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05 Power System Unbalanced Faults r11
05 Power System Unbalanced Faults r11
Power System
Unbalanced Faults
l Short Circuits
l Contacts With Ground
t Isolated-neutral systems
t High-impedance grounded systems
Simple Short-Circuits
a a a a
b b b b
c c c c
Unbalanced
Single-Line-to-Ground: 70 – 80 %
Double-Line-to-Ground: 17 – 10 %
Line-to-Line: 10 – 8 %
Three Phase: 3–2%
Insulator Flashover
ARC
(Flashover)
The most common fault in overhead power systems occurs due to a lightning-
induced overvoltage, when one of the insulators cannot hold the dielectric stress,
producing flashover. In most cases, this fault disappears once it is cleared, so a
reclosing operation has a high probability of success.
Flashover
Ground Faults
Zg Fault
l Isolated Neutral
l Effective or Solid Grounding
l Low-Impedance Grounding
l High-Impedance Grounding
l Resonant Grounding
CAB CAC
N
CBC
C
CA Ground
CB CC fault
G
A
VAN
N, G A, G
VCN
C B VAN
VBN VCN N VBN
C B
The fault current for isolated neutral systems has a magnitude equal to the
capacitive current produced by connecting one of the phases to ground. For
underground medium voltage systems, these currents are about 5 to 15 Amps,
depending on system voltage and characteristics.
A A
A A
N Ground Fault VAN
A, N, G
G N, G
VCN VBN=VBG
B VCN=VCG
C B B
C VBN C
The fault current for solidly grounded systems could be very large. Current
magnitude depends on the fault impedance and the return characteristics of the
system.
Low-Impedance Grounding
Ig
C
Ground
Fault
100 A ≤ Ig ≤ 400 A
The range of fault current for a low-impedance grounded neutral system is several
hundred amperes.
High-Impedance Grounding
A
CAB CAC
N
Rgs B
Ig CBC
C
CA Ground
CB CC fault
G
5 A ≤ Ig ≤ 15 A
A
VAN
N, G A, G
VCN
C B VAN
VBN VCN N VBN
C B
For high impedance grounding systems, the magnitude of the current is similar to
the capacitive currents.
Compensated System
N CAB
CAC
B
CBC
C
Petersen CA CB CC Ground
Coil Fault
The object of the Petersen Coil is to make the current equal to zero during a
single-phase-to-ground fault.
Fault Impedance
1. Determine the point (node or bus) of the system where the short circuit will be
simulated.
2. Find the sequence networks (positive, negative, and zero) of the system
4. Connect the sequence networks depending on the type of fault and calculate
the sequence fault current.
5. Using network techniques, calculate the sequence voltages and currents along
the system and then use the symmetrical components transformation to find
the phase quantities.
Zg N1 N2
N
3Zg
N0
Z1 Z2 Z0
ax
bx
cx
x1 x2 x0
The sequence networks of the equivalent three-phase generator are then used to
calculate the fault currents.
Example
69 kV
13.8 kV
x
Solid Single-Phase-
to-Ground Fault
The simple sub- transmission network (69 kV) feeds a distribution substation (13.
8 kV) through two transformers in parallel. A single phase to ground fault occurs
close to the distribution (13.8 kV) bus.
In this example, we are supposed to know all the sequence impedances of the
elements in per unit.
j0.5 j0.5
0.032+j0.158 0.042+j0.210 x
1.0
j0.5 j0.5
Base: 0.0021+
j0.623
100 MVA x x
Note that it is assumed that both generators are at 1.0 p.u. (zero degrees). This
adds simplicity to the problem. In more precise calculations, the actual bus
voltages are considered in finding the Thevenin voltage.
0.032+ 0.042+
j0.9 j0.6 j1.058 j0.81
j0.5 j0.5
0.032+j0.158 0.042+j0.210
x
j0.5 0.019+
Base: j0.5
j0.709
100 MVA x x
0.11+ 0.15+
j0.4 j0.2 j0.91 j0.904
j0.5 j0.5
0.11+j0.51 0.15+j0.704
x
j0.5 0.065+
Base: j0.5
j0.704
100 MVA x x
1.0
0.019+ 0.065 +
0.021+
j0.709 j0.704
j0.623
I F1 IF 2 IF0
E
I F1 = I F 2 = I F 0 = = 0.025 - 0.49 j pu
Z1 + Z 2 + Z 0
For a single phase-to-ground fault, the sequence networks are connected in series.
Finding the sequence current at the fault point is straightforward.
Fault Current
3E
IFa = 3IF1 = 3IF2 = 3IF0 =
Z1 + Z2 + Z0
o
= 0.076 - 1.47 j pu = 6158 Ð-87.04 A
ax
bx
cx
I fa
The phase fault current is found through the use of symmetrical components
equations.
Ia = I1 + I2 + I0 = 3I1
1.0
Use the classical circuit theory to find the sequence currents in each of the
system’s branches. In this case, the use of current dividers is very effective.
Current Divider
Pos.
0.042 + j 0.61
1.0 I L1 = I F 1 =
0.032 + j 0.958 + 0.042 + j 0.61
0.032+ 0.042+
= 0.00573 - j 0.191 p.u.
I L1
j0.958 j0.61
I L1 I L2 I L0
I F1 IF 2 IF0
Note that the three sequence currents found with the current divider technique
correspond to the sequence currents at the desired location in the system.
100000
Multiply by the base: I base = A = 836.74 A
3 × 69
Once the sequence currents are known, use the symmetrical components equations
to find the phase currents at the desired location.
13.8 kV
x
Finally, multiply by the base current to find the desired currents in amps.
A very similar procedure can be carried out to find the voltages at any given
location of the network.
As stated before, overhead transmission lines are the elements of the power
system with the maximum exposure. Therefore, the most common faults occur on
overhead transmission lines.
d
Equivalent Equivalent
BUS S BUS R Source
Source
I=?
V=? Fault
Ia
Va Ia
Ic
Ib Vc Vb
Vc Vb
During a three-phase fault, the three phase current magnitudes increase and the
three voltage magnitudes decrease. If the fault is perfectly balanced, the faulted
quantities stay at 120 degrees.
Va
Ia
Vc Vb
Ib = Ic = 0 Vc Vb
Ia = 0
The slide shows at the left the phase voltages and currents for a single-line-to-
ground fault and, at the right, the voltages and currents for a line-to-line fault.
Vc Vb
Ia = 0
Ib 2LG Fault
The slide shows the phase voltages and currents for a double line-to-ground fault.
These quantities are the inputs to the relays. The relays make decisions based on
these quantities.
No Load
Va1 Va1
3PH V1 V1
(a)
F
Va1 V1 V1 Va1
F
L-L Va1
(b) V2 V2
2
No Load
Va1 Va1
V1 V1
2LG V2
F
V2
(c)
V0 Va1 V0
3
Va1 Va2
F
V1 2Va1 V1
SLG
(d) V0 3 V0
V2 V2
Va1
3
Single-Phase-to-Ground Fault
d
Equivalent Equivalent
BUS S BUS R Source
Source
I=?
V=? Phase-A-to-
Ground Fault
1.5
1
Currents (A)
0.5
-0.5
-1
ia
-1.5
-2
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Time (s)
This slide and the next show how the currents and voltages behave in the
substation during a single-phase-to-ground fault. From these figures, it is possible
to determine that the fault was a single-phase-to-ground fault. The detailed
analysis of fault transients is out of the scope of this section of the course, but the
graph is presented to give an idea of the instantaneous evolution of the phase
quantities during the fault.
Voltages (V) 1
0.5
-0.5
-1
va
-1.5
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Time (s)
Note that the high frequency components are present not only on the faulted phase
voltage, but also on the sound phases.
N1 N2 N0
- -
ES - ER - -
+ V1
+ V2 V0
ZS1 + ZR1 ZS2 + ZR2 ZS0 + ZR0
I1 I2 I0
IF1 IF2 IF0
1. The positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence currents at the fault point are equal.
These currents can be easily determined by solving the simple circuit of the figure.
3. The relay positive-sequence current can be calculated using the current divider
formula, if the pre-fault currents are low. Otherwise, considering the differences
between ES and ER, a simple network solution is needed in the positive sequence
network.
5. This sequence network analysis is valid only for those cases in which the two-
source equivalent used here is acceptable.
Ia = I0 + I1 + I 2
I b = I0 + a 2 I1 + aI 2
Ic = I0 + aI1 + a 2 I 2
Va = V0 + V1 + V2
Vb = V0 + a 2 V1 + aV2
Vc = V0 + aV1 + a 2 V2
Series Faults
Series Faults
One Phase Open
P n
x y
a a
x b b y N n
c c x y
n n
O n
x y
Series Faults
One Phase Open
G H
Z1GH, Z0GH Load
V ZL
Phase a
Z1S= Z2S Open
XTG XTH
Let us analyze the example presented in the figure. Note the transformer
connections.
Series Faults
One Phase Open
N1
V
+
ZL
Z1S G
XTG Z1GH H XTH
X Y
I1G I1H
N2
Z2S ZL
XTG G Z1GH X H XTH
Y
I2G I2H
N0
XTG XTH
G Z0GH Y H
X
I0H
I0G
If one of the transformers had a delta connection on the fault side, then the zero-
sequence current would not be present.
P n
x y
a a
x b b y N
c n
c
n n x y
O n
x y
Symmetrical Components
Present During Series Faults
System Grounding
At Both Sides At One Side
One
Phase 1, 2, 0 1, 2
Open
Two
Phases 1, 2, 0 None
Open