Unit 2:

Construction Technology
 Buildings
The Built Environment in which we live is composed
of:-
Buildings
Travel systems
Services
Disposal & Treatment Systems.
Classification of buildings based on height
• Low rise building (< 4 story)
• Medium rise building (4 to 12 story)
• High rise buildings (> 12 story)
 Modern Buildings
Society requires many different types of buildings,
each must be specifically designed to provide certain
facilities.
The use of buildings can be broadly divided into five
areas.
Residential - houses and apartments
Commercial - shops and offices
Industrial - warehouses and factories
Agricultural - farm buildings
Community - schools and sport centres
 Residential “Domestic”
The most important requirement about a residential
building is that of providing protection from the
elements and the environment.
Residential or domestic buildings as they are often
called can be divided into many different types.
 Examples are:-
Terraced or (town houses)
Semi detached
Detached
Single storey
Two storey
Apartments
Low rise buildings
High rise buildings
 Terraced houses

A row or street of houses occupied by different

tenants. Terraced dwellings may be one, two or three
storeys high.
Terraced houses
 Semi – Detached

Semi – Detached
Two storey house

Two dwellings under the one roof which are occupied

by separate families.
 Detached Bungalow

A bungalow
is a single
storey
dwelling.

Detached – This is a building which is not connected

to any other buildings.
 Apartments “Flat”

Apartments – This is a large building which is divided

into compartments for each tenant. Each tenant
occupies part of one floor.
 Apartments “Flat”

Low rise buildings are

buildings which do not
exceed three storeys
high

Common entrance door

and stairway
High Rise Flats

Multi-storey “High
Rise” Erected where
space is limited in
built – up areas or
where land is very
expensive.
 Commercial Properties
These are buildings which are mainly involved with
retailing products to the public or providing services:-
Shops
Offices
Banks
Shopping Centres
Commercial Properties

Office block
Commercial Properties

Large scale shopping

development.

Traditional style shops

 Industrial- warehouses
and factories
Industrial buildings vary a great deal in their size and
type of construction. The reasons for this are the type
of business being undertaken in the building and the
scale of the factory.
Examples:-
Large scale engineering
Food processing
Joinery workshop
Electronic assembly.
Industrial- warehouses
and factories

Small industrial or warehouse units

Industrial units
 Agriculture Modern

Large scale agricultural building

constructed from a portal frame.
All steel elements in this building have
been galvanized to prevent rust

The structure is a large portal frame

covered with powder coated aluminium
sheet which will not rust.
The walls are constructed from 225mm
solid block work which is plastered on
both sides.
Agriculture Buildings

Some cattle
houses have
access to
feed the
cattle silage
from outside
of the
building.

Some smaller cattle houses are

constructed from portal frames. The
steel is usually painted
 Agriculture Traditional

Most old hay barns are constructed

from light weight steel structures
sheeted on the outside with
galvanised steel sheet which is usually
painted green or red.

Cattle houses constructed during the

seventies and eighties usually had round
roofs. The wall were constructed from
150mm blockwork plastered on both
sides.
 Community

These buildings are used to accommodate the

facilities which a community require:-
Schools
Hospitals
Health Centres
Community Centres
Sport Centres.
Concert halls The Water Front Hall Belfast
 Community Schools

Schools can be single storey in the case of small

primary buildings or a single storey portal frame for a
Technology building.
This is a large
educational building
constructed from a
steel frame and clad
on the outside with a
glass curtain walling
system to keep out the
elements.
 Community

The Odyssey
arena is a
sports complex
which also
contains shops,
restaurants,
several large
cinemas etc.
The building has a structural frame of steel and
concrete. The outside of the building is clad with glass,
clay tiles and metal sheeting.
 Community “Churches”

Some churches
are modern
structures but
this one is built
from load
bearing
masonry
rendered on
both sides. This
building is about
300 years old.
 Three storey school structure

This three storey school building is constructed from a

steel frame incased in concrete.
Load Bearing and Non-load bearing structures
Stability
Stability

The capability of a structural system to transmit various loadings safely to the

ground.

The stability of the system of elements

depends upon the orientation of the chair in
space. When it stands upright, on all four legs,
it is a stable system. If it is on it's side, the chair
might not be able to resist the loads for which it
was designed.

As it is tilted onto the back two legs, the

structural system loses its equilibrium. At a
certain point the chair as a system becomes
unstable, fails and gravity pulls the supported
load to the ground. This is a stability failure. In
this type of failure, the individual elements
retain their strength even as the system fails.
The chair (system) could also have failed if the
two supporting legs had experienced a strength
failure (broken).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XHFmkTeKwHU
 TYPES OF INSTABILITY

Structure subjected to compressive forces can undergo:

1. Buckling
2. Failure due to instability of equilibrium, due to large deformations or
material inelasticity
– Elastic instability occurs for beam-columns, and frames subjected
to gravity and lateral loads.
– Inelastic instability can occur for all members and the frame.
 INSTABILITY FAILURE

• Shell Buckling failure – very sensitive to

imperfections
 Expansion joint or Movement joint

Thermal movement that causes materials to expand or contract as temperature

increases or decreases.

An expansion joint or movement joint is an

assembly designed to safely absorb
the temperature-induced expansion and
contraction of construction materials, to absorb
vibration, to hold parts together, or to allow
movement due to ground settlement or
earthquakes. They are commonly found between
sections of buildings, bridges, sidewalks, railway
tracks, piping systems, ships, and other structures.

Building faces, concrete slabs, and pipelines

expand and contract due to warming and cooling
from seasonal variation, or due to other heat
sources. Before expansion joint gaps were built
into these structures, they would crack under the
stress induce
If a railway track runs over a
bridge which has expansion
joints that move more than a
few millimeters, the track must
be able to compensate this
longer expansion or
contraction.
In building construction, an expansion
joint is a mid-structure separation
designed to relieve stress on
building materials caused by building
movement

induced by: thermal expansion and

contraction caused by
temperature changes,
sway caused by wind. seismic events
Fire resistance
• Buildings need to be protected against fire and be able to maintain
structural integrity in the event of a fire.

• Fire resistant materials include:

• Plasterboard – plaster is made of gypsum, which is fire resistant.
• Concrete - Concrete does not burn and it does not emit any toxic
fumes when affected by fire.
• Brick - As bricks are made in a fire kiln, they're already highly resistant
to fire.
• Blockwork – is made from concrete, which will not burn.
• Intumescent paint – the heat in a fire triggers a catalytic reaction that
causes the paint to expand by up to 50 x paint film thickness. This
keeps materials such as steel and timber below its critical temperature
and helps to maintain the building’s structural integrity.
Fire Barriers
Fire barriers stop fire spreading
• .
inside cavities and voids such as
spaces inside walls, between floors
and in loft spaces
Thermal insulation
Reducing heat loss from a building
Reduce energy costs
Prevent heat loss through air gaps.
Insulation materials can be located in:
Cavity spaces
Walls
Roof spaces
Flooring
Double glazing (windows)
Draft strips around openings including
doors and windows
• Types of insulation:
• Sheep’s wool – excellent thermal insulation properties, good for sound
insulation, can regulate humidity and doesn’t irritate the skin when installing.
Very sustainable material.
• Mineral wool - Mineral wool (sometimes known as Rockwool) is made from
volcanic rock, which is an abundant resource. The volcanic rock is heated to
about 15000C, which causes it to melt. The liquid volcanic rock is then spun
at high speeds to produce rock fibers. Excellent thermal insulation
properties but can be a skin irritant. Comes in rolls and is about £5 per
square metre.
• Glass fibre - Has excellent thermal properties and can be installed in attics,
basements and crawl spaces, interior and exterior walls’ Roofing and
Flooring and for soundproofing. However if it gets damp it will encourage
mould growth.
• Cellulose – this type of insulation is made of plant fibre. It has good
insulation properties but is expensive to install. Good sound insulator, but
heavier than fibreglass insulation.
• Foams – these are made from polyurethane and are installed by spraying.
They need to be installed by a specialist. It’s especially effective in attics.
Foam takes up less space than fibre glass insulation.
Sound insulation
• The purpose of sound insulation
• Resist passage of sound through a building
• Prevent nuisance and sound disturbance to
neighbours
• Reduce external infrastructure noise
• Reduce aircraft noise
• Provide confidentiality
Types of sound insulation

• Triple glazing
• Heavy-density blockwork
• Sound insulation quilt
• Plasterboard layers
• Flooring mats
• Carpeting
• Acoustic ceilings
Weather resistance

Purpose of weather resistance measures

• Maintain an acceptable environment inside the
building
• Provide thermal comfort for the occupants
• Control humidity levels
• Prevent water staining
• Prevent damage to finishes
The purpose of weather resistance:

• keeping occupants in an acceptable

environment
• ensuring thermal comfort of occupants
• humidity levels
• preventing damage to finishes and water
staining.
 The location of weather-resistant materials:

• guttering
• window and door openings
• external walls
• ventilation ducts
• roof finishes and overhanging eaves.
 Ridge - The point of the roof
Verge - The sloping end of the
roof
Eaves - Bottom of roof slope.
Fascia - Board that guttering is
fitted
Aesthetics

Function: noun
A branch of philosophy dealing with the
nature of art and beauty.
The philosophy of aesthetics
asks and tries to answer the
“Big” Questions:

• What makes a piece of art beautiful?

• How important are personal tastes when
judging the quality of art?
• What are the standards for judging art?
• Why is originality so important in art? How do
we define what is original or what is creative?
Temperature and Heat Loss
 Temperature and Heat Loss

The term temperature is used to express the degree of

hotness of a substance.
It is measured by using a device called the thermometer.
Mercury in glass and the electronic thermometers are
widely used.

Mercury
thermometer Electronic
Thermometer
 Temperature and Heat Loss

There are three temperature scales:

Celsius (ºC), Fahrenheit (ºF) and Kelvin (K)

ºC ºF K
Boiling point of water 100 212 373

Freezing point of water 0 32 273

‘Absolute zero’ -273 0

Only used in
USA
 Temperature and Heat Loss

HEAT TRANSFER: Heat transfer from one substance to another

or from one point to another in a substance may take place due to
conduction, convection and radiation.

Heat

Conduction: As a material is heated, the atoms start to vibrate with

the increased thermal energy. The vibrating atoms make the
adjacent atoms to vibrate and the process continues. As a
consequence, thermal energy (or heat) travels from one end of the
material to the other.
 Temperature and Heat Loss

Convection: All fluids are heated by convection

Heat

The vessel shown contains water and as it is heated, the particles

at the bottom of the vessel become hot and expand. On expansion
the particles become lighter and rise.
Cold water particles at the top are heavier than hot particles. They
descend as the hot water particles rise, and the process continues.
 Temperature and Heat Loss

Radiation: Heat energy travels

from one place to another without
Sun
requiring a medium.

Earth
Heat energy from the Sun is
received by us due to radiation
as there is no medium (air)
beyond earth’s atmosphere.
 Temperature and Heat Loss

Thermal conductivity: Thermal conductivity or λ-value (also known as

k-value) of a material is a measure of the rate at which heat is
conducted through it under specified conditions.

Flow of heat through a material is

directly proportional to:
θ2 θ1
• surface area (A)
• temperature difference between the
opposite faces (θ2 – θ1) Heat Heat

• time for which heat flows (t) in, Q A out

Flow of heat is indirectly proportional

to the thickness of material (d) d

Combining the above factors, the amount of heat flowing through a

material, Q, is proportional to: (see next slide)
 Temperature and Heat Loss

t.A.(θ 2  θ1 )
Q
d

Q A.(θ 2  θ1 )

t d

Q λ.A.(θ2  θ1 )
=
t d

Q. d
 λ (or k) 
t.A.(θ 2  θ1 )

where λ (or k) is the thermal conductivity of the material

 Temperature and Heat Loss

The Total Thermal Resistance of a material is a combination of material

resistance and surface resistance
Material resistance: All materials offer some resistance to the
transmission of heat.
Material resistance = d/λ Unit: m2K/W

Surface resistance: The surfaces of all building materials have

irregularities which trap air. Stationary layers of air are formed which
resist the transmission of heat.

Building material

Outside surface Inside surface

(Rso) (Rsi)
 Temperature and Heat Loss

Airspace resistance (Rairspace): If there is a cavity in a component, the

airspace resistance needs to be considered as well, for example in a
double glazed window, cavity wall etc. The airspace resistance depends
on the width of the cavity.

Glass

Airspace

Double-glazed
window
 Temperature and Heat Loss

The total thermal resistance of a component is given by:

Rtotal = Rsi + Rmaterials + Rairspace + Rso

Where Rtotal is the total thermal resistance

Rsi is the thermal resistance of the inside surface
Rmaterials is the thermal resistance of the materials
Rairspace is the thermal resistance of the cavity
Rso is the thermal resistance of the outside surface
 Temperature and Heat Loss

Thermal transmittance or the U-value indicates the amount of heat

energy that will flow per second through one square metre of a
building element when the temperature difference between the inside
and outside surfaces is one Kelvin (or 1 ºC).

The U-value of an element/component can be determined from the

following relationship:

1
U
R total

Unit: W/m2K
Sustainability:
Preserving resources for future generations and reducing
the impact of construction activities on the environment.
• Building orientation for light and heat – south facing buildings get
more natural light and heat from the sun. You install solar panels on
south-facing roof structures for this reason.

• Re-use of brownfield sites These are sites that have previously

been developed or built on. They may have existing buildings on
them that need demolishing. There may be site contamination.
Drainage, services and foundations may already be in place. This may
be an advantage or a disadvantage. Easier to gain planning
permission a brownfield site.

• Reduce use of Greenfield sites Avoid building on green spaces that

have never been developed before. There will be no services or
existing infrastructure so you would have to put these things in place
and this costs time and money. It will be much more difficult to obtain
planning permission, as people are likely to object to your proposal.
• Use local materials eg Welsh slate, Cornish granite, York stone, and
locally grown timbers.
• Less freight being moved long distances by road.
• less processing and produces less waste and pollution
• Creates a sense of local identity

• Use Renewable Materials such as timber which is fast growing. It does

not need intensive processing so it is low energy
• Natural fibres such as wool, straw and hemp can be used to insulate
buildings

• Reuse Materials no need to reprocess the material into something else.

• Use salvaged materials where possible eg redressed granite
• Reuse building materials this saves energy and cost of quarrying and
cutting stone ie reclaimed brick
• Use demolition rubble as base layer for new roads

• Renovate existing buildings instead of new build

• Recycle it should be a last resort as recycling uses more energy!

Scarcity of Building materials: sand (alternate

material)
On site construction

• Materials will be brought to the site

Off site construction (Pre fabricated
construction)
• Desired size and shapes are manufactures
at industry and assembled at site
Safety and Health
• Safety is free from risk and danger.

• Accidents is defined as an unexpected and

desirable event resulting in damage or harm.

• Hazards is an unsafe condition or activity, that if

left uncontrolled can contribute to an accident.

• Risk is the assessment of ’probability of loss’

and ’potential amount of loss’.
Common situation on a construction site
• Construction work is dynamic, diverse, and constantly
changing in nature.
• Constantly changing job site environments and
conditions
• Multiple contractors and subcontractors
• High turnover; unskilled laborers
• Constantly changing relationships with other work
groups
• Diversity of work activities occurring simultaneously
• Construction workers are at risk of exposure to various
hazards and risks that can result in injury, illness,
permanent disability, or even death.
Types of hazards

• Chemical

• Physical

• Biological

• Ergonomic
 Chemical Hazards
Chemicals can exist in the form of

• dusts, fumes, fibers (solids)

• liquids, mists
• gases, vapors

• welding fumes
• asbestos
• spray paints
Examples of • lead
chemical • cutting oil mists
• silica • xylene vapor
hazards
found in • cadmium • solvents
construction • carbon
work: monoxide
Physical Hazards

Physical hazards are different types of energy which

may be hazardous to workers.

• Noise

• Vibration

• Temperature extremes

• Radiation
Biological Hazards

Exposure may occur during demolition, renovation,

sewer work, work on air handling systems, or other
construction work from contact with contaminated or
disease-carrying
• soil
• water
• insects (mosquitoes, ticks)
• bird, bat droppings
• animals
 Ergonomic Hazards
Ergonomic hazards can cause painful and disabling
injuries till example Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs) .
This following situation may causes these injuries:
• heavy, frequent, or awkward lifting
• repetitive tasks
• awkward grips, postures
• using excessive force
• using wrong tools for the job
or using tools improperly
• using improperly maintained tools
Types of accident measurements
• Death
• Fatal injury (broken leg, hips, amputation)
• Non-fatal injury (finger cut)
• Occupational accidents (hearing loss)
• Near misses
• Rate per 100,000 – number of injuries or causes
of ill health per 100 000 employees.
• Working days lost – days off work due to
workplace injuries & work-related ill health
Other health hazards

• Living conditions and welfare facilities

– Temporary accomodation
– Food
– Drinking water
– Sanitary conveniences
– Facility for clothing
• Work related mental stresses
– Alcoholism and drug addiction
 Personal protective clothing and
eqiupment (PPE)
• Legal requirements
• Eye protection
• Respiratory protection
• Ear protection
• Face protection
• Head protection
• Hand protection
• Foot protection
• Body protection
• Fall protection
Existing health & safety legislations in practice

ISO EU Sweden UK Malaysia

ISO Framework The Work The Health and The Health

BS8800 Directive Environment Safety at Work and Safety
Council Act Act 1974 at Work Act
Directive (1997:1160) 1994
89/391/EEC
The
Construction
(Design and
Management)
Regulations
1994
Reasons and benefits to improve
health and safety in construction
• Responsibility;

• Economic reasons;

• Impact of safety on overall performance;

• Contractor’s performance;

• Control of accident causes.

How to improve health and safety on
construction sites?
• Reactive measures
– Accident recording & reporting
– Accident investigations

• Proactive measures
– Health & safety policy
– Health & safety programme/plan
– Health & safety induction/training
– Tool-box talk
– Others