 3% carpets and textiles. The creation of non-
23 unit weight of water decaying waste materials, combined with a growing con-
341 effective major principal stress sumer population, has resulted in a waste disposal crisis. This

Waste Management & Research 108

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Hossein Ghiassian, Gholamreza Poorebrahim, Donald H. Gray
issue has received considerable public attention in recent
years, particularly as it has become increasingly difficult,
both financially and politically, to dispose of the steadily
growing volume of waste. With municipalities under pressure
to find acceptable alternatives to the traditional forms of
refuse disposal – landfilling and incineration – the recycling
of waste into useful products has been advocated by policy
makers and some environmentalists as a possible solution to
the municipal waste disposal crisis.
A great amount of fibrous textile waste is discarded into
landfills each year all over the world. About half of this
waste is from carpets, with the main constituents being plas-
tic and polymeric fibre, which decays at a very slow rate and
which is difficult to handle in landfills. In the US, the cost of
landfilling this waste is estimated at US$ 200 million per
year (Wang et al. 1993). The development of low-cost tech-
nologies to convert textile waste into useful products could
reduce disposal pressures on landfills and result in cost sav-
ings for carpet industries. Accordingly, many carpet and tex-
tile manufacturers, fibre and chemical suppliers, recycling
companies, and academic institutions are actively pursuing
various methods to recycle and convert fibrous waste into
various useful products (Wang et al. 1993, 1994, Gardner
1995, Schut 1995, Wang, 1997, Frost et al. 1999).
One promising reuse of these wastes lies in soil reinforce-
ment and construction applications. Extensive studies have
been reported in the literature that indicate the use of natural
and synthetic fibres in soil can enhance the shear strength
and volume change characteristics of soil, and improve its
load-bearing capacities and durability (McGown et al. 1978,
Verma and Char 1978, Hoare 1979, Gray and Ohashi 1983,
Gray and Al-Refeai 1986, Gray and Maher 1989, Maher and
Gray 1990, Al-Refeai 1991, Maher and Ho 1994, Ranjan et
al. 1996, Andersland and Khattak 1997, Consoli and Prietto
1998). Embedded fibres generally act as tensile reinforcing
members that transfer shear stresses that develop in the soil
matrix into tensile resistance in the fibre inclusions via fibre/soil
frictional interactions. The lack of adequate tensile strength
in a soil can therefore be compensated by the fibres, and the
shear strength of soil increases. Even when a soil deforms in
shear or compression, normal strains or tensile extensions can
develop in other directions. Some tensile extension is required
to mobilize the strength of imbedded fibres. In this respect, the
use of randomly distributed fibres is more advantageous due to
the maintenance of strength isotropy and the absence of poten-
tial planes of weakness that can develop parallel to oriented
reinforcement (Maher and Gray 1990). The carpet fibres typi-
cally consist of nylon fibres and polypropylene tape yarns,
both proven durable and effective in fibre-reinforced soil. It
is thus reasonable to expect beneficial effects from the pres-
ence of fibrous strips made of recycled carpet waste in a soil.
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The present study was undertaken to examine the influ-
ence of shredded carpet waste in improving the shear strength
and volume change characteristics of a fine sandy soil under
triaxial compressive loading conditions, and to understand the
mechanisms controlling the behaviour of the material and soil.
The influence of strip content (Wf), strip aspect ratio (AR), and
confining pressure were assessed through drained triaxial test-
ing on specimens compacted at their optimum water contents.
Materials
The soil samples used in this study were obtained from the
region of Kerman in central Iran. The soil is fine sand, classi-
fied as silty sand (SM) according to the Unified Soil Classifi-
cation System. The specific gravity of solids (Gs) was 2.675.
The grain size distribution was 85.8% sand, 12% silt and 2.2%
clay size material, with a uniformity coefficient (Cu) of 2.84
and coefficient of gradation (Cc) of 0.71. The soil has plas-
ticity index (Ip) of about zero and is essentially non-plastic.
The reinforcing fibrous strips were prepared by cutting car-
pet waste into short elements with approximately 5 mm ×
5 mm square cross-section and various length of 5, 15, 25, 35
and 45 mm corresponding to aspect ratios (AR, length/width)
of 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9 respectively. The specific gravity of the
fibrous strips (Gsf) is 1.0. Tensile strength and elastic modulus
were, 800 and 730 kPa, respectively, with an almost linear
strain at failure of 105%.
Various amounts of strips were added to the soil to yield strip
contents or weight fractions (Wf), defined as weight of strips/
dry weight of sand, of 0, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1%, respectively.
Preparation and testing of specimens
The specimens were prepared by mixing soil and water, with
the addition of appropriate amounts of strip to yield a speci-
fied strip content. Samples were compacted in eight layers
into a 100-mm (4-inch) diameter and 200-mm (8-inch) high
cylindrical mould, with a target maximum dry unit weight
and optimum water content of 16.7 kN m–3 and 9.2%, respec-
tively. In order to produce homogenous samples, the under-
compaction method (Ladd 1978) was carried out as part of
sample preparation.
Drained triaxial tests were conducted to determine the
stress–strain and strength characteristics of reinforced soils with
various strip contents or strip/soil weight ratios (Wf) and ARs.
All specimens were fully saturated with a minimum meas-
ured B value of 0.98. The use of CO2 gas with percolation of de-
aired water and back pressure application up to 400 kN m–2
ensured full saturation. The effective confining pressure var-
ied from 15 to 300 kPa.

Fig. 1: Triaxial compression test results at 3'c = 100 kPa for reinforced
specimens with AR = 1, (a) deviatoric stress versus axial strain; (b)
volumetric strain versus axial strain.
Results and analysis
The stress–strain curves obtained in triaxial compression drained
tests at an effective confining pressure of 100 kPa are presented
in Figs 1 to 5 corresponding to AR values of 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9
for different strip contents. As can be seen in these figures,
the overall soil behaviour is greatly influenced by the presence
of reinforcing strips as Wf and AR values change. Consistent
results are seen in all five figures as explained below.
By adding strips to soil, the peak and residual strengths
increase, the maximum modulus decreases, and the post strength
behaviour changes from that of a ‘brittle’ to a ‘ductile’ type
material with an increase of strip content (at constant AR).
The same type of behaviour can be observed as the AR is
increased at constant strip weight ratios (Wf). These results
can more clearly observed in Figs 6 and 7 for the variation of
peak strength versus Wf and AR, respectively. At any con-
stant AR, the peak strength increases with Wf while the rate
of increase (the slope of curve) reduces with increasing strip
content. This means that optimum values for strip content
and aspect ratio should exist consistent with economical and
practical considerations or constraints. Similarly in Fig. 7, at
any constant Wf, the peak strength still increases with AR
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Soil reinforcement with recycled carpet wastes
Fig. 2: Triaxial compression test results at 3'c = 100 kPa for reinforced
specimens with AR = 3, (a) deviatoric stress versus axial strain; (b)
volumetric strain versus axial strain.
although this effect is more pronounced at higher Wf values.
Other researchers (Gray and Ohashi 1983, Shewbridge and
Sitar 1989, Ranjan et al. 1996). have also reported similar
findings.
It can be seen in Fig. 7 that the strength increases (at any
constant Wf) with AR. Considering the inverse relationship
between the number of strips (Nf) and AR from the following
expression:
Wf Ws
N f = 8888888888888888888888888888888
8 (1)
A R A f B f G sf 2 w
where Nf is the number of strips, Ws is the dry weight of sand
Af is the cross-sectional area of strips (0.25 cm2), Bf is the
width of strips (0.5 cm) and Gsf is the specific gravity of the
strips. It seems that the contribution of fibrous strips to soil
reinforcement is more controlled by the length (aspect ratio)
of strips rather than strip quantities. This means the mode of
failure with short strips (low AR values) should be governed
more by pullout rather than breakage. This behaviour should
however change gradually at higher strip lengths (i.e., higher
AR values) where more strips would fail in breakage due to
more mobilized frictional resistance along the length of the
embedded strips. As a result, the rate of increase in strength
Waste Management & Research 110
Hossein Ghiassian, Gholamreza Poorebrahim, Donald H. Gray
Fig. 3: Triaxial compression test results at 3'c = 100 kPa for reinforced
specimens with AR = 5, (a) deviatoric stress versus axial strain; (b) volu-
metric strain versus axial strain.
versus AR should decrease as can be seen in Fig. 7. If strips
with lower modulus are used and/or higher confining pres-
sures are applied, the plots in Fig. 7 would be expected to
become asymptotic at smaller AR values. This behaviour can
be seen in Fig. 8 for the case of Wf = 1% as an example. The
plots are presented in terms of93'1/3'3 ratio such that the influ-
ence of effective confining pressures on strip contribution to
the shear strength of reinforced sand specimens can be depicted
more clearly. It is seen that as the confining pressures decrease,
the plots tend to become asymptotic at smaller AR values.
Visual observations of the specimens after the tests con-
firmed that the strips indeed failed mainly by being pulled
out from the soil on the rupture surface.
The volume change result for the unreinforced specimen
agrees well with the expected behaviour of dense sand as
shown in Fig. 1. After the occurrence of a small initial com-
pression at the beginning of loading, the specimen dilates and
the rate of dilation becomes greatest at the time of failure.
This trend, however, changes slightly with the presence of
strips in the soil (Figs 1 to 5). In reinforced specimens, the
maximum dilation rate does not coincide with the onset of
failure but instead occurs earlier. This could be attributed to
the fact that the reinforced specimens seem to behave as
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Fig. 4: Triaxial compression test results at 3'c = 100 kPa for reinforced
specimens with AR = 7, (a) deviatoric stress versus axial strain; (b) volu-
metric strain versus axial strain.
composite materials. Thus, the strength mobilization in a soil
matrix with strip inclusions may not occur simultaneously.
This means that the soil mass first reaches its ultimate shear
strength when the rate of dilation becomes a maximum,
whereas the strip contribution to load-bearing capacity still
continues to increase. At higher axial strains in the speci-
men, which also correspond to more tensile strains in the
embedded strips, the strip contribution to the total strength
reaches to its ultimate value after the rate of dilation has passed
its maximum value.
It can also be seen in the above figures that as the strip
content increases, the amount of volumetric strain increases.
However, the influence of aspect ratio variation on the volu-
metric strain seems negligible.
Figures 9 and 10 summarize the variation of volume change
versus the strip content and aspect ratio. Similar trends to
those observed in Figs 6 and 7 are seen in these figures as well.
At any constant AR, the total volume change increases with
Wf whereas the rate of increase (the slope of the curve) slightly
reduces with increasing strip content. Furthermore, at any
constant Wf, the total volume change still increases with AR
and this effect is more pronounced at lower aspect ratios.
Shewbridge and Sitar (1989) have reported that the shear

Fig. 5: Triaxial compression test results at 3'c = 100 kPa for reinforced
specimens with AR = 9, (a) deviatoric stress versus axial strain; (b) volu-
metric strain versus axial strain.
Fig. 6: The influence of strip content on triaxial compression strength of
reinforced specimens at 3'c = 100 kPa for different aspect ratios.
band thickness increases in proportion with the strip content.
This in turn can increase the amount of dilation in the shear
zone. In addition, visual observation of the reinforced speci-
mens during and after the tests revealed that several shear
zones tended to develop in the specimens due to the pres-
ence of strips in the soil. This shearing behaviour is also con-
sistent with volume change results in Figs 9 and 10.
Figure 11 presents the failure envelopes for the case of Wf =
1.2 and different strip aspect ratios. Other results correspond-
ing to different Wf values exhibit similar trends for the varia-
tion of 3'1 versus 3'3; therefore they have been omitted. A
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Soil reinforcement with recycled carpet wastes
Fig. 7: The influence of aspect ratio on triaxial compression strength of
reinforced specimens at 3'c = 100 kPa for different strip contents.
Fig. 8: The influence of aspect ratio on triaxial compression strength of
reinforced specimens for strip content of Wf = 1% and different confin-
ing pressures.
Fig. 9: The influence of strip content on volume change of reinforced
specimens at 3'c = 100 kPa for different aspect ratios.
regression analysis of all data including those for the unrein-
forced samples (130 triaxial compression tests) was performed
based on a mathematical power model proposed by Ranjan et
al. (1996). The model has the following general form:
2 1
341 = k3436 W f7 A R f * f 9 (2)
where914564574524584599are constants obtained from a regression
analysis, and9 2 39 and9 29 are coefficients corresponding to the
Waste Management & Research 112
Hossein Ghiassian, Gholamreza Poorebrahim, Donald H. Gray
Fig. 10: The influence of aspect ratio on volume change of reinforced
specimens at 3'c = 100 kPa for different strip contents.
Fig. 11: Principal stress envelopes for carpet waste reinforced fine sand
for strip content of Wf = 1.2%.
shear characteristics of the strips and soil, respectively, which
in turn are functions of effective confining pressure9345. Since
only one type of soil and strip was examined in the present
study, these coefficients were not necessary in the model and,
instead, their influences were accounted for and lumped
together in the9 3436 9term. In order for the model to be appli-
cable to plain soil (i.e. Wf = 0, AR = 0), the terms Wf and AR
were replaced by (1 + Wf) and (1 + AR) respectively. The
following relationship was finally obtained as a result of the
regression analysis:
341 = 13.243410.732
1 + Wf  0.1712
1 + AR  0.0792 (3) sive strengths, maximum modulus, and ductility of fine sand.
The accuracy of this model was examined by comparison
between predicted and measured strengths as shown in Fig.
12. Predicted values were computed using equation (3) and
measured values were obtained from the triaxial tests on both
plain and reinforced specimens. Good agreement was obtained
between predicted and measured results particularly for the
reinforced samples.
In past tests performed by Maher and Gray (1990) on ran-
domly distributed, fibre-reinforced sand in which fibres with
a relatively high modulus were used, the failure envelopes of
the soil–fibre composites were either bi-linear with the tran-
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Fig. 12: Comparison between experimental and predicted strength of
carpet waste reinforced fine sand.
sition or break occurring at a well-defined (critical) confin-
ing stress 3crit9or conversely, curvi-linear with no obvious break
or abrupt transition in the failure envelope. Well-graded, angu-
lar, fibre-reinforced sands exhibited the bi-linear form of
behaviour, whereas uniform, rounded sands exhibited the curvi-
linear form. The results of the present study indicate that this
transition is fairly smooth with no sharp break9or abrupt change
in the failure envelope. It seems, therefore, that in addition
to the effects of granulometry (grain shape and gradation) the
use of more flexible fibres causes the transition to become
smoother, such that the failure envelope can more reasona-
bly be modelled as a curved or curvi-linear envelope without
any well-defined critical confining stress.
Conclusions
This study has demonstrated the benefits of using fibrous strips
made from carpet waste for soil reinforcement. The presence
of these randomly distributed synthetic strips had a signifi-
cant influence on the shear characteristics and constitutive
behaviour of fine sand. The following are the major conclu-
sions of this study.
• Inclusion of strips increased the peak and residual compres-
• At any constant aspect ratio (or constant strip content),
the peak strength and total volume change increase with
strip content (or aspect ratio) whereas the rate of increase
reduces with increasing strip content (or aspect ratio).
• At any constant strip content, the influence of reinforce-
ment on strength and volume change is more pronounced
at higher aspect ratio.
• Unlike plain soil specimens, the maximum dilation rate in
reinforced specimens does not coincide with the onset of
failure time but instead occurs earlier.
• An empirical equation based on a probabilistic model and
regression analysis of all the test data can be used to char-

acterize and accurately describe the influence of different
variables such as strip content, strip aspect ratio and con-
fining stress on the shear strength increase.
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Acknowledgement
This study was funded via a cooperative support provided by
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