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Automotive Mechatronics Bosch Profession PDF
Automotive Mechatronics Bosch Profession PDF
Information
Automotive
Mechatronics
Automotive Networking · Driving
Stability Systems · Electronics
Bosch Professional Automotive Information
Bosch Professional Automotive Information is a definitive reference for
automotive engineers. The series is compiled by one of the world´s largest
automotive equipment suppliers. All topics are covered in a concise but
descriptive way backed up by diagrams, graphs, photographs and tables
enabling the reader to better comprehend the subject.
There is now greater detail on electronics and their application in the motor
vehicle, including electrical energy management (EEM) and discusses the
topic of intersystem networking within vehicle. The series will benefit
automotive engineers and design engineers, automotive technicians in
training and mechanics and technicians in garages.
Konrad Reif
Editor
Automotive Mechatronics
Automotive Networking, Driving Stability
Systems, Electronics
Editor
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Konrad Reif
Duale Hochschule Baden-Württemberg
Friedrichshafen, Germany
reif@dhbw-ravensburg.de
Springer Vieweg
© Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2015
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is
concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting,
reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication
or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965,
in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Violations are liable
to prosecution under the German Copyright Law.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply,
even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws
and regulations and therefore free for general use.
▶ Foreword
▶ Contents
482 Drive and adjustment systems 496 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) and
482 Power windows interference suppression
483 Power sunroofs 496 EMC ranges
484 Seat and steering column adjustment 497 EMC between different systems in the
vehicle
485 Heating, ventilation and air conditioning 504 EMC between the vehicle and its
485 Electronic heater control surroundings
485 Electronically controlled air conditioning 508 Guarantee of immunity and interference
system suppression
Authors
Electric Actuators
Basic principles of networking
Dr.-Ing. Rudolf Heinz,
Automotive networking
Dr.-Ing. Robert Schenk.
Bus systems
Dipl.-Ing. Stefan Mischo,
Electrohydraulic Actuators
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Stefan Powolny,
Electronic Transmission Control
Dipl.-Ing. Hanna Zündel,
Modules for Transmission Control
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Norbert Löchel,
Dipl.-Ing. D. Fornoff,
Dipl.-Inform. Jörn Stuphorn,
D. Grauman,
Universität Bielefeld,
E. Hendriks,
Dr. Rainer Constapel, Daimler AG Sindelfingen,
Dipl.-Ing. T. Laux,
Dipl.-Ing. Peter Häussermann,
Dipl.-Ing. T. Müller,
Daimler AG Sindelfingen,
Dipl.-Ing. A. Schreiber,
Dr. rer. nat. Alexander Leonhardi,
Dipl.-Ing. S. Schumacher,
Daimler AG Sindelfingen,
Dipl.-Ing. W. Stroh.
Dipl.-Inform. Heiko Holtkamp,
Universität Bielefeld.
Antilock Braking System (ABS)
Traction Control System (TCS)
Automotive sensors
Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Sensor measuring principles
Automatic brake functions
Sensor types
Hydraulic modulator
Dr.-Ing. Erich Zabler,
Dipl.-Ing. Friedrich Kost
Dr. rer. nat. Stefan Finkbeiner,
(Basic Principles of Vehicle Dynamics),
Dr. rer. nat. Wolfgang Welsch,
Dipl.-Ing. Heinz-Jürgen Koch-Dücker
Dr. rer. nat. Hartmut Kittel,
(Antilock Braking Systems, ABS),
Dr. rer. nat. Christian Bauer,
Dr.-Ing. Frank Niewels and
Dipl.-Ing. Günter Noetzel,
Dipl.-Ing. Jürgen Schuh
Dr.-Ing. Harald Emmerich,
(Traction Control Systems, TCS),
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Gerald Hopf,
Dipl.-Ing. Thomas Ehret
Dr.-Ing. Uwe Konzelmann,
(Electronic Stability Program, ESP),
Dr. rer. nat. Thomas Wahl,
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Jochen Wagner
Dr.-Ing. Reinhard Neul,
(Automatic Brake Functions),
Dr.-Ing. Wolfgang-Michael Müller,
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Ulrich Papert
Dr.-Ing. Claus Bischoff,
(Wheel-Speed Sensors),
Dr. Christian Pfahler,
Dr.-Ing. Frank Heinen and
Dipl.-Ing. Peter Weiberle,
Peter Eberspächer
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Ulrich Papert,
X Authors
#BTJDTPGNFDIBUSPOJDT
1 Mechatronic system
Environment
Auxiliary
power
Actuator Sensor
engineering technology
Correcting Measured
variables variables
Reference
Feedback Processor variables
UAE1035E
Microsystem
Mechanical Electro-
components mechanical
components
segments segments beams of a circle stator comb stator comb segments segments
of a circle of a rectangle of a circle of a rectangle
Basics of mechatronics Development methods 5
Basic issues can often be clarified by pro- However, an analysis of the typical compo-
ducing relatively simple models of the nents in mechatronic systems shows that
components. If more detail is required, they can be composed of a few simple ele-
more refined component models are ments specific to the domains. These stan-
needed. The detailed models focus mainly dard elements are, for example:
on a specific physical domain: • In the hydraulic system: throttle, valve
• This means that detailed hydraulic mod- or electric line
els of common rail injectors are avail- • In the electronic system: resistor, capac-
able, for example. These can be simu- itor or transistor
lated using special programs with nu- • In the mechanical system: ground with
meric calculation methods that are friction, transmission or clutch (or the
exactly tailored to hydraulic systems. equivalent for micromechanics)
Cavitation phenomena have to be taken
into consideration, among other things. The preferable solution is that these ele-
• Detailed models are also needed to de- ments should be stored in a central stan-
sign the power electronics that trigger dard model library that is also decentrally
the injector. Again, this involves the use accessible to product development. The
of simulation tools which must be devel- essence of the standard model library is
oped specifically to design electronic a documentation of all the standard ele-
circuits. ments. For each element, this comprises:
The development and simulation of the Description of physical behavior in
software that controls the high-pressure words
pump and the power electronics in the The physical equations, parameters
control unit with the aid of the sensor (e.g. conductivity or permeability),
signals also takes place using tools that state variables (e.g. current, voltage,
are specially designed for this area of magnetic flux, pressure) and
the overall system. The description of the associated inter-
faces
As the components in the overall system
interact with each other, it is not sufficient In addition, a major part of the environ-
to consider specific detailed models of the ment is a reference model written in a
components in isolation. The optimum so- modeling language that is independent
lution is also to take into account the mod- of the tool. Overall, the library includes
els of other system components. In most reference models from the mechanical,
cases, these components can be repre- hydraulic, electronic, electrodynamic
sented by simpler models. For example, and software areas.
the system simulation that is focussed on
the hydraulic components only requires
a simple model of the power electronics.
Requirement
specification (what) Tool-supported
test-case creation
lopm
Specifications Validation,
feasibility
ent p
Design decisions
(”creative engineering
work”)
roces
Model,
Test cases
prototype
s
(Virtual)
sample
Performance
specifications
Design
UAE0943-1E
specification (how)
Basics of mechatronics Outlook 7
back level must also provide the pre- “Top-down” from system simulation,
scribed functionality in the event of a with the objective of overall optimiza-
problem. The condition for their imple- tion, through to finite element simula-
mentation is a high-reliability and high- tion to achieve a detailed understanding,
availability mechatronic architecture and “bottom-up” design engineering
which requires a “simple” proof of safety. from component testing through to
This affects both single components as system testing
well as energy and signal transmissions. • Horizontal:
mechatronic systems could achieve signifi- Step by step, the idea a “virtual sample”
cant progress for both users and vehicle is nearing our grasp
manufacturers.
Another challenge is training in order to
further an interdisciplinary mindset and
develop suitable SE processes and forms
of organization and communication.
Product
Develo
Customer
n
Functio
wishes
Validation Test
Requirement
analysis Acceptance test
pment
Model Test
cases
System
requirement
proces
specifications
Validation Test
System
specifications
Component
requirement
specifications
Validation Test
nts
prototypes cases
Compo
Component
UAE0944-1E
target
specifications
Component manufacture
8 Architecture Overview
"SDIJUFDUVSF
40%
Mechanics Mechanics Mechanics
Mechanics Mechanics Mechanics
20% Mecha- Mecha-
Mechanics
nics nics
0%
40% 30% 22% 8% 30% 30% 25% 7% 8%
Driving Safety Con- Info- Driving Safety Con- Info- Commun-
and braking venience tainment and braking venience tainment ication/
navigation
Fig. 1
SVA0032E
Source:
Proportion of electrics/electronics, Proportion of electronics,
approx. 22% approx. 35%
Mercer management
consulting
Technology of the present day shorten, the airbag and seat-belt preten-
In the 1990s the cabling work in a luxury sioners are set to emergency standby.
class vehicle amounted to around 3 km. The communication between the elec-
This figure clearly demonstrates how tronic control units cannot take more than
complex the vehicle system has become. fractions of a second. The more electronic
The growth of the proportion of electron- control units interact in the one complete
ics in the motor vehicle (Fig. 1) can mainly system, the more difficult it becomes for
be attributed to the growth in microelec- them to communicate undisturbed.
tronics and sensor technology. With the number of electronic control
At first, many of the new systems were units and the associated need for mutual
integrated into the vehicle by means of communication, the costs of developing
their own dedicated electronic control the systems rose as did the adaptation
unit. For the most part, the individual costs for making interfaces compatible.
electronic control units operated in mutual With the CAN bus (Controller Area Net-
independence. All the same, connecting work) developed by Bosch, a powerful and
lines became increasingly necessary be- widely used data bus system has become
tween electronic control units to enable commonplace in vehicles for the first time.
the exchange of data by means of PWM The data line of the CAN bus makes it pos-
signals, for example. Depending on the sible for the electronic control units to
vehicle class, there are between 20 and exchange specific and relevant items of
80 electronic control units fitted in today’s information with each other. At the start,
vehicles. They control such equipment as the network only comprised a few elec-
the engine, antilock brake system or the tronic control units, such as the engine-
airbags. The number of microcontrollers management system, the electronic stabil-
in the vehicle has therefore risen continu- ity program and the transmission control.
ously in recent years (Fig. 2). Gradually, further systems would expand
The components of the individual sys- this network, especially in the areas of
tems are optimally matched to each other. comfort and convenience and infotain-
The systems may originate from different ment. The CAN bus has gradually evolved
manufacturers that use previously agreed, into the standard for networking systems
albeit still their own, interfaces. The rain in the motor vehicle. Today it is the stan-
sensor, for example, “speaks” in a different dard for communication between elec-
way to the sensors for the engine manage-
ment. The following example demon- 2 Number of microcontrollers in the motor vehicle
110
traveling in front. If this distance is shorter
100
than a specified minimum distance, the 90
ACC electronic control unit sends this in- 80
formation to the engine management, the 70
60
ESP electronic control unit and the airbag
50
electronic control unit. The engine man- 40
agement reduces torque and thus driving 30
speed. If this is not sufficient, the elec- 20
SVA0033E
10
tronic stability program (ESP) must also
0
generate brake pressure to decelerate 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
the vehicle. If the distance continues to
10 Architecture Overview
systems). At this level, the driver is able functional component represents the tasks
to overrule the assistance systems at any of the navigation level, which are to inform
time. the driver of the driving route determined
At the stability level, there are the sub- by means of a mapping system (Fig. 3).
systems that are able to correct the deci- Vehicle guidance represents the guidance
sions taken at handling level if these hap- level, and stability intervention the tasks
pen to be outside the range of safe refer- of the stabilization level. The vehicle mo-
ence variables (e.g. ABS, ESP). This may tion coordinator determines the correcting
be the case when cornering or on wet road variables for the actuators, e.g. of the
surfaces, for example. drive and electronic stability program
At stabilization level, correcting vari- (ESP), from the information input by
ables for implementation by the vehicle’s vehicle guidance and stability interven-
actuators are determined. Information tion.
about the environment (e.g. road condi- Figure 4 shows how the functional com-
tion, air temperature, rain sensor signal) ponents of guidance level, stabilization
is still required at the various levels for level and vehicle actuators are related in
the implementation of the relevant tasks. a hierarchical structure within vehicle
These tasks can be assigned to func- motion. Communication relationships
tional components, which are the architec- between the components and interactions
tural elements of the functional architec- with other domains, e.g. body and interior,
ture. In this way, the driver information are also featured in the model.
Calculated distance
Vehicle motion
13
Architecture Vehicle system architecture
Vehicle motion
Vehicle guidance
Acceleration
requirement
Steering angle
Brake torque
Drive torque Steering angle
Steering angle
Stop lamp
SVA0035E
Body, interior
14 Architecture Vehicle system architecture
Rather, the decision is affected by non- ization stages. This required a decoupled
functional requirements such as safety, development process and the exploitation
availability, costs or resource availability. of synergies between subsystems. The de-
In addition to the functional requirements, velopment frameworks took into consider-
these requirements mainly determine how ation the dependencies and interface con-
the function is realized. The “how” is de- tents within the individual domains and
scribed by the architecture of the system. with the rest of the vehicle, as is the case
Different requirements result in different with a networked system such as ACC,
system architectures. for example.
5 Functional architecture
System level
Subsystem
level
Hardware Software
architecture architecture
Network architecture
SVA0036E
16 Architecture Vehicle system architecture
fields of application or domains and the reliability are fulfilled by the multiple use
comparatively slow growth of networking of proven standards. Autosar concerns
within these domains. itself with all vehicle domains.
Based on the uniform electronics plat-
Bus systems for the individual domains are form, which primarily consists of standard
becoming more specialized due to their software modules, each vehicle manufac-
plainly different requirements. With the turer is then free to build its own specific
CAN in the drivetrain as the point of ori- content. They enable integration into the
gin, new bus systems such as the LIN sub- electronics network. These software func-
bus have begun to infiltrate the area of tions permit differentiation between the
body electronics or FlexRay in the case of competition.
safety-relevant x-by-wire systems. In the Not only does software have to conform
multimedia field, where demands for high to the Autosar standard. The electronic
data rates but low safety requirements control units must be built in such a way
prevail, bus systems such as Bluetooth that the Autosar software is able to run on
have started to make an appearance. them. The Autosar members are hoping
Breaking through these traditional do- that the new development methods yield
mains with ever more applications leads such benefits as shorter development
to known consequences, e.g. dramatic in- times and lower development costs.
crease in complexity, high start-up costs,
increasing integration times and costs, and Until now, it was often the case that dedi-
more demanding work in customer service cated electronic control units would be
as a consequence of diagnostics no longer developed and fitted for new functions
being manageable. A solution for these (e.g. electronic transmission control,
multidimensional optimization tasks has in antilock brake system, air conditioning).
the past been sought in the software field. The number of electronic control units
In the case of technical systems in particu- fitted in the vehicle grew continuously;
lar, the paradigm is still king, especially in today’s generation of vehicles are
software realizations, because the absence equipped with between 20 and 80 elec-
of physical boundaries supports unlimited tronic control units. In future vehicle gen-
growth. erations, it is intended that all functions
be covered by a network of 10 to 20 elec-
Autosar Initiative tronic control units. Some of these will
The Autosar Initiative (AUTomotive Open function a little like main computers that
Systems ARchitecture) was founded in will bundle the important function groups
July 2003 by several vehicle manufacturers together. These include the drivetrain,
and suppliers – Bosch among them. Their suspension management system, body
global objective is the joint development and interior and the multimedia/telematics
of an open system architecture for future domain. On data buses, sensors with inte-
automotive applications. The aims of the grated electronics output processed and
partnership include the standardization verified signals, while the buses carry the
of fundamental system functions (basic relevant control commands to actuators
software) and function interfaces; they with integrated triggering electronics.
will replace the company-specific, individ- In future, new functions will often be
ual solutions used to date. Model-based able to use the existing computer architec-
concepts and methods ought to reduce ture up to its performance limit and will
complexity in spite of an expanding range be widely realized in the form of a soft-
of functions. The demands for quality and ware add-on. This would therefore render
17
Architecture Vehicle system architecture
&MFDUSPOJDDPOUSPMVOJU
1 Design of a control unit using the example of an ME Motronic (sectional view through housing cover)
UAE0992Y
20 Electronic control unit Data processing
Fig. 2
a Period duration stored in an EEPROM.
(fixed or variable)
Time
b Variable on-time
| Performance of electronic control units 21
Control unit
The performance of electronic control units I/O facilities for timer-controlled signals and
goes hand-in-hand with advances achieved in an integrated analog-digital converter at the
the field of microelectronics. The first gasoline end of the 1980’s. It was then possible to cre-
injection systems were still analog – with lim- ate relatively powerful systems. Figure 3 shows
ited flexibility in the implementation of control a comparison between the performance of a
functions. These functions were constrained fuel-injection system (LH3.2) and an ignition
by the hardware. system (EZ129K) – equipped with 80C515
Progress advanced in quantum leaps with controllers – and that of the succeeding
the arrival of digital technology and the micro- Motronic systems. The ME7 has approximately
controller. The entire engine management sys- 40 times the performance capability of the
tem was taken over by the universally applica- LH/EZ combination with a clock frequency of
ble semiconductor microchip. The actual con- 40 MHz. With the benefit of a new generation
trol logic in microcontroller-controlled systems of microcontrollers and a further increase in
is in a programmable semiconductor memory. clock frequency on the ME9, this figure will
From systems that initially simply con- increase to a factor of well over 50.
trolled fuel injection, complex engine-manage- In the foreseeable future microcontrollers
ment systems were then developed. They con- will process more than just digital control se-
trolled not only fuel injection but also the quences. Signal processors are integrated that
ignition system including knock control, ex- can also directly process the signals provided
haust-gas recirculation and a whole variety by knock sensors, for example.
of other systems. This continuous process of
development is bound to continue in a similar Advances in the development of semiconduc-
vein over the next decade as well. The integra- tor memory chips are also worthy of note.
tion of functions and, above all, their complex- Complex control programs require an enor-
ity are constantly increasing. This pattern of mous amount of memory space. The capacity
development is only possible because the of memory chips at the start of the 1980s
microcontrollers used are also undergoing was still only 8 kilobytes. The ME7 now uses
a similar process of improvement. 1-megabyte chips and soon memory capacities
Microcontrollers in the Intel 8051 family of 2 megabytes will be required. Figure 3
were used quite some time until they were re- shows this pattern of development and likely
placed with 80515 derivatives with additional future trends.
Fig. 3
Chart illustrating
▶ Performance
3 Development of electronic control units capability of
engine-management
2,500
160
kB
kB
50
136
kB
C167 24MHz
ME7.0 ▶ Data memory
10
Flash: 512 kB
ROM
RAM
80C517A 16MHz
capacity (RAM)
M4.4.1
128 kB
4
Flash: 128 kB
86
80C517 15.8MHz
8 kB
M4.3 Flash: 64 kB
By way of comparison:
The performance
80535 12MHz
M1.8
55
capability of a state-
32 kB
EPROM: 32 kB
SMK1930E
0.5 kB
of-the-art engine-
1
80535 12MHz
LH3.2 + EZ129K
60
EPROM: 32 kB
management system
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 far exceeds that of
Apollo 13.
22 Electronic control unit Digital modules in the control unit
Microcontroller
(CPU) Volatile read/write (ROM, EPROM, write memory
memory (RAM) flash EPROM) (EEPROM)
for variable data For programs and
Arithmetic and logic unit permanent data records
(ALU) Memory capacity
4-, 8-, 16-, 32-bit Memory capacity Memory capacity 32 bytes to
64 bytes to 32 kbytes 2 kbytes to 512 kbytes 1 kbyte
…
(Timer, time SPI,
processing unit, CAN)
Electronic control unit
input capture,
output-compare
register)
Communication
Monitoring Resolution Resolution with external
circuit 50 ns 8 to 10 bit Data rate chips via
(watchdog) Counter Time range 4 to 32 8 to 32 200 bit/s to address/
8 to 64 bit 50 ns to 1s channels channels 1 Mbit/s data bus
… … … … … …
UAE0454-1E
Digital modules in the control unit
23
24 Electronic control unit Digital modules in the control unit
Semiconductor memories
Programmable
on a program- Programmable Static Dynamic
in the circuit memories memories
ming device
UV Electrically
Read-only erasable erasable
UAE0465-1E
The control unit program reacts to several to the speed sensor signal. For this pur-
of these interrupts. An interrupt source pose, the engine-speed signal is connected
can therefore request an interrupt while to a microcontroller interrupt input. Every
another interrupt routine is currently falling signal edge at this input interrupts
being executed. Every interrupt source the current calculations that are in prog-
therefore has a fixed priority assigned to ress and forces a branch to the interrupt
it. The priority controller decides which routine. After executing the commands in
interrupt is allowed to interrupt another the interrupt routine, the program contin-
interrupt. ues execution at its point of origin.
In order to perform certain operations
Tooth interrupt the control unit program requires the time
The crankshaft is equipped with a pulse taken for the crankshaft to travel between
wheel (Fig. 2a) that has a certain number one tooth and the next. This calculation is
of teeth on its circumference. The teeth performed by an internal timer. This is a
are scanned by the speed sensor. This freewheeling 16-bit counter (Fig. 3) that
allows the crankshaft position to be re- increments at a certain rate, depending on
corded. The typical distance between the microcontroller oscillator clock cycle.
a pair of teeth on the crankshaft sensor This time frame amounts to about 0.5 µs.
wheel is 6°. In order to determine the When the falling tooth flank occurs,
crankshaft position, the control unit pro- the current counter status is recorded.
gram must execute certain routines as The difference (and therefore the tooth
each tooth is detected. At 6,000 rpm the interval) is calculated using the stored
detection time between two teeth is ap- counter from the previous tooth.
proximately 300 µs. Every command in
these routines must be executed within Example: crankshaft position calculation
this time. This requires a rapid response The engine-management system (Motronic
for gasoline engines, EDC for diesel en-
gines) must know the crankshaft position
2 Crankshaft sensor ring with speed sensor at any given point in time. This is a pre-
requisite for injecting into the right cylin-
a
der at the right time and ensuring that ig-
nition takes place at the calculated ignition
angle (Motronic systems). In order to
Tn+1
Tn
Time t
Speed sensor
b
signal
Digital
signal
SAE1004E
SAE1005E
detect the engine position and the engine Since the synchronization program runs
speed, the control unit evaluates the speed over several teeth at fast engine speeds,
sensor signal (Fig. 2b). it has to be interrupted by the tooth inter-
There is gap in the crankshaft sensor rupt. The tooth interrupt is given higher
wheel in which two teeth are missing. priority than the synchronization pro-
The tooth space has a defined position gram.
in relation to the top dead center (TDC) of
cylinder no. 1. The control unit program Ignition interrupt
has to synchronize itself with this tooth The ignition output takes place within a
space. This is done by measuring the times certain crankshaft range, depending on
between two consecutive falling tooth the value from the ignition map. Since the
flanks. The time for the tooth space is specified ignition angle has to be adhered
considerably greater than the time before to exactly, the ignition output is controlled
and after the gap. Following a “short – by an interrupt. Like the synchronization
long – short” sequence the last thing to program, the ignition interrupt is also
be scanned was the falling flank of the called up once per combustion cycle.
second tooth after the space. The control unit program is aware of the
The crankshaft has rotated by 6° for crankshaft position in the 6° framework.
each falling tooth flank that has been de- However, this framework is not accurate
tected by the control unit program. This is enough for ignition angle output. For this
how the control unit program knows the reason, accurate ignition output between
crankshaft position within this time frame. two teeth must take place as well as this
Since cylinder no. 1 is in the tooth space approximate counting for the last 0 to
position in the vicinity of top dead center 6 crankshaft degrees. This is done using
(TDC) or bottom dead center (BDC), an ad- a timer (Fig. 5). Ignition angle output that
ditional signal is required to determine the was purely timer-controller would lead
position. The camshaft sensor provides to an ignition angle output error at high
a different voltage level in both cases. engine speed dynamics.
The control unit is therefore able to Firstly, the ignition coil must be enabled
uniquely assign the crankshaft and for a defined time (the so-called dwell pe-
camshaft positions. riod). In order to do this, the program cal-
culates the switch-on time by calculating
Combustion-synchronous interrupt
Some calculations have to be performed 4 Triggering the interrupt synchronously with
for every combustion cycle. For example, combustion
the ignition angle and the injection have
to be recalculated synchronously with
combustion for each cylinder. The pro-
gram does this by branching to the “syn-
Start synchronization
chronization program” after certain teeth
program
(Fig. 4). This interrupt takes place after
every 30 teeth (ignition interval) for a four-
Tooth counter elapsed
cylinder engine, and after every 20 teeth Synchronization program triggered
for a six-cylinder engine.
The synchronization program is fixed to Second tooth after the gap: reference mark
a certain tooth position and has to be exe- Preset tooth counter for triggering the
SAE1006E
backwards from the ignition angle at which 5 Dwell and ignition time output
the ignition coil has to be switched off.
This makes it possible to calculate the
tooth after which the ignition coil has to
be switched off (approximate counting Ignition output
in 6° time frame). The remaining angle
(detailed counting 0 to 6°) is converted Switch on the ignition coil
Enter the time for ignition
into an output time using the current en-
gine speed. As soon as the specified tooth Enter time for detailed counting
position has been reached using approxi-
mate counting, a time is loaded with the Synchronization program:
SAE1007E
Calculate the dwell period and ignition angle
output value from the detailed counting.
Preset the tooth counter for the dwell period
When this time period expires, the timer time (approximate counting)
triggers an interrupt. The commands that
switch on the ignition coil are programmed
in this interrupt routine. Then the timer Background program
is preset to the dwell period value, which All other activities that do not run in
causes an interrupt to be triggered when an interrupt routine or a time frame are
the timer elapses, switching off the igni- processed in the background program.
tion coil and therefore initiating ignition. At fast engine speeds, the synchronization
program and the tooth interrupt are called
Time frame frequently, leaving little CPU time for the
Many control algorithms have to run background program. The time taken for a
within a certain time frame. Lambda con- complete run-through of the background
trol, for example, has to be processed program therefore increases rapidly with
within a fixed time frame (e.g. 10 ms) so the increasing engine speed. The back-
that the correcting variables are calculated ground program must therefore only
quickly enough. contain low-priority functions.
30 Electronic Control Units (ECUs) Software Development
System System
Specification Test initialization delivery
Function analysis QA2
specification
System
QA1 integration/test
Function Function
initialization delivery
Function analysis QA2F
specification
æ UTS0325E
æ UTS0326E
Function
QA1F integration/test
Function
Implementation development
Electronic Control Units (ECUs) Software Development 31
쐌 The persons in charge of ReUse and These guidelines also serve as a source of
the project discuss the application and knowledge for effective code configuration in
establish the scopes and deadlines order to counteract the limitations in relation
together. to memory capacity and run time in the pro-
gramming of microcontrollers.
Tools for Creating Software As the wide variety of tools demonstrates, the
As well as the formal aspects such as process process involved in creating the software for
and programming guidelines, it is crucially an ECU of the latest generation is highly
important to ensure that the tools are subject complex. Figure 4 provides a simplified
to constant support in the interests of prod- overview of the interplay between the indi-
uct quality. Figure 3 provides an overview of vidual tools from the specification through to
the tools currently used for the various devel- the finished ECU program.
opment phases. Significant features of this
tool chain are: By way of example, two component parts of
쐌 constant support throughout the entire de- the tool chain will now be explained in closer
velopment process and detail:
쐌 product-specific, optimized solutions with 쐌 Design with ASCET-SD and
tools partly developed in-house. 쐌 Vehicle simulation with TCM-Simutec.
Test/application
Documentation: MS Word
INCA/PC
Key:
ASCET: advanced simulation and control
æ UTS0328E
engineering tool
ASCET-SD: ASCET software developer
StP: software through pictures
(Aonix) for OO modeling
ESPRIT: engineering software-production
5 Function design with ASCET-SD
user interface for tools
Innovator: Software-development
environment (MID)
Codewright: Software-development
environment (Premia)
DAMOS: database for microcontroller-
oriented systems
INCA-PC: integrated car application system
TCM-Simutec: Vehicle simulator
æ UTS0329Y
The next step is the automatic C-code creation Process and Maturity Model
and the creation of the corresponding data A clear definition of the development process
files for the application from the models. and the corresponding implementation in the
projects are made possible by a software de-
For further information, log on to velopment which can be evaluated with a ma-
turity model such as CMM (capture maturity
http://www.etas.de model).
2 4
1 Fig. 6
1 ASCET-SD and
3 INCA-PC
2 ASCET hardware
æ UTS0330Y
æ UTS0311Y
(ETAS ES 1000.2)
3 ETK
4 ETC-Simutec
(laboratory car)
34 Electronic Control Units (ECUs) Software Development
8 Software layer model The operating system with its services and the
hardware-compatible software are imple-
Transmission software from mented on this hardware:
vehicle manufacturer or Bosch
ERCOSEK EEPROM Hardware KWP 2000
(OS) driver Input/Output driver
Program
library Device Device Device
driver driver driver
Component
driver The interface layer and program library for
the application software contain:
Operating system Diagnosis Diagnosis Security
handling monitoring software
æ UTS0331E
functions (SSK)
Hardware EEPROM KWP2000 Shift by wire
handling application functions
Cooperative Scheduling
CPU core SPI TPU MIOS CAN UART In the case of cooperative scheduling,
timer and (2) (2)
a task can only be interrupted between two
Memory, hardware, driver, etc.
processes by a higher-priority task (Figure 10).
Electronic Control Units (ECUs) Software Development 35
The advantages of this procedure are low and a response time that is not dependent on
memory requirement (register banks, stack), process implementation. The disadvantages
simple management, and data consistency. are increased memory requirement (stack,
The disadvantages are the limited response register banks) and data-consistency prob-
time (dependent on the process run time) lems.
and the jitter over the task period.
Mixed Scheduling
Preemptive Scheduling ERCOSEK offers the option of mixing both
Owing to the drawbacks of cooperative types of scheduling in one application.
scheduling, preemptive scheduling is used in A combination of hardware and software
operating systems which operate as real-time scheduling serves this purpose. Figure 12
systems. shows the distribution between cooperative
With this form of scheduling, a higher-pri- and preemptive using the priorities assigned
ority task can interrupt a lower-priority task to the tasks.
at any time (Figure 11). The advantages of A software call starts the operating system.
this procedure are the very short response It can support different application modes
times, the minimal jitter over the task period, (e.g. different task sets for initialization, oper-
Task Activation
and start
Task B
Task B
Process 1
Task
Process 3
…
æ STS0334E
Prozess n Task A
Time t
Activation Task B
Hardware-based
Start Task B
scheduling
Task B preemptive
Priority
Task
æ STS0335E
cooperative
Task A
Time t Distribution
36 Electronic Control Units (ECUs) Software Development
13 Application-mode change ation and ECU run-on, Figure 13). Each ap-
plication mode consists of an initialization
phase and an execution phase. Interrupts are
Application
prohibited during initialization of an applica-
Mode n Mode n+1 tion mode.
Further documents on the subject of
ERCOSEK / OSEK can be found on the
Mode
Internet at:
Init Execution Init Execution http://www.etas.de
http://www.osek-vdx.org
æ STS0336E
Acquisition of Input and
Output Variables
Zeit t
Access to the hardware is obtained within the
framework of the software layer model in ac-
14 Hardware access in the layer model cordance with three layers (Figure 14):
쐌 user layer,
쐌 configuration layer, and
User layer 쐌 hardware layer.
"Low-level"-channels
Electronic Control Units (ECUs) Software Development 37
CAN - Bus
Fig. 15
a Conventional
b With CAN
38 Electronic Control Units (ECUs) Software Development
3 Bit rates as a function of cable (bus) length The system must also be resistant to tempera-
Maximum bit rate Bus length
ture and moisture. The CAN bus has also
kbit/s m gained acceptance in the field of automation
1000 40 technology. Table 3 lists the maximum possi-
500 100 ble data rates for different cable lengths.
250 250 Figure 16 shows the circuit-engineering
125 500
implementation of the CAN interface in an
40 1000
ECU.
Table 3
17 Use of dual-port RAM with the CAN bus 19 CAN standard data frame
recessive
Message 1 low high
1 11 1 1 1 4 0…64 15 1 1 1 7 3
Message 2 dominant
Bus idle
Start of Frame
Data Field
CRC Sequence
CRC Delimiter
ACK Slot
ACK Delimiter
End of Frame
Intermission
CAN-
Bus CPU
Message n
æ UTS0340E
æ UTS0342E
workload
Acceptance Message Host CPU
filter management
Arbitration Control CRC Acknowledge
Field Field Field Field
NODE A recessive
dominant 1 11 1 1 18 1 2 4 0…64 15 1 1 1 7 3
dominant
Bus idle
Start of Frame
Identifier
SRR Bit (R)
IDE Bit(R)
Extended Identifier
RTR Bit(D)
(2 reserved (D))
Data Field
CRC Sequence
CRC Delimiter
ACK Slot
ACK Delimiter
End of Frame
Intermission
Bus idle
Data Length Code
recessive
NODE B
æ UTS0343E
æ UTS0341E
dominant
NODE B loses the arbitration
switches to receive Arbitration Control CRC Acknowledge
mode Field Field Field Field
Electronic Control Units (ECUs) Software Development 39
S
1-2 H
0
tions for shifting-point control and pressure 0 30 km/h
control have already been discussed in the Vehicle speed υF
chapter sections entitled Shifting-Sequence
Control and Adaptive Pressure Control.
The following text will now deal with 22 1-2 curve with several driving programs
2-1 RS XS
2-1 RS XE
S XS
S XE
0
0 50 km/h
Vehicle speed υF Fig. 21 and 22
1 Upshift
40 Electronic Control Units (ECUs) Software Development
To select a shift curve using the driver type On the other hand, there are the variables
and the total running resistance, it is necessary which are crucial to shifting-point selection:
for them first to be recorded and evaluated 쐌 driver type,
once. The overall structure of vehicle control 쐌 driving situation, and
shown in Figure 23 serves this purpose. 쐌 driving program.
On the one hand, there are the variables This is made clearer with the newly
which determine the vehicle and its status: arranged graphic overall structure of gear
쐌 transmission control panel (TCP), selection in Figure 24. Each of these variables
쐌 the transmission itself, is then further divided into different sub-
쐌 the engine, evaluations.
쐌 the accelerator-pedal position, and
쐌 the vehicle variables (e.g. vehicle speed, The driver-type evaluation specifies whether
wheel speed, etc.). the current driving style is economical or
sporty. The driver-type determination as
23 Overall structure of vehicle control featured in Figure 25 can be shown for this
purpose.
Determine Cyclical ()
The result of the driver-type determination is
a driver-type counter (Figure 26) with an allo-
Determine status () Determine driver type () cated driving program (XE to XXS).
Transmission Driver type
control panel
Driver-type evaluation is followed by hill
Engine Determine drive situation () recognition (based on the vehicle running
Transmission
Driving situation resistance), which distinguishes between
different types of uphill and downhill driving
Vehicle variables Set transmission () with the following allocation (Figure 27):
Drive program B0 Downhill 2
Accelerator pedal
B1 Downhill 1
æ STS0346E
B2 Level
Vehicle control
B3 Uphill 1
B4 Uphill 2
Vehicle
variable Determine driver type () Give driver type ()
Accelerator Administrator Determiner
pedal
Transmission Driving
control panel situation Startup evaluation
Gear selection
SESP
Engine Driver type
Gradient evaluation
Electronic Kickdown evaluation
stability program Linear-acceleration Counter
evaluation
Display Special evaluation
æ STS0348E
æ STS0347E
Lateral-acceleration
Transmission
evaluation
Driver-type recognition
Electronic Control Units (ECUs) Software Development 41
RC TCP
RC TCP changes the order of priority of the
ratio supplier in accordance with operation of B2
the transmission control panel (TCP). An RC B3
B1
selection adapted to the B4
shift situation (SS) B0
takes place.
B1
B2
æ STS0350Y
Variable Hill
shifting sequence
æ STS0349E
æ STS0351E
A further method of solenoid-valve monitor- If faults occur in the PRC, i.e. are detected, an
ing is ISIG evaluation (inductive signature). incorrect complete part answer of the PRC is
This method serves to monitor the voltage formed, which for its part causes an incorrect
characteristic at the solenoid valve and evalu- complete answer to be sent to the monitoring
ates the drop (UISIG) which occurs when the module (watchdog in the external ASIC, see
spool is moved (Figure 29). The objective also section entitled “ASIC”). This increases
here is to monitor the function of the on/off its fault counter by 1 (a fault-free complete
valve. Since the voltage drop is only very answer results in a decrease to the minimum
small and very short (tISIG), a special evalua- fault-counter content 0). The monitoring
tor circuit must be used here. module shuts down the driver stages when
the fault-counter content 5 is reached and
Pressure-Regulator Monitoring initiates a reset at fault-counter content 7.
The pressure regulator must be permanently
monitored because its function is crucial to
the function of the transmission.
Fig. 29
Each reference (every 10, 20, and 30 ms ref- UISIG Voltage drop
erence) has its own enumerator and delivers tISIG Time interval for
Time t
its own part answer. The last checked point in voltage drop
44 Basic principles of networking | Network topology
#BTJDQSJODJQMFTPGOFUXPSLJOH
UVA0014-1Y
SVA0005Y
Basic principles of networking | Network topology 47
Adr 1 Adr 2 Adr 3 Adr 4 In the predictable method the bus access
right is determined before bus access.
Adr 3 It can thereby be ensured that only one
subscriber is using the bus at a time.
Access collisions because of simultaneous
b
bus usage will be prevented if all subscrib-
Id 1 Id 2 Id 2 ers use this method.
Id 4 Id 3
Id 3 Id 3 Id 5
Id 6 Id 5 Id 6
Fig. 8
Id 7
UVA0012-1Y
a Subscriber-oriented
method
Id 3
b Message-oriented
method
Basic principles of networking | Network organization 49
5V
Data Data
Bus
User layer line
Application layer E1 E2
T1 T2
Communication layer
Presentation layer
Control Status T Bus level
E
Session layer
0 conducts 0V
Transport layer
1 blocks 5V
Network layer
E1 E2 Bus level
Data link layer 0 0 0V dominant
0 1 0V dominant
Physical layer 1 0 0V dominant
1 1 5V recessive
Physical layer
UVA0027E
SVA0008Y
Physical connection
Basic principles of networking | OSI reference model 51
bus when one node is transmitting a status If no data is being exchanged, the bus level
of 1 and another is transmitting a status is 5 V (microcontroller operating voltage,
of 0. Fig. 11). When the start bit is transmitted
The binary statuses can be depicted in (dominant level), the other station con-
many different ways. The serial interface nected to the bus (receiver) is notified
of the PC, for example, uses +12 V and that a data transfer is starting (Fig. 12).
-12 V, and CAN-B uses voltages of 0 V and The length of the start bit determines a
5 V. The voltages of the serial interface are bit time that represents the basis for the
unsuitable for a bus, since short-circuits entire data transfer. Every subsequent
can occur if several subscribers wish to data bit has the same length. The recipro-
transmit conflicting binary statuses simul- cal of this time corresponds to the data
taneously. transfer rate, i.e. the number of bits that
If the coding allows one level to over- can be transmitted in one second in a
write another, the overwriting level is re- continuous data stream. All participat-
ferred to as dominant, and the subordinate ing stations must be set to the same data
level as recessive. transfer rate.
It is also possible to depict dominant After the start bit has been received,
and recessive levels using visual media. the transmission of an 8-bit data word
A status of 1 (recessive) then corresponds commences (1 byte) with the lowest signif-
to e.g. dark, and a status of 0 (dominant) icant bit (LSB, Low Significant Bit). The re-
corresponds to light. In an optical fiber, ceiver that has synchronized itself to the
an individual node can override all of the start bit scans the data bus between each
others by feeding light into the conductor. data bit and therefore assembles the trans-
ferred data byte.
Bit stream The eighth data bit is followed by the
The application information cannot usu- parity bit. This bit indicates whether the
ally be transmitted directly. In order to number of transmitted ones is odd or even.
make transmission possible, the informa- It therefore allows the receiver to perform
tion is first incorporated as a payload in a simple check for possible transmission
the frame of a message that contains infor- errors. The sequence is completed with
mation to be transmitted. Since all proto- the stop bit, which is placed onto the bus
cols have been developed in accordance
with different requirements, the frame
format differs from protocol to protocol. 12 UART interface transmission frame
1
Priority
2
low
Level
1
1 2 3
0
Time
b Occurrence of events
high
1
Priority
4
3 7
2 6
5
low
Level
1
1 3 4 2 5 6 7
SVA0010Y
Time
Basic principles of networking | Control mechanisms 53
0
Max. output
Time slots delay
Time
SVA0011Y
Sensor measuring principles 55
Table 1
56 Automotive networking | Cross-system functions
"VUPNPUJWFOFUXPSLJOH
1 Automotive networking
SVA0037Y
30
20
10
SVC0012-1Y
0
W140 W220 W221
(1991) (1998) (2005)
58 Automotive networking | Requirements for bus systems
convenience systems than the antilock Hard real-time requirement: the time
brake system (ABS), for example. specification must be strictly adhered
In order to meet these requirements, to. If the specified response time was ex-
mechanisms that detect transmission er- ceeded, the calculated result would not
rors are incorporated in the network pro- be able to be used. This can lead to seri-
tocols. A simple check can be carried out ous problems in safety-critical systems.
using the parity bit, which is calculated in
the transmitter and is transmitted together For example, if time allowances were ex-
with the useful data. This specifies whether ceeded in the ABS system, the incipient
the number of 1's in the transferred byte is locking of the wheels would not be de-
even or off. This information is checked by tected soon enough and the pressure in
the receiver. Single errors can be detected the master cylinder would not be reduced
using this method. in time. This would result in locked wheels.
Another method is the checksum check. The time allowances must also be strictly
If several data bytes are being transmitted, adhered to for many engine-management
the transmitter calculates a checksum system functions. Delays in transmitting
from the individual data bytes using a pre- injection and ignition signals could lead
defined formula and transmits this value. to engine judder and even misfiring.
The receiver also calculates the checksum These reactions must be avoided, since
of the data bytes that have been received they represent a potential danger. Hard
and compares it with the checksum that has real-time requirements must therefore be
been received. If a data transmission error made of these systems.
is detected, the received data is not used However, this does not necessarily mean
and a repeat transmission is requested. that the transmission of data via a bus sys-
tem also has to be subject to these hard
Real-time capability real-time requirements. Adherence to
A real-time system guarantees that its re- soft real-time requirements is usually suf-
sults are calculated within a fixed time in- ficient. If signals from other control units
terval. The duration of the time interval are needed for functions (e.g. a torque re-
depends on the application. The antilock duction request during a shift operation),
brake system (ABS) must react to the the bus system must transmit the data at
incipient locking of a wheel within a few a faster data transfer speed and with a
milliseconds (wheel speed reduction), smaller time delay so that the overall sys-
whereas response times of 100 ms are tem complies with the specified real-time
adequate for actuating the power-window requirements.
motor. Human beings cannot perceive
delay periods of less than 100 ms. Number of network nodes
Different demands are made of real-time The maximum number of nodes to be inte-
behavior depending on the application: grated varies for different areas of vehicle
Soft real-time requirement: the system operation. The number of nodes for com-
generally adheres to the specified re- fort and convenience systems may be high
sponse time, and if these times are occa- due to servomotor networking (e.g. seat
sionally exceeded, it does not produce adjustment) and intelligent sensors (e.g.
any serious effects (e.g. image jerking rain sensors). Several identical busses can
during picture transmission). be used if necessary.
Automotive networking | Classification of bus systems 59
Chassis Drivetrain
Interior Telematics
SVC0013-1Y
60 Automotive networking | Applications in the vehicle
4 Gateway structures
a b
Diagnostics
5 Network topologies
a
Sensor CAN
Diagnostics
CAN Drive CAN
Instrument
cluster CAN
LIN
Comfort CAN
LIN
Infotainment CAN
Comfort CAN
LIN
BluetoothTM
b Distance control
CAN
Instrument
cluster CAN
Diagnostics CAN
MOST
Drive CAN
LIN LIN
Fig. 5 LIN
Typical network
topologies for
new-generation
SVA0028E
channel. Up to 15 stereo channels can be driving speed to be read out in the work-
transferred in parallel with the current ver- shop via the connected diagnostic tester
sion of the MOST bus (MOST25 with a total (example: the correct assignment of the
transfer rate of up to 24.8 Mbit/s). wheel-speed sensors must be checked for
the ABS functional test).
Data transfer: examples
The following examples show which sig- Engine speed
nals are measured and evaluated in which The injection and (with a gasoline engine)
systems. the ignition timing are output with a reso-
lution of less than 1° of the crankshaft an-
Driving speed gle. In order to ensure real-time behavior,
The ESP control unit calculates the driving the crankshaft position must be recorded
speed from the wheel-speed sensors. This in the engine control unit. The engine-
variable is transmitted on the CAN-C bus speed sensor scans the crankshaft trigger
(drive CAN). The engine-management sys- wheel and relays the signal to the control
tem needs this value for the cruise control, unit, which calculates both the crankshaft
among other things, and the transmission position and the engine speed. This vari-
control unit determines gear changes from able is used to calculate the injection time
the driving speed. The adaptive speed and the ignition angle, for example.
control (ACC, Adaptive Cruise Control) The engine speed is a variable that is
needs the current driving speed to calcu- needed in many other systems. The engine
late the necessary distance from the ve- control unit therefore outputs it on the
hicle in front and use it as a setpoint value. data bus. The shifting points are defined
A gateway transmits the speed informa- in the transmission control unit depending
tion via another CAN bus (instrument clus- on the speed. The engine speed is needed
ter CAN) to the instrument cluster, which for the ASR function (acceleration slip
displays the value via a needle instrument. control) in the Electronic Stability Program
The CAN-B bus (comfort CAN) is also (ESP) – ASR intervention (torque reduc-
connected to the network via the gateway. tion) must not make the engine stall.
Some luxury class vehicles are equipped As in the previous example, the engine
with dynamic seats. The padding of the speed is transmitted to the diagnosis inter-
seats is inflated depending on the speed face and the instrument cluster (display on
and the acceleration, counteracting the rev counter).
the centrifugal force of the driver. This
increases comfort considerably when Turn signaling
cornering. The driver operates the turn-signal lever
The speed information is sent to the (Fig. 6, Item 1). A signal is relayed to the
Infotainment CAN via the gateway and re- steering column control unit via a discrete
layed to the car sound system. This allows line (2) depending on whether the driver
the volume to be adapted to the driving is indicating a right or left turn. This may
speed. The navigation system needs the be a resistance-coded signal, for example.
speed to calculate the position if the GPS The control unit evaluates the signal and
signal is missing (e.g. in a tunnel). detects that the driver is indicating a left
The diagnosis interface is directly con- turn, for example.
nected to the engine and transmission The comfort CAN relays this informa-
control unit via the serial K-line. All other tion to the vehicle power supply control
control units are connected to the diag- unit (3). The indication direction is defined
nosis interface via a virtual K-line that is on the basis of the received information
simulated on the CAN bus. This allows the (normal flash frequency, increased flash
Automotive networking | Examples of networked vehicles 65
Fig. 6
1 Turn-signal lever
2 Steering column
control unit
3 Electrical-system
6 Data transfer during turn signaling 7 Data transfer during windshield-wiper operation
control unit
4, 5 Turn-signal lights
4
6 Gateway
4 7 Trailer-recognition
3 5 LIN control unit
M
3 8 Turn-signal light
Comfort CAN
on trailer
9 Instrument cluster
Comfort CAN
2
1
Instrument cluster
Fig. 7
CAN 9 1
2 1 Windshield-wiper
6
lever
2 Steering column
control unit
SVA0029E
SVA0030E
7 3 Electrical-system
control unit
8
4 Wiper motor
66 Automotive networking | Examples of networked vehicles
8 Multimedia networking
4 2
Comfort CAN
MOST
Fig. 8 3
5 1
1 Head unit
2 Radio tuner
3 Amplifier 6 7
SVM0005E
4 CAN/MOST gateway
5 Screen Check commands
6 Control element Multimedia data stream
7 Speakers
Automotive networking | Examples of networked vehicles 67
Control of an automatic steel folding roof four CAN buses and a further four LIN sub-
Vehicles with automatic steel folding roofs buses. In this example, a total of 13 control
are currently very much in vogue. These units are involved in the control of the au-
roofs are automatically opened and closed. tomatic steel folding roof. The text below
The technical realization of this seemingly describes which functions are performed
simple mechanical function poses a huge by the individual control units to move the
challenge for the networking of the elec- roof.
tronics and control units.
The networking depicted in Figure 9 Roof control unit
shows a typical present-day mid-size ve- Power activation of the motors for the steel
hicle with the additional function of an au- folding roof is performed by this control
tomatic steel folding roof. At its maximum unit. This control unit also assumes the
equipment specification, this vehicle has role of complete monitoring of the move-
over 35 electronic control units (ECUs), ment process. Proximity-type sensors
which communicated with each other via which monitor, record and evaluate the
Instrument cluster
Central OBD socket
(WFS)
gateway
Central
processing unit Electrical-system Door control unit Dynamic headl.
(Radio, RadioNavi, control unit driver leveling contr.
RadioNaviNet,…)
Wiper
(master) Door control unit AWD
passenger control unit
Booster AMP Wiper
(slave) Door control unit Transmission
rear left control unit
Voice control RS/LS
Door control unit Airbag
SMLS control unit
rear right
TV tuner (steering column)
Comfort control unit
MF st.w. Selector lever
Telephone (Kessy)
interface box
Roof control unit IR Electric
(CSC) power steering
Telematics
NAR Sounder
PTC heating Steering-angle
NGS sensor
…
Tire-pressure Seat, driver
monitoring (memory) Brake
control unit
Trailer Seat, passenger Fig. 9
(ABS, ESP, …)
control unit (memory) Systems in blue boxes
SVA0047E
ESP
cluster are involved in the
Multifunction
Auxiliary heating control of the steel
control unit
folding roof
68 Automotive networking | Examples of networked vehicles
movement of the roof are used for this ated. This also applies to the sliding sun-
purpose. In order to inform the driver of roof, which is activated by the roof control
the current status while the roof is being unit.
opened and closed and to prevent any
damage to the vehicle or the surroundings, Trailer control unit
the roof control unit receives numerous The trailer control unit informs the roof
further parameters from other control control unit whether a trailer is hitched. If
units in the vehicle. this is the case, opening and closing of the
roof is disabled.
Instrument cluster
The instrument cluster receives via the Door control units
gateway the current status from the roof The status of the windows and doors is
control unit and from other participating interrogated by all four door control units
control units, and informs the driver ac- and transmitted to the roof control unit.
cordingly. Example: “Obstacle behind the Opening or closing of the roof is only
vehicle! Roof movement stopped”. begun if all the doors are closed and the
windows are in the correct positions. This
Gateway setting is automatically corrected if the
All the communication requests which are windows are not in the correct positions.
transmitted from one bus system to an-
other are routed via the central gateway. Comfort control unit
The comfort control unit informs the roof
Vehicle power supply control unit control unit of, among other things, the
The vehicle power supply control unit key position. Movement of the roof is en-
checks whether the vehicle battery has abled only if the correct key is inserted.
sufficient charge to enable the roof to be
moved. If necessary, the driver is informed Brake control unit
and no roof movement is performed. The brake control unit uses sensors to
record the wheel speeds and thereby iden-
Parking-aid assistant tify whether the vehicle is moving. The
Before the roof is opened, the parking-aid roof control unit receives the speed infor-
assistant monitors the area behind the mation and enables movement of the roof
vehicle for obstacles to ascertain whether only if the vehicle is stationary.
there is sufficient space available to un-
fold the roof. If an obstacle is detected, Future areas of FlexRay application
the driver is informed and movement Up to now the high-speed CAN bus (CAN
is stopped. In this event, the driver can C) has been used to network control units
decide for him-/herself whether he/she in the drivetrain and in the chassis area. In
wishes to continue moving the roof. In future X-by-wire systems, the mechanical
certain cases the parking-aid assistant can connections, e.g. between steering wheel
detect something which poses no danger and front axle (steer-by-wire) or brake
to the vehicle. pedal and wheel brakes (brake-by-wire),
will be replaced by electrical communica-
A/C control unit tion systems in conjunction with driving-
All windows are automatically closed dynamics control systems.
when the air-recirculation switch is actu-
Automotive networking | Examples of networked vehicles 69
Furthermore, vehicle architectures have ity Program), AFS (Active Front Steering),
up to new often used several CAN buses and ARC (Active Roll Control). Higher-
which are linked to each other via gate- level driving-dynamics control controls
ways to distribute the high data volume. the individual systems without limiting
Future architectures will use, for a fast, their functionality and prevents negative
powerful connection between several mas- interactions. Figure 10 shows the intercon-
ter computers (which assume, for example, nection of these systems with bus system
central functions in the safety and driver- and sensors.
assistance areas), a backbone bus with a The yaw sensor transmits the vehicle’s
high data rate to which in each case sub- acceleration values and yaw rate to ESP.
buses (e.g. drivetrain CAN and sensor CAN If a critical driving situation is detected
in the chassis area) are connected. by ESP using these data (e.g. vehicle over-
The new FlexRay bus system satisfies steer), situation-conditioned brake pres-
the demands which will be placed in future sures and engine-management interven-
on the vehicle architecture, such as, for tions are calculated. Higher-level global
example driving-dynamics control also evaluates
high data rates and guaranteed real- the driver-command steering angle from
time capabilities in the drive and chassis the steering-angle sensor and calculates
areas, a supplementary steering angle, which is
large date volume in the backbone, and converted by AFS. More effective and com-
high failure safety of safety-relevant fort-enhancing control can be achieved by
applications (e.g. X-by-wire) this interaction of the individual systems.
In this way, the vehicle can, for example,
through properties such as be stabilized by a corrective steering
high availability and redundancy by movement already at a very early stage
means of two physically independent such that braking interventions can be
channels, partially or even completely avoided.
high data rates with up to 10 Mbit/s per
channel,
data transfer with guaranteed latency,
and 10 FlexRay
synchronicity of all communication
users by means of a global time base. Global driving-dynamics control
Driving ESP
CAN dynamics FlexRay (active
FlexRay is currently still in the develop-
braking)
ment stage, although some initial systems
are already in volume production. The fol-
lowing example is a current approach to a Sensor AFS
technology (Active
FlexRay topology.
Front
Steering)
Excerpt from chassis domain
Concepts for global driving-dynamics Further ARC
compo- (Active
control are being developed to facilitate nents Roll
SVA0048E
#VTTZTUFNT
The CAN bus is used in various domains in • for gasoline engines or EDC for diesel
the motor vehicle. These domains differ in engines)
the requirements they demand of the net- • Electronic transmission control
work. Due to the fast processes involved in • Vehicle stabilization systems (e.g. ESP)
• Seat adjustment
CAN-C • Power-window unit
• Sliding-sunroof control
• Mirror adjuster
• Lighting system
Gate-
way • Control of the navigation system
high-speed bus
ECU 5 to ECU 11 ECU 9 ECU 10 ECU 11
On the CAN-B
low-speed bus
a V
0
a V
2.0 Differential
SVC0018E
signal
0
Bus systems | CAN bus 73
a V
CAN_L
5
3.6
Node 1 Node n
1.4 (max. 30)
CAN_H
0
recessive dominant recessive
Time t CAN_H
b V
CAN_H 120V CAN bus line 120V Fig. 4
3.5
a Voltage level of
2.5 CAN_L
CAN_L the low-speed CAN
1.5
SVC0019E
SVC0020E
(CAN-B)
b Voltage level of the
recessive dominant recessive
high-speed CAN
Time t
(CAN-C)
74 Bus systems | CAN bus
Physical layer
CAN 2.0 B). With 11 bits in the standard
format, it is possible to distinguish be-
tween 2,048 different CAN messages;
Bus systems | CAN bus 75
in the extended format, this number rises ority (lowest binary value of the identifier)
to over 536 million. is assigned first access, without any data
The advantage of this addressing loss or delay (non-destructive protocol).
method is that the network nodes do not The arbitration principle permits the
require any information about system dominant bits transmitted by a given sta-
configuration and are thus free to operate tion to overwrite the recessive bits of the
fully independently of each other. This re- other stations (Fig. 8). Each station outputs
sults in a highly flexible complete system, the identifier of its message onto the bus
which makes it easier to manage equip- bit by bit, with the most significant bit first.
ment variants. If one of the ECUs requires During this arbitration phase, each station
new information which is already on the wishing to send data compares the level
bus, all it needs to do is call it up from the present on the bus with the level it actually
bus. It is possible to integrate additional possesses. Each station that attempts to
stations into the system (provided they are send a recessive bit but encounters a dom-
receivers) without having to modify the inant bit loses the arbitration process.
existing stations. The station with the lowest identifier, i.e.
the highest priority, makes its way onto
Controlling bus access the bus without having to repeat the mes-
Arbitration phase sage (non-destructive access control).
If the bus is unoccupied (recessive state) The transmitters of lower-priority mes-
and messages are available for sending, sages automatically become recipients of
each station is free to initiate the sending the message just sent by another station.
of its message. The message begins with a They repeat their attempt to send as soon
dominant bit (start-of-frame bit), followed as the bus is free again.
by the identifier. When several stations Without this access control, bus colli-
start to transmit simultaneously, the sys- sions would result in faults. To guarantee
tem responds by employing “wired-and” unequivocal bus arbitration, therefore,
arbitration (arbiter = logical AND operator) it is not permissible for more than one
to resolve the resulting conflicts over bus node to send a message with the same
access. The message with the highest pri- identifier.
Station 1 Station 3
loses the loses the station 2)
arbitration arbitration
Bus
0 Dominant level
1 Recessive level
76 Bus systems | CAN bus
Message format
The message transfer on the CAN bus is 9 CAN message format
Error handling
If a CAN controller detects a fault or for-
mat error, it interrupts the current trans-
mission by sending an error frame com-
prising six successive dominant bits. This
breaks the stuffing rule that prohibits this
type of bit sequence. If the sender detects
that its message has been interrupted by
an error frame, it stops transmitting and
makes another attempt at a later time.
This effect prevents other stations from
accepting the erroneous message and
thereby ensures consistency of data
across the entire system.
80 Bus systems | CAN bus
Microcontroller Microcontroller
Output Input
buffer buffer
CAN
controller
Control
unit
System bus interface
Transmission Test for: Control
control unit acceptance, unit
faults
Transmit Receive
buffer buffer
Basic CAN
controller Transmission Test for:
Transmit Receive control unit acceptance,
buffer buffer faults
buffer to which the local computer (appli- Modules without local computer
cation software microcontroller) has ac- A further category of CAN module is one
cess (Fig. 10). Since the buffer capacity that is supplied without a local computer.
is limited, the computer must read the These SLIOs (Serial Linked Input/Output)
received data before new messages are are able to input and output data via ports.
received. Message filtering also takes They are therefore suitable for making
place in this computer. A part of the sensors and actuators bus-compatible at
computer's capacity is therefore used for low cost, but they do need a master that
CAN management. Since the computers controls them.
do not usually have sufficient processing
capacity, modules with basic CAN are pri- Transceiver
marily suitable for low bit rates, or for the The bit stream generated by the CAN con-
transmission of fewer messages but at troller is made up of binary signals. They
higher bit rates. do not yet correspond to the required volt-
The advantage of these modules, in com- age levels of the CAN bus. The CAN-bus in-
parison to modules with full CAN, is the terface module, or transceiver, generates
smaller chip surface and the lower manu- the differential signals CAN_H and CAN_L
facturing costs. and the reference voltage Uref from the
binary data stream.
Full CAN
Full CAN implementation is the protocol of Sleep mode
preference in cases where a station has to The CAN comfort bus must remain ready
manage several messages at high bit rates for operation even with the ignition
and the local computer has no free capac- switched off so that functions such as the
ity for communication tasks. They contain radio, power windows or parking lamp
several “communication objects”, each of may continue to operate. The bus sub-
which contains the identifier and the data scribers must therefore be supplied by
of a particular message. During the initial- terminal 30 (permanent positive). After
ization of the CAN module by the local terminal 15 has been switched off (ignition
computer, it is decided which messages off), a CAN node may enter sleep mode
the CAN controller should send and which (standby) to relieve the vehicle electrical
received messages it should process fur- system of as much load as possible. The
ther. Received messages are only accepted transmitter part of the transceiver module
(message filtering) if the identifier matches is switched off in this condition to mini-
one of the communication objects. mize the power consumption in this mode
CAN controllers with full-CAN imple- of operation. However, the receiver part
mentation relieve the burden on the local remains active and checks whether mes-
computer by performing all of the commu- sages are being sent on the bus. In this
nication including message filtering in the way, the CAN controller, which also enters
controller (Fig. 11). standby mode, is able to react to a wake-up
The CAN controller can be coupled to message and fully activate the CAN node.
the microcontroller in the electronic con-
trol unit as a stand-alone module by the
address/data bus. Powerful microcon-
trollers have the CAN controller integrated
on-chip. This type of bus coupling is the
more cost-effective and thus the more
common solution.
82 Bus systems | CAN bus
a b
Engine control unit ABS control unit Instrument cluster
Microcontroller Microcontroller Microcontroller
n n
Rev
counter
output
CAN
area n n
RX TX RX TX RX TX
Transceiver
SVC0024D
SVC0024E
CAN bus
Bus systems | CAN bus 83
station responds with an acknowledge CAN is also widely used in industrial auto-
(ACK check). mation. These applications are supported
At the second stage, or acceptance layer, by an alliance of companies in the “CAN in
the message undergoes message filtering. Automation” users group (CiA).
Each station checks whether the received Bosch has concluded contracts with its
identifier is addressed to the particular licensees that guarantee that any CAN im-
station and whether the message is re- plementations will be able to communicate
quired in the application software. If not, with each other. Users will be able to rely
the message is rejected. Otherwise, it on the interaction of any CAN modules.
makes its way to the receive buffer. A flag
notifies the application software that a Characteristics
new message is ready for processing. • Standardized in accordance with
The instrument cluster, for example, ISO 11898
calls up the available message, processes • Prioritized communication
lates triggering signals for the actuator of • Data capacity: up to 8 bytes per message
the rev counter. • Real-time response: the data protocol is
sufficient for the real-time requirements
Standardization in the motor vehicle
The International Organization for Stan- • Non-destructive bus-access method
dardization (ISO) and SAE (Society of Au- • Low power consumption
tomotive Engineers) have issued CAN stan- • Flexibility of configuration
dards for data exchange in automotive ap- • Simple and economical design with
LIN bus The LIN bus is suitable for low data rates
of up to 20 kBit/s and is typically limited to
Overview a maximum of 16 bus subscribers.
The increasing use of mechatronic systems The electrical interface can be created
in the motor vehicle gave rise to the idea easily and cost-effectively in the network
of designing a cost-effective bus system nodes. As far as the nodes are concerned,
as an alternative to the low-speed CAN. a distinction is made between the master,
In 1998, several automotive manufacturers which is generally an electronic control
founded a consortium with the aim of de- unit connected to a superordinate bus sys-
veloping a specification for a serial bus for tem, and the slaves. These are intelligent
the networking of sensors and actuators in actuators, intelligent sensors or, quite sim-
the body electronics area. ply, just switches with additional hardware
It was believed that a bus system with for the LIN-bus interface.
simple bus protocol and a simple sequence The bus subscribers are usually ar-
control would make it possible to use even ranged in a linear bus topology and con-
low-capability microcontrollers without nected to each other by a single-wire line.
additional hardware for the communica- This topology, however, is not explicitly
tion interface. specified.
The workgroup's resulting LIN bus spec- Communication on the LIN bus takes
ification was introduced into mass produc- place in a time-synchronous manner,
tion with the Mercedes-Benz SL as early as whereby the master defines the time grid.
2001. Consequently, there arises a strictly deter-
The name, LIN (Local Interconnect ministic LIN bus response.
Network), is derived from the fact that Figure 1 shows an example of a LIN net-
all electronic control units are located work as a subbus in the roof/wiper area of
within a demarcated installation space the motor vehicle. Here, the bus comprises
(e.g. in the door). The LIN, therefore, is a central electronic control unit, as the
a local subsystem for supporting the vehi- master, and the four slaves: mirror, garage-
cle network by means of superordinate door opener, rain/light sensor and wiper
CAN networks. actuator. The master also functions as a
gateway to the Chassis CAN, the Body CAN
and the Diagnostics CAN.
are not essential. Examples of LIN applica- electrical voltage of approx. 0 V and
tions: represents logical 0
• Door module with door lock, power-win- • The recessive level corresponds to
dow drive and door-mirror adjustment battery voltage UBat and represents
• Control of the power-sunroof drive unit the logical 1 state
• Control of the wiper motor for the wind-
shield wiper The recessive level is characterized by a
• Sensor for rain and light detection resistance to battery voltage of 1kV in the
• Air-conditioning system (transmission master and 30kV in the slaves.
of signals from the control element, Due to circuitry variations, there may be
activation of the fresh-air blower) differences in the voltage levels. A stable
• Headlight electronics data transfer is ensured by the defining of
• Control of motors for seat adjustment tolerances for sending and receiving in the
• Theft deterrence areas of the recessive and dominant levels.
• Garage-door opener The tolerance zones on the reception side
are wider (Fig. 2) to make it possible for
valid signals to be received despite inter-
ference radiation.
The data rate of the LIN bus is limited
to a maximum of 20 kBit/s. This is the out-
2 Tolerance ranges for transmitters and receivers come of a compromise between the de-
mand for high edge steepness for easy syn-
Transmitter chronization of the slaves on the one hand,
UBat
recessive
and the demand for lower edge steepness
80% for improved EMC characteristics on the
other. The standard bit rates of 2,400 Bit/s,
Voltage level
dominant
SVL0002E
0
Time t
86 Bus systems | LIN bus
LIN frame
Header Response
Synch Synch Ident Data Data Data Data Data Data Data Data Check-
Break Field Field field 0 field 1 field 2 field 3 field 4 field 5 field 6 field 7 sum
SVL0003E
Bus systems | LIN bus 87
The SynchBreak comprises at least 13 con- Of the 64 possible messages, 32 may only
secutive dominant levels and one recessive contain two data bytes, 16 may only con-
level. tain four data bytes, and the remaining 16
At the end of the synchronization break, eight data bytes each.
the master sends the synchronization field The last bits in the identifier field con-
(SynchField) consisting of the bit sequence tain two checksums, which are used to
01010101. The slaves are then able to ad- check the identifier for transmission er-
just themselves to the time basis of the rors and any resulting incorrect message
master and thus synchronize. assignments.
The synchronization method described
permits a loose specification of the timing Data field
of the bus subscribers. The clocking of Once the header sent by the master node
the master should not deviate more than has been transmitted, it is time for the
±0.5 % from the nominal value. The clock- transfer of the actual data to begin. The
ing of the slaves is permitted to deviate by slaves know from the transmitted identi-
up to 15 % before synchronization as long fier whether or not they are being ad-
as the synchronization reduces the devia- dressed and, if they are, they reply with
tion to a maximum of 2 % before the end their response in the data field.
of the message. Several signals can be packed into one
In this way, the slaves can be built with- frame. In this case, each signal has pre-
out an expensive quartz oscillator, e.g. cisely one generator, i.e. it is always writ-
using a simple RC circuit. ten by the same node of the network.
During the data transfer of the bytes,
Identifier it is always the least significant bit (LSB)
The third byte in the header is used as the that is output first. Each byte (8 bits) is
LIN identifier. As with the CAN bus, a con- preceded by a start bit and followed by
tent-based addressing method is used – a stop bit, which means that each byte
the identifier therefore provides informa- involves the transmission of ten bits.
tion about the content of a message (e.g. The purpose of the start and stop bits is
engine speed). Based on this information, to resynchronize the nodes and thereby
all nodes connected to the bus decide prevent transmission errors.
whether they would like to receive and The data response of the slaves is veri-
process the message further or simply fied by means of a checksum.
ignore it. This process is known as accep-
tance filtering. LIN description file
Six of the eight bits of the identifier field The configuration of the LIN bus, in other
determine the identifier itself. Their per- words the specification of network sub-
mutations give rise to a possible 64 differ- scribers, signals and frames is managed
ent identifiers (ID). They have the follow- in the LIN description file, or ldf. For this
ing meanings: purpose, the LIN specification provides for
• ID = 0 to 59: transmission of signals. an appropriate configuration language.
ID = 60: master request for the com- From the ldf, a set of C codes or header
mands and diagnosis files is automatically generated using suit-
• ID = 61: slave response to ID 60 able tools. These are used as the basis for
• ID = 62: reserved for manufacturer- implementing the master and slave func-
specific communication tions in the electronic control units con-
• ID = 63: reserved for future extensions nected to the bus.
to the protocol
88 Bus systems | LIN bus
LIN master 1
ECU for air-con-
ditioning system
LIN slave 1
CAN
Sliding sunroof
motor
LIN master 2
SVL0004E
Roof module
the value is only contained in a message slave possible even without quartz
with slave response initiated by the mas- • Deterministic signal transmission
ter. The feedback signal with the current • Communication in the form of very
1 2 3
Fig. 1
1 Cellular phone
2 Headset 5 4
3 Personal digital
assistant (PDA) FM2 EUROPE 1
SVB0001Y
4 Laptop computer
5 Car sound system
with navigation unit
Bus systems | Bluetooth 91
to more than one piconet, can only func- It is conventional for the transmissions
tion as master in one of these networks. of the master to begin in the even time
A device that is assigned to two picon- slots and those of the slaves to begin
ets in a scatternet must synchronize with in the odd time slots. This characteris-
the network with which it wishes to com- tic conforms to the regular time-divi-
municate. It cannot remain connected to sion multiplexing method (TDD here)
both networks at the same time. Before whereby the master uses one half of the
the device leaves the old piconet, it must time slots and the slaves the other half.
inform its master that it will be unavail- In addition to packets that may occupy
able for a certain period of time. The one time slot, Bluetooth provides for
remaining network subscribers can packets that may occupy three or five
continue to communicate. time slots (multi-slot packets). As soon
A master, too, may leave its own as a master or slave sends a packet three
piconet and become a slave in another. or five time slots long, this transmitter
All communication in its old network, will remain on the same frequency.
however, is broken until it returns and There is no frequency change within
assumes its master function again. a packet (Fig. 6).
A master cannot become master of a Once the packet has been transferred,
second piconet. If this were to happen, the frequency hops as determined by the
both piconets would behave in an identi- hopping sequence (independently of the
cal manner and form a single network. transmission process). In the illustration,
for example, the frequency hops from
Physical data channel fk to fk+3 after the transmission of a 3-slot
A data channel is represented by a hop- packet). The reason for this behavior is
ping sequence between the 79 possible that not every station may have received
frequencies in the ISM band. Any device the transmission and cannot therefore
that is actively participating in a piconet respond specifically to the transfer of
must also hop at the same carrier fre- data in several time slots. For this rea-
quency (frequency fi). As soon as a mas- son, all stations that are not involved in
ter has sent data at frequency fk, a slave the transmission always continue to hop
can respond at frequency fk+1. This pro- in the sequence specified by the master.
cedure is illustrated in Figure 5.
Piconet 1 Piconet 2
M M
S S P Slave
P S 625 ms
Fig. 4
M Master
SVB0004E
SVB0005E
S Slave
P Park mode
SB Standby
Bus systems | Bluetooth 95
master and slave; and user channels, used for device polling.
1 SEQN
SVB0007E
SVB0006E
8 checksum
96 Bus systems | Bluetooth
Baseband
The LAP and UAP fields form the signifi-
SVB0008E
two devices and also implements security In addition to L2CAP, there are also au-
and authentication functions. dio and control protocols that govern the
The host controller interface (HCI) is handling of audio data and control data.
the interface between the hardware of a Audio applications, for example, can
Bluetooth module and the host-side pro- make direct use of the baseband layer
tocols. The HCI is a hardware abstraction once the audio signals have been coded
and realizes various interfaces for con- accordingly.
trolling the Bluetooth hardware and
transferring data (e.g. via USB or UART). The service discovery protocol (SDP) is
another important host-side protocol.
Host stack It serves to identify and scan for services
The host stack uses the HCI to control with specific properties and to describe
the Bluetooth hardware and transfer services within range of a Bluetooth de-
data. The format of this data is deter- vice. Bluetooth devices are meant to be
mined by the upper protocol layers. The able to interact on an ad hoc basis with
logical link control and adaptation proto- other devices in different environments.
col (L2CAP) implements the abstraction It is therefore necessary to know which
of the hardware's properties, adapts the services are made available by which de-
upper layers of the protocol stack to the vices within range. All devices wishing to
capabilities of the baseband and hides provide services must use an SDP server;
transmission details such as the connec- for all other devices, an SDP client is suf-
tionless or connection-oriented trans- ficient. The SDP prepares the services
mission type. The L2CAP layer essen- available on a device in a service data-
tially has three main functions: base. The service information in the pos-
• It can receive packets with a length of session of the SDP server is stored in a
up to 64 kB from the upper layers and service record. The service record con-
decomposes them into smaller data sists of a list with service attributes that
packets (segments) for processing in describe the properties of the service
the lower layers if necessary. At the more precisely and is identified by a
other end, the segments are recom- 32-bit service record handle.
posed back into packets.
• It manages the multiplexing and de- Two further protocols in the protocol
multiplexing of several packet sources. stack form the fundamental basis for the
If a packet is being recomposed, the interoperability of Bluetooth devices.
L2CAP layer determines to which pro- The RFCOMM (Radio Frequency Com-
tocol of the upper layers the packet is munication) cable emulation protocol
forwarded. above the L2CAP layer simulates up to
• L2CAP offers functions for negotiating 60 virtual serial interfaces derived in ac-
quality of service and configuration pa- cordance with the ETSI 07.10 standard.
rameters. This means, for example, that As a result, almost any software that pre-
the maximum size of the payload can be viously expected a serial interface can
negotiated so that a device with limited work with Bluetooth.
resources would not be overwhelmed TCS BIN (Telephony Control Protocol
by overly large packets. Using the con- Specification – Binary) is employed as
figuration parameter for the quality of the means of controlling telephone and
service, it is possible to define the telephony functions. This is a bit-ori-
properties of the data transfer: best ef- ented protocol for establishing voice
fort (best attempt but with no guarantee and data connections between Bluetooth
of data transfer) or guaranteed. devices. The use of appropriate, indus-
98 Bus systems | Bluetooth
try-wide standards has made it possible, The Bluetooth profiles form the hierar-
here too, to ensure wide-ranging com- chy (Fig. 10). The GAP forms the basis
patibility with legacy applications. and describes all the essential functions
that a Bluetooth device must fulfill at the
Applications lowermost level. These include, for ex-
Many more protocols have been adapted ample, the functions for establishing and
for the Bluetooth standard (adapted pro- managing the link, the supported operat-
tocols) and can be found in the protocol ing modes and the security of a link.
stack. Internet applications can, for ex- The SDAP defines the access interface
ample, continue to use TCP/IP through for the service discovery protocol (SDP)
the point-to-point protocol (PPP) or the with which devices can discover or poll
Bluetooth network encapsulation proto- the services offered by other devices.
col (BNEP). For the exchange of vCalen- SDP builds on the GAP. All Bluetooth de-
dars and vCards, it is possible to use the vices must implement these two profiles.
object exchange protocol (OBEX) cov- The SPP is used by most other
ered by the IrDA standard. Bluetooth profiles. One exception to
this is the telephony control profile.
Profiles This is always used when Bluetooth is
The uppermost layer contains the appli- being used for cable emulation or if a
cations and profiles. Profiles represent serial data connection is to be used.
“standard solutions” for a particular us- The SPP builds on the GAP and uses
age scenario. The Bluetooth specification the RFCOMM protocol.
currently brings together 13 different The GOEP defines the fundamental
applications described as profiles. Each functions necessary for the exchange
profile uses a certain choice of protocol; of complex objects. It defines a client-
in principle, application profiles make server relationship for the exchange of
a different protocol stack available for data. Like the SPP, the GOEP provides
each application. Profiles describe the the foundation for further profiles.
vertical slice through the Bluetooth pro-
tocol stack; the protocols represent the
horizontal layers (Fig. 9). Within the pro-
files, the required and optional functions
of the layers are defined. These stan-
dardized profiles make it possible to en- 9 Profiles and protocols
Profiles
Bus systems | Bluetooth 99
10 Profile hierarchy
SVB0010E
LAN access (LAP) Synchronisation (SP)
1998 by BMW, DaimlerChrysler, Harman/ the MOST bus has a flexible number
Becker and Oasis SiliconSystems (now part of synchronous channels that are able
of SMSC). By 2006, the MOST Cooperation to carry both audio and video data.
had 16 automotive manufacturers and In MOST 25, there are a maximum of
67 suppliers and tool makers among its 15 audio channels available in stereo
membership. quality.
Bus systems | MOST bus 101
• On the asynchronous channel, data is Each device has a bypass. When this is
sent in packets. It is therefore suitable closed, the device forwards the signal
for transferring information that does directly and is therefore invisible to the
not require a fixed data rate but does MOST system. This service is useful,
need a high data rate at certain times. for example, when the system is starting
Examples could be the transfer of track and a device requires more time for initial-
information of an mp3 player or a soft- ization, or in the event of a temperature-
ware update. With MOST 25, the asyn- dependent shutoff.
chronous channel has a gross bandwidth There are also other possible structures
of up to 12.7 MBit/s. for a MOST system, e.g. a star topology.
Internally, however, these must always
The available bandwidth can be flexibly be arranged to form a (logical) ring.
distributed between the asynchronous With a star structure, this can be achieved
channel and the synchronous channels through use of a central hub, for example.
by means of the “boundary descriptor”,
which can also be shifted to the transit Device model
period if relevant preconditions are met. The MOST standard defines the model
shown in Figure 2 for a MOST device for
Topology which the following elements are required:
A MOST system is arranged in a ring struc- At the lowermost level, the physical
ture whereby a device is connected to its layer provides access to the transmission
predecessor or successor in the ring by agent. Departing from the original defini-
an input or output respectively (Fig. 1). tion that provided for optical transmission
One of the devices acts as the “timing by POF cable (Plastic Optical Fiber), there
master” and generates the data frames are today various physical layers available
for data transfer with which the other with optical and electrical transmission as
devices synchronize. well as various speeds of transfer.
Network service
e
MOST network
Tx
Rx tion 1 ve
Tim sition 2
slav
po ng s
Tim
interface controller
si
i
Rx
Tx
ing
po
MOST physical
la
UVM0001Y
UVM0002Y
layer
102 Bus systems | MOST bus
service. tion
The applications of the device are imple- • Insensitivity to interference irradiation
mented on top of the network service. • Lower weight than equivalent shielded
(FBlock). Each device must at least imple- equivalent shielded electrical lines
ment a special FBlock, the NetBlock,
which is required for management func-
tions within the MOST system. In addition,
a device will usually implement one or 3 POF cable
2.3 mm
To date, modern vehicles are equipped • An area for the control channel (with
exclusively with MOST 25, with POF data MOST 25, two bytes per data frame)
transmission via POF connections. In addi- • An area for the synchronous channels,
tion to this, however, further transmission whereby one or more bytes are always
techniques have been defined for the assigned to a specific synchronous
MOST: channel
• The optical transmission by glass fiber • An area for the asynchronous channel
cable (PCS) with laser diodes (VCSEL),
which offers a greater damping reserve, In the case of MOST 25, the synchronous
supports higher speeds and is less sensi- and asynchronous area demand a 60-byte
tive to high temperatures. share of the data frame. The distribution
• An electrical transmission by copper between the synchronous channels and
cable, which is also less sensitive to the asynchronous channel is determined
temperature and is more economical by by the value of the boundary descriptor
comparison, requires additional shield- with a resolution of 4 bytes. The synchro-
ing measures at higher bandwidths. nous area must have at least 24 bytes
This has consequences for costs and (6 stereo channels). This means that
cabling. 24 to 60 bytes are permitted for the
synchronous area and 0 to 36 bytes are
Data transfer permitted for the asynchronous area.
Data transfer on the MOST bus is orga-
nized into data frames, which are gener-
ated by the timing master with a fixed data
rate and passed on by subsequent devices
in the ring.
Data frames
The timing master normally generates
data frames with a cycle of 44.1 kHz,
and in rarer cases 48 kHz. The cycle is
defined by the system manufacturer
(i.e. the vehicle manufacturer in conjunc-
tion with its device suppliers) to suit the
predominant media formats in the system. 4 Data frame
descriptor
1 data frame for MOST 25: 64 bytes
104 Bus systems | MOST bus
the slave returns a corresponding result • Unsigned and signed byte, word and
message if applicable (for StartResult). long for integer values with or without
If this result is not made available within sign and a size of 1, 2 or 4 bytes.
a specific period, the controller is notified • String for character strings. These
that the method is still being processed by are zero terminated and contain a
means of a processing message. In the end, description of the character coding
a method may even be terminated by the in the first byte.
sending of an abort message. • Stream, ClassifiedStream and
requirements placed on MOST devices 4.0: a receiver for digital radio (DAB).
which must be satisfied by all devices in • SDARS (FBlockID: 0x44), Version 2.4: a
order to be able to carry the MOST logo. receiver for satellite radio.
MOST compliance is tested and awarded • Telephone (FBlockID: 0x50), Version
by test institutes which have received ap- 2.3.2: a telephone module or a connec-
propriate accreditation from the MOST tion to a cellular phone.
Cooperation. The compliance require- • GeneralPhonebook (FBlockID: 0x51),
ments are governed by the following speci- Version 2.3.1: access to a phonebook,
fications, which describe the compliance e.g. that of a cellular phone.
process itself and the compliance tests • NavigationSystem (FBlockID: 0x52),
for the physical layer, for system mecha- Version 1.11: an interface for a navi-
nisms (Core) and for application interfaces gation system; but only unofficially
(Profile): approved by the MOST Cooperation.
• MOST Compliance Requirements, • GraphicDisplay (FBlockID: 0x60),
sensors and activates actuators. The Com- Communication Network Interface (CNI)
munication Network Interface (CNI) forms The CNI functions as a temporary firewall
the interface between the host processor because it makes available a memory area
and the controller and provides memory via which data received and to be sent are
areas via which the host processor and the exchanged between the host processor
controller can exchange information. and the controller. This interface repre-
The controller is in the end connected to sents the host processor’s sole possibility
the TTP/C bus, by way of which it connects of transferring information via the net-
the node with other nodes. The group of work. It is therefore not possible for the
all the nodes connected to a TTP/C bus and host processor to influence the communi-
the bus forms a cluster. cation sequence. In particular, the point in
time at which information is provided by
Host Processor the host processor has no influence on the
The host processor executes the applica- network’s communication sequence.
tion, the actual function of the network
node. In order to support the application, TTP/C Controller
an operating system, which also for the The controller (Fig. 2) operates entirely
most part provides the FT-COM layer, runs independently of the host processor. Its
on the host processor as well as the ap- most important components are the proto-
plication. The FT-COM layer introduces a col processor, a local bus guardian, and the
further abstraction level of the technical Message Descriptor List (MEDL).
realization of communication. The applica- The function of the protocol proces-
tion can provide data for transfer via the sor is to prepare information provided
interfaces of the FT-COM layer, thanks to by the host processor in the CNI in such a
which the application designer does not way that they can be transferred as TTP/C
have to deal with deeper concepts, such as frames.
the memory areas in the CNI. The controller is connected via two in-
terfaces with the remaining components
of the network node. The connections to
the host processor and to the transceivers
(drivers) are established via the CNI and
the Logical Line Interface respectively.
1 TTA network
Channel 0
SVT0001E
TTP/C bus
Channel 1
Bus systems | TTP/C 113
Hostprozessor
3 Message components
Communication Network
Interface (CNI) Application data:
Supplied/processed by the host processor
Protokoll- Messages:
MEDL Data areas interpreted
prozessor
by the host processor
SVT0003E
Transmission Media
Within a TTP/C network, communication
takes place via two channels. The channels
are designated Channel 0 (Ch0) and Chan-
b
Node Node nel 1 (Ch1), or Channel A (ChA) and Chan-
SC nel B (ChB).
Because the TTP/C Specification is
SC formulated very openly with regard to
Node Node the transmission medium, it is possible
to build TTP/C networks using very dif-
ferent media. Both electrical and optical
media can be used here. In particular, it is
c also possible to design one channel to be
Node Node optical and the other to be electrical. Dif-
ferences in the latencies of the different
SC SC
media can be compensated for by way of
Node Node
SC SC the configuration in the MEDL.
The achievable bit rate also varies to-
Node Node gether with this flexibility; however, the bit
rate itself is fixed during operation within
a network and cannot be altered.
It is possible with current implemen-
d tations to achieve bit rates of 5 Mbit/s
Node Node Node for asynchronous data transfer during
system starting and of up to 25 Mbit/s for
SC synchronous data transfer during normal
operation. Prototypes in the laboratory Fig. 4
SC a Bus
environment has achieved bit rates of up
b Star
to 1 Gbit/s.
Node Node Node c Multi-star
d Star/bus
SVT0004Y
combination
SC Coupler
116 Bus systems | TTP/C
the MEDL.
Cluster cycle
Bus systems | TTP/C 117
A TDMA slot is fixed at points in time COM layer, also an application, which is
which can be observed using the transmis- processed on the host processor.
sion. But because this is not applicable to The lower layers are implemented in
all the activities of a controller during a the controller, where data communication
slot, a distinction is made between node takes place between the host processor
slot and TDMA slot. and the controller via the CNI interface.
For a node, the slot begins with the PSP. In the controller, the top layer is the Pro-
But because no signal is transmitted in this tocol Service Layer; under this is the Data
phase, external observers lack a precise Link Layer followed at the lowest level by
point in time at which the node slot begins. the Physical Layer.
The first precise point in time which can
be observed from an external source is the Physical Layer
start of the TP. This point is also called the The Physical Layer comprises the require-
Action Time (AT). A TDMA slot therefore ments which are placed on the physical
comprises the time interval which passes transmission of information. Often the
between two ATs. Therefore, there exists connections to be used, the cable types or
in a TDMA slot only the TP and the Inter- the voltage levels are established for this
frame Gap (IFG), in which the PRP, Idle purpose in a protocol specification.
Phase and PSP are combined. Efforts are indeed underway to formu-
A node slot, on the other hand, begins late a specification for a TTP/C physical
with the PSP, which is followed by the TP, layer, but the TTP/C protocol specification
the PRP and the Idle Phase. merely establishes requirements which
must be fulfilled by the physical layer
TTP/C Protocol used. This has the advantage that the pro-
TTP/C systems use the TTA framework tocol is very flexible with regard to the
(Time-Triggered Architecture) as the basis networking and bit rate. It is thus possible,
for which – with the exception of the appli- for example, for networking to use both
cation – finished solutions can be used. optical and electrical media, which can
The TTA protocol stack (Fig. 7) can be also be combined with each other.
divided hierarchically into three areas. However, the system designer is faced
The top layer is the host layer, the ex- with the problem of initially having to
ecuted application. Under this is the FT- identify and evaluate possible solutions.
Host
Executed application
Layer
Node Dslot Node
slot i-1 Node slot i slot i+1 FT-COM CNI
Redundancy management FT-COM
DTP DPRP DIdle DPSP Message permanence Layer
TTP CNI
PRP Idle PSP TP PRP Idle PSP TP Communication services Protocol
Safety services Service
Action Time
Action Time
(AT)
Jennifer Lundelius-
Cluster Startup of a cluster can run with different levels of
Welch,
All the nodes of a cluster act without syn- precision. Only nodes which have precise
Nancy A. Lynch
chronization during cluster startup; bus clocks should be used for time synchro-
access is therefore not yet controlled via nization. These nodes receive the flag as 2)
TDMA. Because there is always a trans- “Master Clocks” in the MEDL, whereby Hermann Kopetz,
mission delay caused by the medium the SYF (Synchronization Frame Flag) Wilhelm Ochsenreiter:
used when messages are distributed in a is set for their frames. Nodes with more “Clock Synchroniza-
tion in Distributed
network, two unsynchronized nodes of a imprecise internal clocks act as “Slave
Real-Time Systems”,
cluster can start simultaneously with the Clocks” and use the clock information of
IEEE Transactions on
message transmission if the transmission the master clocks. There must be at least Computers, 36(8):
delay is greater than the duration of the four master clocks in a cluster to ensure 933-940, August 1987.
startframe. This can occur during system that clock synchronization is Byzantine-
startup if several nodes are authorized to fault-tolerant. Byzantine faults are faults in
initiate synchronization (coldstart nodes). which different nodes interpret the same
The situation can arise where different transmission differently.
cliques arise within one cluster of which The nodes of a cluster are synchronized
only the nodes of one clique are synchro- by measuring the Action Time (AT) in
nized, but not all the nodes of the cluster. each transmitted slot. If the SYF flag of a
In order to avoid this, all the nodes re- frame is set and the received frame was
ject the first correctly received coldstart faultlessly received, the AT of the frame is
frame. The coldstart nodes wait for a time stored in a stack four deep. In other words,
interval (startup timeout) before trying the last four correction values determined
again to transmit a coldstart frame. Be- are stored in the stack.
cause the size of the startup timeout must The actual clock synchronization takes
be different for all the coldstart nodes in place in frames, for which the ClkSyn
the cluster and differ at least by the size flag (Clock Synchronization) is set in the
of the transmission delay, collisions can MEDL. If this is the case, the mean value
no longer occur during the second cluster is formed from the stack values, where
startup. This process is also known as the highest and lowest values are ignored.
“Big Bang”. The internal clock is now corrected by the
calculated mean value.
Synchronization TTP/C also supports the inclusion of
In a communication system which controls external reference clocks (e.g. GPS) in the
bus access by means of TDMA, it is impor- system. Time Gateway Hosts are nodes of
tant for the individual users to have as pre- this type which offer an external time ref-
cise an idea as possible of a global time. erence. These nodes transmit the external
Synchronization in a TTP/C system uses correction value as application data in a
for the operation time only the offset cor- frame. The remaining nodes of the cluster
rection by means of which the onset of a store this value in the CNI and include it in
point in time is synchronized to all the in- the calculation of the AT correction values.
ternal clocks of the nodes of a cluster. For
this purpose, TTP/C uses a variant of the
Welch-Lynch algorithm 1) which was de-
scribed by Kopetz and Ochsenreiter 2).
120 Bus systems | TTP/C
Reintegration of a node
A node must synchronize itself with the N-frame (explicit C-state)
cluster if it has failed due to an incorrect Application data
Header C-state CRC
transmission from the member vector or up to 240 bytes
I-Frame C-state
An I-frame begins with the TTP/C header. The C-state consists of the global time,
This is followed by the current controller information on the MEDL and the member
C-state and finally the CRC value of the vector of the cluster. The MEDL position
frame. corresponding to the Round Slot Position
in the current cluster mode, the current
N-Frame cluster mode and the requested cluster
To ensure that Membership Service can mode change (DMC) is transmitted as in-
function, it is necessary for the C-state to formation on the MEDL.
be included in the frame structure. This An explicit C-state has a size of 96 bits
can occur explicitly or implicitly in the (six words of two bytes each).
case of N-frames.
If the C-State is explicitly transmitted, CRC checksum
the header is followed by the controller TTP/C uses the CRC checksum only to
C-state. This is followed by application identify transmission faults. Transmission
data and then the CRC value of the frame. faults are not corrected. Transmission
If the C-State is implicitly included in the faults are detected by a process whereby
frame, the frame consists of the header, each node determines a CRC checksum for
application data and finally the CRC value the received message and compares this
of the frame, the determination of which with the transmitted checksum.
was initialized with the current C-state. A polynomial is used to determine the
Download frames are a special form checksum. The TTP/C Specification in this
of the N-frame; these are accepted by all respect does not stipulate a specific poly-
the receiving nodes, regardless of cluster nomial; instead, it requires the polynomial
association and C-state. To facilitate this to facilitate a Hamming distance of at
behavior, a constant value which is known least 6. In other words, it must be possible
to all the nodes is used for these frames to within one transmission for at least five in-
determine the CRC. correctly transmitted bits to be detected.
The CRC calculation is initialized by the
Frame Fields Schedule ID, where the ID is split into two
Header parts. One part is used for initialization
The header of all the TTP/C frames is for Channel 0 and the other for Channel 1.
identical. Firstly, one bit signals the frame This prevents a node which does not have
type, whether an I-frame or an N-frame is the correct MEDL or which was connected
transmitted. crosswise to the channels from transmit-
This is followed by three bits, by means ting or receiving successfully.
of which a change of current cluster mode The C-state for initializing the CRC cal-
can be requested. These bits are set to culation is also used in the transmission of
zero if no change has been requested. frames with an implicit C-state. Thus, only
those frames whose CRC checksum was
Application data determined with the same C-state are ac-
The information of the application is trans- cepted as valid.
mitted in this area. The size of this field The calculated CRC value is transmitted
can be determined for each slot of a round at the end of a frame in a 3-byte field.
individually in the MEDL and must not
exceed 240 bytes per slot.
Bus systems | TTP/C 123
Composability Standardization
Networking technology has changed The development of TTA stretches back
greatly over the years. Where initially over a period of 20 years. Today, develop-
stand-alone systems (e.g. activation of a ment of the Specification is coordinated
turn-signal lamp via switches and relays) by the TTAgroup, a cross-industry consor-
were used, the changeover was quickly tium which was founded by the companies
made to cooperative systems in which Airbus, Audi, Delphi, Honeywell, PSA Peu-
individual components exchange informa- geot Citroën, Renault, and TTTech.
tion with each other. The Specification of TTP/C has been in-
However, the interaction of components fluenced in particular by Hermann Kopetz,
is increasingly making it difficult to ensure who between 1979 and 1982 was Profes-
the correct fulfillment of a function. For sor of Computer Process Control at the
this reason, the aspect of composability, Technical University of Berlin and since
i.e. the possibility of combining separately 1982 has run the Institute for Technical
developed subsystems into an overall sys- Information Technology at the Technical
tem without having to verify the function University of Vienna. Professor Kopetz
of the overall system again, is becoming also directed the MARS project and was
increasingly important. substantially involved in each further de-
In order to ensure that this functions, velopment of the protocol.
it is necessary to ensure that a subsystem
autonomously fulfills its functions, but also Characteristics
that this is the case when the subsystem is • Support of communication for safety-
integrated in an overall system. relevant functions.
TTP/C facilitates the implementation of • Guaranteed transmission properties.
formally verified with regard to certain as- • Data efficiency of 85 % for transmission.
Furthermore, the function of TTP/C sys- time response and ranges of values.
tems has been tested using failure-injec- • Functions for the most part formally
the fault tolerance and fault-detection ter state thanks to Membership Service
properties. and Clique Avoidance Algorithm.
• Clear structuring of the protocol inter-
faces.
• No restriction of the bit rate from the
Communication data
Host Configuration data & Communication controller
status information
Synchronization
Communication data
Communication data
signals
Configuration data & Bus guardian
Control signal
Control signal
Control Status
signals signals
Control data &
status information Bus driver
UVF0001E
TxEN_B
RxD_A
RxD_B
RxD_A
RxD_B
TxD_A
TxD_B
CBG CBG
A B Subbus
BD BD
UVF0002E
UVF0003E
measures may then be taken. As a result, the bus driver looks out for the transmis-
the effects of these faults can be confined sion of a wakeup signal, in response to
to small areas of the network. which the node is set to wakeup mode.
The system start is split into the wakeup • Control of bus access (media access
the network nodes are initialized and syn- • Schedule monitoring by the bus
chronized. guardian
If the function of a node is not required
for the time being, the node can be set to Unlike in other network protocols, with
a standby mode in which all operations FlexRay there are interfaces between all
of the coding and decoding process are core mechanisms. This requires a process
stopped. This reduces the energy con- that coordinates and synchronizes the
sumption of the node. In sleep mode, the changes in the core mechanisms. This is
power consumption of a network node is the task of the protocol operation control
at its minimum. In this mode, all functions (POC).
of the network node are deactivated: only
4 Wakeup sequence
Node C
non coldstart node power off/reset config ready integration
channel B listen
Channel A wakeup
UVF0004E
pattern
wakeup
B pattern
Bus systems | FlexRay 129
FlexRay gives the host system the capabil- Coding on the physical layer
ity of influencing all five core mechanisms For coding, FlexRay uses a NRZ method
directly. To arrange this, communication (Non-Return to Zero) in which the two
takes place through an interface – the con- identical transmission states are not di-
troller host interface (CHI) – between the vided by a range in which the voltage falls
network node and host. back to a zero value. This type of coding
Concentrating on the main interfaces, makes it necessary to have mechanisms
the task areas can be arranged as a proto- with which a network node can divide the
col stack (Fig. 5). At the top level is the ap- transmitted states. To this end, FlexRay
plication, which forwards its commands to adds a sequence behind each transmitted
the CHI. Under the CHI is the POC, which byte: the byte start sequence (BSS). From
in turn has access to the MAC, clock syn- this sequence, each node can detect when
chronization and frame & symbol process- a byte has been transmitted and, with this
ing. In the next lower layer are the pro- information, encode the individual bits
cesses for coding and decoding. The low- of the transmission.
ermost level is represented by the transfer By applying different voltages to the
characteristics of the physical layer. two wires of one channel, it is possible
The bottom three layers are in nodes to create four bus states, which are desig-
that are connected to both channels: nated Idle_LP, Idle, Data_0 and Data_1
double presence because these functions (Fig. 6).
have to be fulfilled for each channel sepa- A bus state is identified by measuring
rately. More precisely speaking, this the differential voltage. Here, the bus volt-
means that for one node connected to age (uBus) is made equal to the difference
both FlexRay channels there is double between uBM and uBP (voltages at BP and
availability of synchronization, MAC, BM).
frame & symbol processing, coding uBus = uBP - uBM
and decoding, and physical layer.
Application V
UVF0006E
0
Physical bus
Time
130 Bus systems | FlexRay
With this method, the data transfer is pro- Generation of a frame bit stream
tected against external electromagnetic Before a node can transmit a frame con-
interference because these act equally on taining the data of the host, the frame is
both wires and are canceled out in the dif- converted into a bit stream. To this end,
ference. the frame is first decomposed into individ-
Idle_LP (LP = low power) is the state in ual bytes. The start of a frame is populated
which a very low voltage of -200 mV and with a transmission start sequence (TSS)
200 mV is present at BP and BM. This state, followed by a frame start sequence (FSS)
for example, is used to identify the start of (Fig. 7). From the bytes of the frames, an
a transmission. extended byte sequence (EBS) is then gen-
In Idle state, a voltage of 2.5 V with a tol- erated whereby each frame byte is pre-
erance of 500 mV is present at BP and BM. ceded with a byte start sequence (BSS).
To set the channel to Data_0 state, at The 24-bit checksum (CRC) for this
least one transmitting node must apply bit sequence (TSS+FSS+EBS) is now calcu-
a negative differential voltage of -600 mV lated and appended to the bit sequence.
to the channel. To finish the bit stream, a frame end
For the channel to be set to Data_1 state, sequence (FES) is appended.
at least one transmitting node must apply If the frame belongs to the dynamic seg-
a positive differential voltage of 600 mV ment, a dynamic trailing sequence (DTS)
to the channel. can be additionally appended to prevent
If the transmission of an information another node from beginning its transmis-
signal is neither blocked by the bus guard- sion on the channel prematurely.
ian nor the communication controller, a
HIGH bit is signaled by the Data_1 channel Communication cycle
state and a LOW bit by Data_0. Each FlexRay cycle (Fig. 8) contains a
static segment that is transmitted as the
first part of the cycle. The static segment
contains a fixed number of transmission
ranges, the “static slots”.
Optionally, there may be a dynamic seg-
ment in the FlexRay cycle and this is trans-
ferred in second place. Each dynamic seg-
ment contains a fixed, freely configurable
7 Bit stream (dynamic segment) number of “minislots”.
Also optional is the symbol window,
MAC MAC which is transmitted as the third element
FSP MAC FSP
of the cycle. It can be used for the trans-
mission of an individual symbol and has
CODEC a b cd the same size as a static slot.
BSS BSS BSS DTS
To terminate the cycle, there is a phase –
FSS FES
network idle time (NIT) – in which the bus
High
is set to idle state. In general, the length
TxD
Low of the NIT corresponds to the remaining
TSS 1st byte last byte macroticks not used by the static and dy-
sequence sequence namic segment or symbol window. This is
1* gdBit
High not the case if it was detected during syn-
UVF0007E
MSB LSB
TxEN chronization that an offset correction is
Low required through which the length of the
NIT can be increased or reduced.
Bus systems | FlexRay 131
slots” are used that hold the same fixed frame ID m frame ID m+3 frame ID m+5
number of macroticks for all nodes con- t
nected to the network. Macroticks are
frame ID m+3 frame ID m+7
ranges in which exactly one frame can
m m+1 m+2 m+3 m+4 m+5 m+6 m+7 m+8
be transmitted.
“Dynamic slots” (transmission windows Slot counter Dynamic slot Dynamic slot
channel B with without
of variable size) are now created based on transmission transmission
the minislots. The maximum size of a dy-
Dynamic segment containing
namic slot is limited by a fixed number of
UVF0009E
gNumberOfMinislots minislots
minislots specified during configuration. Transmission may only start within the first
pLatestTx minislots of the dynamic segment
8 Communication cycle
t
Communication
cycle level
static segment dynamic segment symbol window network
idle time
Arbitration
grid level
static slot static slot minislot minislot
action point action point action point
Macrotick
level
macrotick
UVF0008E
Microtick
level
microtick
132 Bus systems | FlexRay
gdMacrotick
Microtick 0 1 2 3 4 5 …
UVF0010E
level
vMicrotick pdMicrotick
Bus systems | FlexRay 133
Welch, Lynch,
“A New Fault-Tolerant
Algorithm for Clock
Synchronisation”,
Information and
Computation, vol.77,
No.1, April 1988
134 Bus systems | FlexRay
The trailer segment contains a single access and protects against faults
field in which a 24-bit CRC checksum • Differential signal transmission
(frame CRC) is sent. The polynomial used • Collision-free transmission while opera-
FlexRay Group. The FlexRay Group was tive sleep state are directly supported
founded in 2000 by the companies, BMW, by the protocol
DaimlerChrysler, Motorola and Philips • Support for diverse fields of application
CARB
to the electronic control units using a K line CAN
K line. In the KWP 2000 standard, there 7 ISO 15031-5 ISO 15031-5 ISO 15031-5 ISO 15031-5
1 ISO 9141-2
ISO 14230-1
SAE J1850
ISO 11898 b Customer-specific
ISO 14230-4 ISO 15765-4
communication
ISO 15765: 1-3 (CAN) b
This standard reproduces the existing Manufacturer-specific
Layer
Layers of the
protocols, ISO 14230: 1-4, on the CAN. K line: KWP 2000 CAN / UDS
ISO 15765-3 OSI reference model
It defines a way to leave untouched the 7 ISO 14230-3
ISO 14229-1 7 Application
fundamental format of messages ex- 6 6 Presentation
changed between tester and electronic 5 ISO 15765-3
5 Session
1 Physical
2 ISO 14230-2 ISO 11898-1
CAN bus
K line
UBat
Diagnosis interface
Tester
SVA0017E
SVA0019E
Tester
Bus systems | Diagnosis interfaces 139
Header Initialization
The header is made up of no more than To be able to send messages, each elec-
four bytes. tronic control unit must support a subset
• The format byte (Fmt) contains informa- of the possible message formats. At the
tion about the form and composition of beginning of communication, the format
the message. Two bits (A0 and A1) pro- supported by the electronic control unit
vide address information, while six bits is communicated to the tester by means
(L0 to L5) provide the quantity of data of key bytes as part of initialization.
bytes. With this coding, there can be up The ISO standards specify which of the
to 63 data bytes. If L0 to L5 are set to possible initialization procedures are cus-
zero, the number of payload bytes must tomary for ECU diagnostics. The following
be coded using the length byte (Len). initialization procedures are supported:
• The target address (Tgt) indicates the • 5-baud initialization and
communication partner for which the • Fast initialization
information is destined.
• The source address (Src) indicates the
communication partner that sent the
information.
• The length byte (Len) specifies the quan-
tity of payload bytes (max. 255 bytes).
Up to a value of 63, the coding can take
place in Fmt. For more than 63, the 5 Message format of the KWP 2000 protocol
Checksum calculation
Data bytes
Up to 255 bytes of payload can be sent per
message. The first byte of the payload is
always a service-identification byte (SId). A1 A0 L5 L4 L3 L2 L1 L0
The subsequent data bytes are data that
differ depending on the service con-
cerned. 0 0 No address information
0 1 Exception mode (CARB)
1 0 With address information,
physical addressing
SVA0020E
These different initialization methods are recognition pattern. From the bit sequence
used either for CARB diagnostics or for 01010101 (binary format), the tester de-
after-sales diagnostics. Furthermore, a termines the baud rate of the electronic
distinction can be made between physical control unit, which may be between 1,200
initialization and functional initialization, and 10,400 baud. The electronic control
which introduces the topic of “point-to- unit then transmits the two key bytes,
point” or “point-to-multi” communication. which communicate the header format
With functional initialization, a group of and timing method that the electronic
electronic control units is addressed and control unit supports. As acknowledgment
initialized. A function initialization can that communication has been successfully
only be successful if all the electronic con- established, the tester sends the comple-
trol units of this group support the same ment of the second key byte back to the
baud rate, the same transmission timing electronic control unit and, in return, re-
and the same protocol. By contrast, only ceives from the electronic control unit the
one electronic control unit is initialized in complement of the address. Initialization
the case of physical initialization. is then complete and the regular data
transfer may begin.
5-baud initialization
Communication is initiated by means of Fast initialization
a 5-baud address sent by the tester. It is Fast initialization establishes communica-
thus possible for each electronic control tion in a shorter time than 5-baud initial-
unit to be addressed individually and ad- ization. With fast initialization, the tester
dressing is clearly separate from the data sends a wakeup pattern (WuP) comprising
transfer. a low and high phase, each lasting 25 ms
The tester outputs the address onto the (Fig. 7). At the end of the WuP, the tester
K line at a transfer rate of 5 baud (Fig. 6). sends the StartCommunication Service at a
10 bits (eight data bits, one start and one rate of 10,400 baud. The electronic control
stop bit) take approx. 2 seconds. unit returns a positive reply containing the
On receiving the address, the electronic key bytes. Initialization is then complete
control unit responds with the baud-rate and regular communication may begin.
SVA0022E
The first frame contains the PCI, an ad- (Separation Time) specifies the interval
ditional length byte (DL, Data Length) and to be maintained between consecutive
the first six data bytes (Fig. 11). In the frames.
high nibble, the PCI contains the informa- The flow-control frame is followed by
tion for identifying the frames as the first the consecutive frames. Again, the PCI
frame. The extended data length (XDL) in the high nibble contains the identifier,
is stored in the low nibble. Together with while the low nibble contains the sequence
the DL, a 12-bit data word is formed with number (SN). With the first consecutive
which it is possible to express values from frame to be sent, the SN is set to 1. The SN
0 to 4,095. is incremented with each subsequent con-
The transmitter sends the first frame secutive frame; after 15, the SN restarts
and waits for an acknowledgment of re- from 0. By evaluating the sequence num-
ceipt from the receiver in the form of a ber, the receiver is able to detect whether
flow-control frame. This message again or not all the frames have arrived.
contains the PCI, the high nibble of which
identifies the frame as the flow-control
frame. The low nibble contains the flow
status (FS), which can be used to authorize
or delay the sending of further frames
(consecutive frames).
11 Format of a segmented message
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
10 Diagram of message transfer
0 0 0 1 XDL
First frame
a Transmitter Receiver
3 2 1 0 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
XDL DL
Single frame
b 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
PCI BS STmin Data
b Transmitter Receiver
First frame 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
0 0 1 1 FS
Flow control Flow control
Consecutive
frame Clear to send
Fig. 10
STmin Consecutive 0 0 0 0 (CTS)
frame Block a Message transfer
0 0 0 1 Wait (WT),
size (BS) receiver in a single frame
Consecutive
frame not ready (unsegmented
c 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 message)
Flow control PCI Data b Segmented
message transfer
Consecutive
frame
Last block 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
SVA0026E
SVA0025E
Consecutive Fig. 11
frame ( ≤BS) 0 0 1 0 SN a First frame
Consecutive frame
b Flow control
c Consecutive frame
144 Automotive sensors | Basics and overview
Automotive sensors
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signal E and the influencing variables Yi These model parameters are generally
practically without error (intelligent or stored in a programmable, nonvolatile
smart sensors). memory component (PROM) in the digital
processes for conditioning sensor signals,
Adjustment which have come to dominate. By contrast
In the real world, the sensor model always with the conventional analog compensa-
includes some free parameters, with which tion of influencing variables, it is not only
the model can be adapted to the actual roughly linearly acting influences that may
properties of the individual sensor type be corrected, but also strongly nonlinear
in a kind of calibration process (Fig. 4a). processes that can be corrected success-
fully. Another significant advantage of this
type of calibration, which takes place over
2 Sensor symbol a purely electrical connection, is that each
sensor may easily be maintained under
operating conditions during the calibra-
tion phase.
Φ
▶ Concept of the smart sensor
E
In a somewhat more general form,
UAE0815Y
xe Smart
SAE1014-1E
m = 0, …, 32 value s (T,q)
q can, on the one hand determine the rele-
ure b vant states of the vehicle, and on the other
e ratq s2 s4
mp q m+1
hand, actually influence these states.
Te
qm
dq s1 Over this period, the vehicle industry has
a s3
become one of the, previously unprece-
Dq
Pe dented, drivers of the development of sen-
ri od
du sors that could be manufactured in large
rat
ion DT numbers.
UAE1044E
T dT
Tn Whereas at the outset they still were of
n = 0, …, 64 T electromechanical or macromechanical
Tn+1
form of some sort, the trend beginning
Example: two-dimensional data point- in the 80s was for miniaturization, with
program map s (Tn, qm) of a smart sen-
sor for the measurement of a travel s:
6 Milestones in the development of sensors for
automotive applications
For a highly precise evaluation of the
sensor, which operates using variable
1950 Lambda oxygen sensor
inductance, its natural characteristic
curve and its temperature sensitivity 1960 Electromechanical pressure sensor
are each approximated using 5th order Piezoelectric knock sensor
polynomials. As a frequency-determin-
ing element of a very simple oscillator 1970 First integrated Hall sensor
circuit, it outputs the period duration T Strain-gage acceleration sensor
as an uncorrected output signal. As a for airbag
sensor model for the measuring travel s, First pressure sensor on silicone base
an outline program map embracing only
32 x 64 = 2,048 example-specific values 1980 Hot-wire air mass meter
sn,m is stored (in the PROM) along with Thick-film air mass meter
a simple interpolation algorithm (in the Integrated pressure sensor
ROM), instead of a total of 36 poly-
nomial coefficents and a protracted 1990 Micromechanical acceleration
polynomial evaluation. Should a signal T sensor for airbag
occur between these data points Tn and Piezoelectric yaw-rate sensor
Tn+1 in conjunction with a temperature q for ESP
between data points qm and qm+1, Micromechanical air-mass meter
the sensor interpolates in two dimen-
Micromechanical yaw-rate sensor
sions in accordance with the mapping
between the benchmark figures stored 2000 Yaw-rate sensor for roll-over sensing
UAE1045E
• Ultrasound sensors detect obstacles on 8 Sensors in the multilayered process that is the
parking and will even allow automatic motor vehicle
UAE0288-1Y
any hazardous deviation and, where ECU Control unit
required, in the long term also permit F Physical variable
automatic driving. In combination with E Electrical variable
infrared beams and a screen in the driv- Yi Disturbances
Billion
US $
12 11.0511.35
10.67
10.24
10 9.66
8.88
8.22
8 7.51
7.21
6.71
6
UAE1046E
4
2001 2005 2010
Fig. 9
Source: Bosch
Automotive sensors | Features of vehicle sensors 151
multi-step
d Discontinuous,
X X
two-step (with
hysteresis)
Automotive sensors | Sensor classification 153
Analog signals
• Current/voltage, or a corresponding
amplitude
• Frequency/period duration
• Pulse duration/pulse duty factor 13 Signal shapes
UAE0287-1Y
the signal is permanently available at U b Output signal U,
the sensor output (continuously) or only Tp
information
at discrete intervals (discontinuously). t parameter:
pulse duration TP
12 Classification of the determined signals according to the information parameter (IP) with examples
Infinite Finite
Deterministic signal
range range
discrete
analog
Multiple signals Digital signals
1 IP 2 IP 3 IP 4 IP
L L
0 0
Time t Time t Time t Time t
–L
Time t Time t Time t Time t
154 Automotive sensors | Error types and tolerance requirements
the output range x (output signal): • Gradient deviation (gain error) egain
(3) e = yindicated - ytrue • Linearity deviation elin
yindicated = indicated value for the mea-
sured variable The causes of these errors are predomi-
ytrue = ideal value, setpoint value for nantly found in
the measured variable (is determined • The production scatter of the character-
with a measuring sensor that is more istic curve
accurate than the sensor being exam-
ined by at least 1 class)
15 Subdivision of the total error
Dys
14 Characteristic curves and error graph for a sensor ys
Dx
a y eabs x0 x
b y
yi egain (x)
ic
ist
Fig. 14 er
ct
ra
a Actual and yi
c ha
reference ys
al
tic
tu
characteristic
ris Dys
Ac
Dys
b Error graph
racte
a ys
ch
y Measured variable nce
e Dx
fer
x Output signal Re Dx
Dx Measuring range
x0 x
e Error (deviation) x0 x c y
elin (x)
b eabs
eabs = yi – ys
Fig. 15 yi
a Zero error eabs
b Gradient error
raph Dys
c Linearity error rg
rro
E ys
y Measured variable
UAE1048E
UAE1049E
Dx
x Output signal
Dx Measuring range x0 x x0 x
e Error
Automotive sensors | 3FMJBCJMJUZ 155
1 errors –1
!w
n
oe
–2
(5) etotal = i
2 Sum of n stochastic
–3
1 errors
–4 Fig. 16
(statistical addition) Tolerance graph
UAE1050E
–5
–200 0 650 850 C illustrated on the
Temperature T example of a resistance
temperature sensor
156 Automotive sensors | Reliability
17 Inventory and relative inventory of a random 18 Distribution of the failure rate l(t) over time
sample
12 60
Inventory B(t)
10
Failure rate
8 40
6 Increasing
20 reliability
4
Fig. 17
2
0 0
Observation for a
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 h
random sample of
UAE1051E
UAE1052E
The failure rate of a product against time chemical and electrical ambient influences
shows a typical bathtub pattern (Fig. 18). must be provided (packaging, passivation).
At the start, the failure rate is somewhat On the other hand, it is costly to create op-
high because of early failures, it then erational reliability by testing alone, i.e. to
passes through a longer, relatively low, exclude early failures through premature
horizontal range, then to rise again drasti- aging.
cally towards the end of the service life It is sensible to provide monitoring and
(aging and wear effects). In the case of sen- diagnostic capabilities for sensors in com-
sors for which high operational reliability plex systems (e.g. signal range check, etc.),
is demanded, an attempt is made to avoid so that any failures occurring may be de-
the elevated failure rate at the start by tected in good time. In an emergency, a
sorting out the early failures by pre-aging, sensor’s function can here be temporarily
e.g. by conditioning at higher tempera- replaced by other measured variables or
tures (“burn in”). Early failures are basi- sensible fixed values (limp-home mode,
cally nothing other than manufacturing back up). A sensor-less, often purely me-
defects that have not been recognized. chanical, limp-home mode can be pro-
Table 3 gives some examples of permis- vided. For instance, should the accelera-
sible failure rates l applicable for the tor-pedal sensor failure in a diesel vehicle,
vehicle. The ppm values given relate to the vehicle could also be driven slowly
a period of 10 years, or alternatively to back for repair under regulated idle speed
150,000 km covered, if this is completed alone (limp home).
in a shorter time. Where the sensors are Where reliability must be guaranteed
given a flat rate of <10 ppm, it means that with a probability bordering on certainty
in 10 years, only fewer than 10 of 1 million (e.g. for sensors in electronic braking and
sensors may fail. This value is, however, steering systems), redundancy, i.e. provi-
substantially lower for sensors in passen- sion of multiple parts, is generally the
ger protection systems. means used. Dual redundancy of a sensor
of the same type here only permits failure
Measures for increasing reliability detection for the case of widely different
The best method for ensuring high quality indications, whereas triple redundancy
is to engineer and design in reliability. with 2 from 3 analysis additionally still
This means that as soon as the sensor is supplies a correct measured value. Here,
designed, correspondingly durable mate- however, care must be taken to provide not
rials must be selected and solid protective only redundancy of the sensors, but other
measures against anticipated mechanical, essential parts such as the power supply,
signal evaluation and transmission means
must also be correspondingly redundant,
3 Reliability requirements on vehicle systems as otherwise the probability of simultane-
Warranty target: 150,000 km/10 years ous failure increases. It is often also advis-
→ ECU failure rate (field) < 50 ppm able to provide sensor redundancy in dif-
→ ECU failure rate (0 km) < 15 ppm ferent technologies.
→ Failure rate of modules < 10 ppm
and sensors
→ ASIC failure rate < 3 ppm
→ IC failure rate << 1 ppm
→ Failure rate of discrete < 0.5 ppm
components
→ For comparison ~ 5,000 ppm
Mobile phone Table 3
158 Automotive sensors | Main requirements, trends
production 100
Robust, proven High reliability 10
technology
1
Appropriate pack- Extremely severe
aging technology operating conditions 0.1
Production 10 100 1,000 100,000 10 million
Appropriate (units) 10,000 1 million 100 million
Low space per year
miniaturization
technologies
requirement Manufacturing manual semi-auto- fully automated mono-
technologies work mated discrete hybrid lithic
SAE1013-1E
On-site error
UAE1053E
ple programming of critical decision-mak- • Chemical (e.g. spray, salt mist, fuel,
tion. If the seal is inadequate, it is only a Fiber-optic sensors in which the light
question of time until corrosive liquids guided in the optical fibers (glass, plastic)
penetrate from the external connector can be modified as a function of the mea-
into the internal sensor terminal. sured variable are particularly immune to
The plug-in connection itself must be electromagnetic interference. This is true
sufficiently tight overall, that no shunts up to the point at which the optical signals
form at the sensor output. The cable itself are converted back into electrical signals.
must retain its flexibility and tightness If these are to be used in the future, there
after many years of operation under the will have to be some development work
most adverse conditions. the provision of low-priced measuring
Separable plug-in connections in the elements and the accompanying technolo-
vehicle unfortunately still represent one gies. There are, for example, some very
of the most frequent causes of failure. interesting applications for this in the
Wireless signal connections (e.g. infrared field of force measurement, e.g. in provid-
light or radio) could break down this prob- ing finger protection for electric power
lem in the longer view, especially if the windows and sliding sunroofs (Fig. 22).
sensors were even to have a wireless Sensors of this type have also been tested
energy supply (autonomous sensors). very successfully as very early responding,
The costs of these indispensable tech- distributed sensors in the door and frontal
nologies complementary to the sensors area of the vehicle for triggering passenger
often exceed those of the actual sensor and pedestrian protective systems.
element many times over. They constitute
the actual value of an vehicle sensor, not
only in terms of cost, but also in terms of
function. 22 Microbending effect
Packaging
Basic Advanced Micro- Nano-
mechanics mechanics mechanics mechanics
Micro-
mechanics: 1,000mm 100mm 10mm 1mm 0.1mm
– Sensor micro-
technology Traditional material machining
Micro-
– Actuator mi-
Microsys- electronics (turning, milling, etc.)
crotech-
nology tem tech-
nology Special machining methods
(e.g. extruder, laser, etc.)
Semiconductor technology methods
Micro-optics (lithography +
UAE1055E
etching/layer separation)
LAE0915E
Nanolithography
162 Automotive sensors | Main requirements, trends
25 Test structure for the determination of the (Figs. 26, 27). The problem of simultane-
etching rate in Si monocrystal wafers ously integrating the circuit can be consid-
ered largely resolved, even if currently the
associated circuit for most sensors is still
made separately for reasons of a better
yield and higher flexibility.
UAE1056Y
con substrate (Figs. 28 and 29). Even if
the dimensions of bulk silicon sensors
are still mostly in the mm-range, those of
SMM structures are an order of magnitude
26 Anisotropic etching of (100) silicon smaller (typically 100 µm), as a rule.
Fig. 27
Source:
Prof. Heuberger,
Fhg Berlin
Automotive sensors | Main requirements, trends 163
Development trends
Initially, a tightening up of the tolerances
in manufacture, and refinement of the cali-
bration and compensation techniques help
in this regard. An important step forward
here is the hybrid or monolithic integra- Fig. 28
tion of the sensor and signal electronics Source:
UAE1059Y
Resistant to
Multiple interference A
1st Integration level SE SA ECU
tap-off (analog) D
Fig. 30 Immune to
Bus-com-
SE Sensors 2nd Integration level SE SA A BS interference
BS ECU
D patible (digital)
SA Signal conditioning
A/D Analog-Digital Immune to
Bus-com-
SA A interference
UAE0037-3E
converter SE MC BS ECU
3rd Integration level D patible
ECU Control unit (digital)
MC Microcontroller
BS Bus interface
Faulty measure-
ment signal xa* C Fault-free measure-
A Digital xa par. xea ment signal
D correction ser. digital
Influencing y computer
variables signal
UAE0818-1E
D xea
Model parameter PROM
A analog
Automotive sensors | Overview of the physical effects for sensors 165
advantageous
of limited benefit
Environment
Reliability
Accuracy
Costs
Size
Semiconductors
m-Mechanics
Thick film
Thin film
Piezoelectric
Eddy current/
short-circuiting ring
Flux gate
UAE1087E
In the case of travel and distance sensors tion by a reference mark detectable by the
covering large measuring ranges (approxi- sensor, in case a fault should have occurred.
mately 0.1 to 150 m), the measured vari- This also takes account of the fact that the
able is converted into a pulse or phase position of the crankshaft when the engine
runtime by means of wave-propagation is started is not known; it must first rotate
sensors (sound and electromagnetic almost one revolution under the starter so
waves), which can then be easily measured that the reference mark is passed at least
electronically with relatively small trans- once. The crankshaft’s motion is also very
ceiver devices. In the case of sound waves, monotonous, i.e. it is always pretty much
however, the propagation medium (e.g. air) smooth (without sudden changes) and is
and the time standard required (e.g. oscil- always in one direction (that is forwards,
lating crystal) then become an essential and never backwards). You can thus be
component part of the measuring device. sure that no more than one revolution will
ever be incorrectly detected.
Measured variables: overview The disadvantages of an incremental
There are a large number of applications angle measurement cannot be absorbed
in which position represents the actual if the engine starts immediately without
measured variable. This is shown in over- being cranked, as is also the case with the
view by Table 1. In other cases, the mea- steering angle. An absolute angle sensor
sured position or angle represents a differ- for a 360° range is required here.
ent measured variable (Table 2).
In practice, “incremental sensor systems” Potentiometer sensors
are also often referred to as angular-position The wiper potentiometer, usually made as
sensors, even when they are used for mea- an angular-position sensor (Fig. 1), uses
suring rotational speed. These sensors are in the correspondence between the length of
reality not angular-position sensors. Since a wire or film resistor (Cermet or conduc-
the increments (steps with which a given tive plastic) and its resistance value for
variable increases) which have to be mea- measuring purposes. At present, this is
sured with these sensors in order to measure still the lowest-priced travel/angular-posi-
the deflection angle must be counted with tion sensor. The shape of the characteristic
the correct preceding sign (in other words, curve can be influenced by shaping the
added), these sensors are in reality not angu- measuring track (or just sections of it).
lar-position sensors. Due to the danger of the
counter being falsified as a consequence of 1 Principle of the wiper potentiometer
R Resistance
Although it is true that the crankshaft R V2 wmax Maximum angle
angle is measured incrementally, this mea- of rotation
surement is recalibrated after each revolu- w Measured angle
170 Sensor measuring principles | Position sensors
The standard wiper connection is fur- • Measuring errors due to abraded parti-
nished by a second contact track consist- cles
ing of the same material mounted on a low- • Problematic when operated in fluids
resistance substrate. The supply voltage is • Variable contact resistance between
usually applied to the measurement track wiper and measurement track
through low-resistance series resistors RV • Strong acceleration or vibration can
(these can also be used for calibration of result in wiper lift-off
zero point and progression-rate adjust- • Testing is costly
ment) to protect against overloading. • Limited possibilities for miniaturization
Wear and falsification of measured val- • Background noise
ues can be kept to a minimum by keeping
the electrical loading of the pick-off as low Applications
as possible (IA < 1 mA) and by dust-proof Examples of potentiometer-type sensors:
and waterproof encapsulation. One of the • Accelerator-pedal sensor or accelerator-
prerequisites for low wear is the optimal pedal module for capturing the torque
friction pairing between the wiper and the request for the engine-management
conductor track. To this end, wipers can system
be of “spoon” or “scraper-shape” design, • Fuel-level sensor (Fig. 2)
and one or more can be mounted. Brush- • Sensor plate potentiometer (KE-Jetronic
shaped wipers are also in use. and L-Jetronic) for detecting the air
A whole range of clear advantages are mass taken in by the engine
faced by a considerable number of serious • Throttle-valve position sensor for cap-
• Low costs
• Simple design 1
• Very broad measuring effect
(measuring range ≈ supply voltage)
• No electronic circuitry required
• High level of interference immunity
• Broad temperature range (up to 250 °C) 5
2
• High precision (better than 1 % of mea-
3
6
suring range) 4
• Wide measuring range (almost 360° is
possible)
• No difficulty with redundant design
• Calibration possible (laser ablation etc.)
• Flexible characteristic curve (variable 7
Fig. 2
1 Electrical conductor track width)
connections • Flexible assembly (on curved as well as
2 Wiper spring on flat surfaces)
3 Contact rivet • Numerous manufacturers
4 Resistor board
• Rapid prototyping
5 Bearing pin
9 8
UMK1790Y
6 Twin contact
7 Float lever Disadvantages of potentiometer-type
8 Float sensors
9 Fuel-tank floor • Mechanical wear from abrasion
Sensor measuring principles | Position sensors 171
connection
dant (parallel measurement) design. Fur-
5 thermore, coil contacting is less favorable Fig. 4
from the costs and reliability viewpoint. A Internal stop
Although there are a multitude of differ- 1 Characteristic
4 curve for high
Throttle valve sensor with two characteristic curves ent principles in use for this form of sen-
resolution in the
sor, only two have come to the forefront
angular range
1.00 for motor vehicle applications. Regarding 0° to 23°
their operating concepts, these are very 2 Characteristic
0.80
similar to each other. However, they are curve for angular
UV
1 2
UA
Fig. 5
aw
A A copper) approaches a coil (usually nonfer- 1 Throttle valve
Angle of rotation w rous) (Fig. 6) to which high-frequency al- 2 Throttle-valve
sensor
ternating current has been applied, it has
UA Measurement
voltages
5 Throttle-valve sensor (circuit) 6 HF damping and eddy-current principle
UV Operating voltage
R1, R2 Resistance
tracks 1 and 2
R1 R3
R3, R2 Calibration
1 R5 resistors
R5, R6 Protective
R2 R4 1 2 3 4 5 resistors
Fig. 6
R6 1 Spoiler
2 A(s)
2 Eddy currents
UA(s) 3 Air-core inductor
4 Variable-damping
UV
oscillator
UMK1307-2Y
UA1 s
5 Demodulator
UAE0845Y
s Measured travel
UA2
A(s) Oscillator voltage
UA(s) Output voltage
172 Sensor measuring principles | Position sensors
an effect upon the coil’s equivalent resis- There are many ways to adapt the eddy-
tance and its inductance. This is the result current principle to the measuring assign-
of the eddy currents generated in the disk ment. It is suited both to the determination
(otherwise known as a spoiler) due to the of large travel distances or angles (there
increasing magnetic coupling. The disk’s has already been a practically production-
position represents the measured travel s. ready development, for the throttle valve
The generally high operating frequency and accelerator pedal, for instance) and
(MHz range, a low-frequency feed would also for very small variables (e.g. torque
take up too much current because of the sensors). Because of the self-compensating
low coil inductance) requires a direct as- properties, this principle generally only
signment of the electronics to the sensor shows a very small temperature sensitivity
or a shielded supply lead, which is gener- over a wide temperature range. As eddy-
ally not supportable. In order to convert current sensors can also, in principle, be
the measuring effect into an electrical out- manufactured micromechanically, their fu-
put voltage, either the damping effect ture use cannot be completely written off
(equivalent resistance) or field-displace- given their very advantageous properties.
ment (inductance) principles can be ap- This sensor principle is, however, widely
plied. In the first (damping effect) case, used in manufacturing and quality mea-
a variable-amplitude oscillator can be suring technology, for the precise detec-
used, and in the second a variable-fre- tion of the smallest displacements/dis-
quency oscillator or a constant frequency tances or for the measurement of layer
supplied inductive voltage divider (differ- thicknesses in the µm range.
ential configuration).
Short-circuiting ring sensors
7 Measuring principle of the short-circuiting In contrast to eddy-current sensors, the
ring sensor coil of a short-circuiting ring sensor has a
straight or curved U or E-shaped soft mag-
x1 netic, (usually) laminated iron core (Fig. 7).
I The coil, or short-circuiting ring (“spoiler”),
is of highly conductive material (copper or
aluminum), and is located around one (or
L(x1) 1
all) of the core limbs. Because of their iron
IW core, sensors of this type have a far greater
inductance than eddy-current sensors and
also a far higher measuring effect because
2 of the guidance of the magnetic flux being
3 F x1 very concentrated by the iron core. This
x2 means that they operate well at low fre-
Fig. 7
I quencies, and do not necessarily require
Imaging for two
different measured their signal electronics locally, that is di-
travels rectly on the sensor itself. The iron core
1 Short-circuiting L(x2) also protects the measuring space between
ring the core limbs very well against external in-
2 Soft-magnetic core
terference fields.
3 Coil
The alternating field generated in and
I Current
UAE0021-2Y
IW Eddy current
around the iron core by the coil current I
L(s) Inductance and cannot pass through the short-circuiting
F(s) Magnetic flux in
F (x2) ring, since the eddy currents in the short-
measured travel s circuiting ring reduce it practically to zero.
Sensor measuring principles | Position sensors 173
Thus the eddy currents in the short-cir- The cores are laminated (e.g. NiFe plate,
cuiting ring, acting like a “magnetic insula- 0.2 mm thick) because of the alternating
tor”, limit the extent of the magnetic flux F current operation. To achieve the necessary
to the space between the coil and the mechanical stability to keep the plates sta-
short-circuiting ring (hence its other name ble under acceleration, they are not only
of shading ring) and thus make it depen- bonded in the normal fashion, but also in-
dent on the position x of the short-circuit- terlocked. To this end, the laminations are
ing ring F = F(x). given a knobbly pattern in selected places
Inductance is defined: which can be used to connect the lamina-
(1) L = F/I tions together before soft annealing (just
like LEGO bricks), without interfering too
This is why the position x of the short-cir- much in the electrical insulation from lami-
cuiting ring also directly influences the in- nation to lamination required.
ductance L of the field coil. The relation- The half-differential short-circuiting
ship L = L(x) shows a good linear fit over ring sensor with moving measuring ring
a wide domain. Virtually the entire length and fixed reference short-circuiting ring is
of the sensor can be utilized for measure- very accurate; it is evaluated as an induc-
ment purposes. A mechanically tight guid- tive voltage divider (analysis of the induc-
ance of the short-circuiting ring is not nec- tances L1/L2, or (L1 – L2)/(L1 + L2) or even as
essary here. a frequency determining element of an os-
The mass of the short-circuiting ring to cillating circuit to generate a frequency
be moved is very low. Shaping the gap be- analog signal (very interference-proof,
tween coil and limb has an effect upon the easy to digitize).
shape of the characteristic curve: reducing
the gap towards the end of the measuring Applications
Fig. 8
range further improves the already good Examples for short-circuiting ring sensors:
Design of the rack-
linearity. Operation is generally in the 5 to • Rack-travel sensors for measuring the
travel sensor (RWG) for
50 kHz range, depending on material and control-rack setting on in-line diesel diesel in-line injection
structural shape. This sensor can also be injection pumps (Fig. 8) pumps
used in very severe operating conditions, • Angular-position sensors in the in- 1 Soft-magnetic core
for instance on diesel fuel-injection pumps jected-fuel quantity actuators of diesel 2 Reference coil (L2)
3 Reference short-
(Figs. 8, 9). distributor-type injection pumps
circuiting ring
4 Control rack
8 Half-differential short-circuiting ring sensor 9 Half-differential short-circuiting ring angular-
5 Measuring coil (L1)
position sensor
6 Measuring short-
circuiting ring
s Control-rack travel
3 1 1 2 60 3 4
ax
wm Fig. 9
URef 0 1 Measuring coil
2
w
2 Measuring short-
UA UA circuiting ring
3 Soft-magnetic core
4 Control-collar shaft
6 5
5 Reference coil
4 URef
6 Reference short-
s
circuiting ring
UAE0746-1Y
UAE0290-1Y
w Measured angle
5 6 wmax Adjustment-angle
range for the
control-collar shaft
174 Sensor measuring principles | Position sensors
This eddy current naturally generates a According to Figure 10c, the receiver coils
secondary magnetic field, just like the are connected in a star connection. Their
exciter loop, which superimposes itself on signals are sent to an ASIC to determine
the excitation field in the sense that it at- the electrical phase angle a or mechani-
tempts to eliminate it. If the track on the cal angle of rotation w, which applies the
rotor were only a circular conductor track necessary (sign-correct) rectification,
congruent with the stator loop instead of selection and ratio formation. A version
the meandering track, this would simply ASIC 1 receives the digital control signals
extinguish the primary field to a great ex- necessary for this from an adjacent mi-
tent. The meandering structure, however, crocontroller. A different version ASIC 2
creates a resulting multi-pole field which is, however, also capable of operating the
can be rotated with the rotor and the total sensor completely independently (on a
flux of which is also naturally almost zero. stand-alone basis). The ASICS also permit
This multi-pole alternating field is an end-of-line calibration of the mechani-
sensed by concentric receiver coils or me- cal and electrical tolerances in production.
anders of practically identical form located It is also possible, for the case of applica-
on the stator. These are offset within a pole tions with elevated safety requirements,
pitch (of e.g. 60°) by 1/3 each, i.e. electri- to construct a redundant system with two
cally in their signal amplitude by 120° each galvanically isolated signal paths and two
(Fig. 10b). The receiver coils however ex- ASICs. The sensor principle can also very
tend over all n pole pairs (series circuit) advantageously be applied in a “cut-open”
and use the sum of all pole fields. form as a travel sensor.
Fig. 10
a Schematic design
b Circuit
c Output signals
176 Sensor measuring principles | Position sensors
voltage
a Deviation of the temperature range and for all sensors of a
electrons due to +UH given type, the two threshold values are
the magnetic field relatively far apart (approx. 50 mT). A con-
Sensor measuring principles | Position sensors 177
siderable induction jump DB is thus neces- Hall sensors using the spinning-current
sary to operate the Hall switch. principle
Sensors manufactured in bipolar tech- A disadvantage of a simple silicon Hall
nology of this kind were used in Hall vane sensor is its simultaneous sensitivity to the
switches (Fig. 12), for example, as were fit- unavoidable mechanical strain (piezoelec-
ted in the housing for the camshaft-driven tric effect) resulting from the packaging,
ignition distributor. This Hall vane switch leading to unfavorable temperature sensi-
contains the sensor and a permanent mag- tivity of the offset. Applying the spinning
net and soft magnetic conductive ele- current principle (Fig. 13), associated with
ments. The magnetic circuit is U-shaped or a transition to CMOS technology, has over-
forked in such a way that a trigger wheel come this disadvantage. Although the
vane in soft magnetic material can travel piezoelectric effect still occurs here, it is
through the open end, alternately screen- compensated for by the signal being aver-
ing or exposing the magnet, thereby tog- aged over time, as it occurs with a different
gling the Hall sensor between the operate sign in the case of very rapid electronically
and release states. controlled interchange (rotation) of the
A further application is the digital steer- electrodes. If it is wished to save the ex-
ing-angle sensor LWS3 (see “Hall angular- pense of the complex electronics for
position sensor up to 360°”). switching the electrodes, it is possible also
Hall sensors of this type may be very to integrate several Hall sensors (two, four
cost-effective, but are really only good for or eight) with correspondingly different
a switch operation and are too imprecise alignment of the current paths in close
for capturing analog values. proximity and to add their signals together
in order to form an average. It is only in
this way that the Hall ICs were also suit-
able for analog sensor applications.
a Fig. 12
a Magnetic flux:
a 2
unhindered
I I b Magnetic flux:
short-circuited
1 Vane width b
S N
2 Soft-magnetic
conductive element
3 Hall IC
b 2 3 4 1 1 2 3 UH 4 Air gap
b U0 Supply voltage
I
US Sensor voltage
Fig. 13
US S N
a Rotary phase w1
b Rotary phase
w2 = w1 + 45°
1 Semiconductor
U0 b
I wafer
UAE0700-2Y
UAE0639-1Y
2 Active electrode
3 Passive electrode
UH I Supply current
UH Hall voltage
178 Sensor measuring principles | Position sensors
2 Differential Hall IC
tween the two Hall sensors each located
3 Homogenizing on the edge of the (elongated) chip is then
wafer (soft iron) Angle of rotation w selected to correspond to about half an
4 Permanent magnet increment (half the rotor tooth interval).
Sensor measuring principles | Position sensors 179
The signal maximum is very wide and cov- sensor is located slightly outside the cen-
ers a broad range of variation of the incre- ter of the circular arc, the characteristic
ment spacing. More pronounced varia- curve increasingly deviates from the sinu-
tions in the spacing necessitate a highly soidal, It now features a short measuring
complex redesign of the sensor. range of just 90°, and a longer measuring
A gradient sensor must be precisely range of a little over 180° with good linear-
aligned to the rotor’s direction of rotation.
15 Analog Hall angular-position sensor
(movable magnet)
Hall angular-position sensors in the range
up to approximately 180° a w b
Using a rotatable magnetic ring (“movable
magnet”), together with a number of fixed
soft-magnetic conductive elements, a lin-
ear output signal can be generated for a Fig. 15
larger angular range without conversion Linear characteristic
being necessary (Fig. 15). In this case, the curve for angles up
bipolar field of the magnet ring is passed to 180°
UAE0702-3Y
90 0 + 90 180
magnet)
4 Air gap
The Type ARS1 Hall angular-position
5 Hall sensor
sensor with a measuring range of ap-
w Angle of rotation
prox. 90° (Fig. 16) is derived from the basic
“movable magnet” principle. The magnetic 16 ASR1 Hall angular-position sensor
flux from a practically semicircular perma- (movable magnet)
Linear characteristic
w
curve for angles over 30
180 1 0
180° x 0
90 180 270
a Principle of NS -30
operation 3 -60 w
b Characteristic
270 Angle of rotation w B
curve 90 mT
Flux density B
1 Hall IC positioned y 60
in the mid-point of 30 2
180 2 0
the circular path 0
UAE0863-3E
UAE0701-3Y
x 90 180 270
2 Hall IC located NS -30
outside the mid- 3 -60
point (linearization) 270 Angle of rotation w
UA 1 3 2
3 Magnet
Sensor measuring principles | Position sensors 181
the two Hall systems. Sentron (Melexis), of Because of its high relative permeability,
Switzerland, is working on sensors of this this disk acts as a flow concentrator (IMC,
type and will be launching them on the Integrated Magnetic Concentrator) and
market in the near future. compels all field lines to pass into its sur-
face vertically. This compels the field lines
Angular-position sensors of this type were running horizontally (in-plane) without
considered for the implementation of the concentrator into a vertical direction
starter motor-less instant start systems, (out-of-plane) at the position of the Hall
for instance, where the absolute rotary sensors and thus they can modulate the
position of the camshaft over a 360° range Hall elements. As diagonally opposing
must be measured. elements each see fields in opposite direc-
tions, the difference between the two Hall
There is, however, another trick which can voltages running in opposite directions is
be exploited to (additionally) give a nor- evaluated to capture a field component. At
mal, planar Hall sensor an in-plane sensi- the same time, any vertical components Bz
tivity. In the case of the method used by present have their effect eliminated.
Melexis-Sentron (e.g. its 2SA-10 model) a
total of four Hall sensors are mounted on The additional evaluation of the summary
the same chip in a tight circle offset at 90° signals of diagonally opposing elements
to one another to measure the field com- can also be used to capture the vertical
ponents Bx and By. To be accurate, in this field component Bz; since these are not in
case, each sensor consists of a Hall ele- the slightest influenced by the ferromag- Fig. 19
ment pair rotated at 90° for its part for the netic disk and the elements have also not The currents directed
reasons described above. Once the chip lost their normal out-of-plane sensitivity into the interior of the
chip I are deflected
has been manufactured, a circular disk
by the Lorentz forces
of soft magnetic material approximately 20 Set of 4 x 2 planar Hall sensors with IMC
because of the flux
200 µm in diameter is fixed on its surface density aligned in
as shown in Figure 20 in such a way that parallel with the chip
the Hall sensors are located exactly be- surface B in such a way
neath the edge of the disk. that a Hall voltage UH
can be picked off
between the surface
electrodes A and A'.
SAE1020-1Y
by it being fitted. In this way, an arrange- The maximum intrinsic deviation of the
ment of this type can be used to capture sensor is stated by the manufacturer as
the induction vector B acting at the sensor + 2° for a measuring range of 360°. This
location in all its three components. The can, however, be significantly improved
electronic circuitry required to evaluate by the user on calibration of the sensor.
the signals including a µC-based digital The accuracy of the digital output is then
signal processor (DSP) used to calculate 10 bits at a resolution of 12 bits. Because of
the arctan function and the means re- the processing time required by the signal
quired for an end-of-line calibration of processor, the smallest sampling rate for
the sensor (EEPROM) can cost-effectively a timing frequency of 20 MHz is 200 µs.
also be integrated on the same chip as the A pulse width modulated signal output
sensor. can be operated at a maximum of 1 kHz.
The sensor needs 15 ms for initialization.
In order to measure angles up to 360°, it is A typical value for the measuring field
sufficient to rotate a permanent magnet, strength is approximately 40 mT. The con-
preferably round in form, magnetized in centrator plate becomes saturated at flux
parallel with the chip over the sensor chip densities in excess of 0.7 T.
with its integrated signal processing The sensor may also be programmed for
(Fig. 21). As the angle of rotation is formed any measurement range < 360° to good ef-
using the arctan function from the ratio of fect, with additional functional security
the two sine wave and cosine wave sensor being generated by out-of-range monitor-
signals, the strength of the magnetic field, ing (application as an angular-position
and thus also the aging of the magnets, its sensor in the accelerator-pedal module
temperature sensitivity and its distance FPM2.3, for instance).
from the sensor surface are largely irrele-
vant. Only the rotary position of its magne- Angles up to 360° may also be captured
tization is detected. with the simplest Hall ICs (Hall switches),
as are also used for the measurement of
speeds of rotation, (application in LWS1
type steering-angle sensors). Here, in or-
der to obtain an n-bit resolution, n Hall
switches are arranged on a single track in
21 Angular position measurement over 360° with a circle at equal distances from each other
quadruple Hall sensor (Fig. 22). Depending upon its position, a
rotatable soft-magnetic code disk blocks
a a b the magnetic field of the individual perma-
nent magnets located above each Hall
switch, or opens it when it rotates further
Fig. 21
2 S N so that one after another the Hall switches
Angle measurement
Hall voltage
22
Digital Hall angular-position sensor with 23 Magnetoresistive differential sensor
Fig. 23
n Hall switches
Magnetic activation
of a magnetoresistive
differential sensor for
gear wheel scanning
ϕ
(incremental angular
1 4 position measurement,
1
2 speed of rotation
S sensing)
3
2 N 1 Magnetoresistors
R1, R2
2 Soft-magnetic
substrate
3
1 3 Permanent magnet
UAE0022Y-1
UFL0029-2Y
R2 R1 4 Gear wheel
U0 U0 Supply voltage
UA( ϕ) UA Output voltage at
angle of rotation w
184 Sensor measuring principles | Position sensors
Since their temperature sensitivity has a tive measures which would otherwise be
pronounced effect upon their resistance needed. Furthermore, in their role as pas-
value (approximately 50 % reduction over sive, resistive components they are highly
100 K), they are usually supplied only in insensitive to electromagnetic interference
the dual-configuration form in voltage-di- and, as a result of their high bias voltage,
vider circuits (differential magnetoresis- practically immune against external mag-
tors). For the particular application, each netic fields.
of the two resistor sections must then be Because of its pronounced temperature
magnetically triggered (as far as possible sensitivity, the magnetoresistor is used al-
with opposite polarities). Notwithstanding most exclusively in incremental angular-
the high temperature coefficients of the in- position and rev counters, or in binary
dividual resistors, the voltage-divider cir- limit-value sensors (with switching charac-
cuit guarantees good stability of the work- teristic).
ing-point (that point at which both resistor
sections have the same value). Anisotropic magnetoresistive sensors
In order to achieve good measurement (AMR)
sensitivity, it is best to operate the magne- Thin, only around 30 to 50 nm thick NiFe
toresistors at a magnetic working point be- alloy coatings show an electromagnetically
tween 0.1 to 0.3 T. Generally, the required anisotropic behavior. That means that
magnetic initial-tension is supplied by a their electrical resistance changes under
small permanent magnet, the effects of the influence of a magnetic field. Resis-
which can be increased by using a small tance structures of this type are thus
magnetic return plate. known as anisotropic magnetoresistive
The magnetoresistor’s main advantage is (abbreviated to AMR) elements or sensors.
its high signal level which is usually in the The metal alloy generally used is also
volts range. This means that amplification known as permalloy.
is unnecessary, as well as the local elec-
tronic circuitry and the associated protec- Technology and designs
Even without an external control fields,
24 Microscopic sections of a magnetoresistor a small spontaneous magnetization MS
a will arise in the longitudinal direction of
a conductor track on a long slim resistor
strip, as shown in Figure 25a, (shape an-
isotropy). In order to give this magnetiza-
tion a clearly defined direction – theoreti-
cally, it could be in the other direction –
AMR sensors are often provided with weak
bias magnets, as shown. In this state, the
longitudinal resistance achieves its great-
b
est value Rll. If the magnetization vector is
rotated under the effect of an additional
external field Hy through angle q, the lon-
gitudinal resistance declines gradually un-
til it reaches its minimum value R at q = 0.
Fig. 24
Here, the resistance depends only on the
a Microscopic
UAE0864-1Y
section (cut-out)
angle q which is enclosed by the resulting
b On ferrite substrate magnetization MS and the current I, and it
in Super-8 film has an approximately cosine wave pattern
carrier as a function of q:
Sensor measuring principles | Position sensors 185
a 1
I
b 3
I
Ms q Ms q
I I
Hy S y Hy
N
2
z x
R(q)/R0 R(q)/R0
1+b 1+b
1 1
≈ ≈
SAE1021-1Y
q q
-90° 0 90° -90° 0 90°
Hy Hy
0 0
186 Sensor measuring principles | Position sensors
high match to a sinus wave, which does not Simple AMR angular-position sensor for
depend in the least on the strength of the ranges < 30°
control field and the temperature. The out- Barber pole AMR angular-position sensors
put voltage vanishes for a field parallel to with limited precision and a restricted
the current path, to describe a sinus half- measuring range (max. ±15°) rely on the
period on rotation up to an angle w = 90°. unbalance of a magnetoresistive voltage
The sinus voltage obtained in this way divider (differential sensor) comprising
combined with the amplitude results in: an elongated (possibly meander-shaped)
(6) UH = uH?sin2w permalloy resistor with highly conductive
gold cross strips (Fig. 27). Although in
If the external control field is rotated once the case of such sensors the zero point
through w = 360°, the output voltage follows is largely independent of the distance be-
two full sinus periods. The amplitude uH is, tween the magnet and the sensor, the gra-
however, very dependent on the tempera- dient of the characteristic curve, which for
ture and the air gap between the sensor its part also depends on the temperature
and the control magnet; it declines with (TK around -3?10-3/K), on the other hand,
increasing temperature and widening is not. A sensor of this kind has already
air gap. been considered as a cost-effective alter-
The measurement sensitivity of the native for the measurement of pedal posi-
pseudo Hall element can be considerably tions.
increased (without excessively falsifying
the sinusoidal shape) by “hollowing out”
the element from the inside so that only
the “frame” remains (Fig. 26b). This modi-
Fig. 27
fication converts the pseudo Hall sensor to 27 Magnetoresistive angular-position sensor
Measuring range
a full bridge consisting of four AMR resis- (barber pole)
up to 615°
a Measuring principle tors from its geometrical form (Fig. 26c).
b Characteristic Even when the bridge resistors are mean-
a ϕ
curve der-shaped, provided a given minimum
1 Permalloy resistors conductor width is not fallen below, this
2 Rotatable
still has negligible effect of the signal’s U0
permanent magnet B
sinusoidal shape.
with control
induction B
3 Lower operating 26 Pseudo Hall sensor
UA 2
temperature
4 Higher operating
a
temperature
B
a Linear measuring 1
range I I
UH
b Effective measuring
range w b 100
3
UA Output voltage mV
UA – U0 / 2
RH3 RH4
SAE1022-1Y
Simple AMR travel sensor for the mm range position sensor for scanning a gravity pen-
Similarly, the simplest travel sensors may dulum tuned to a low frequency, which
be built for a measuring range of typically may be used to determine the orientation
just a few millimeters using individual of the vehicle (tilt sensor).
differential barber pole sensors (Fig. 28).
However, to achieve good accuracy a con- Angular-position sensor for 180°
stant distance (air gap) is required be- Pseudo Hall type magnetoresistive angu-
tween sensor and moving magnets, which lar-position sensors utilize the practically
embodies the position s to be measured. 100 % sinusoidal signal that is picked off
The temperature sensitivity of the charac- from the output terminals of the four-pole,
teristic curve gradient can be very easily sensor structure, whereby two complete
compensated for by means of an additional periods of the electrical output signal cor-
metallic thin-film sensor on the same car- respond to a mechanical rotation of the
rier substrate, which will have around the magnets through 360°. Using a second ele-
same temperature coefficient, but with the ment, which has been turned through 45°,
inverse sign (e.g. Pt, Ti, Ni). a cosine signal is also generated (Fig. 30).
By applying the arc-tangent function for
High-precision multisensor (POMUX) for instance, the relationship between the
travel ranges > 10 mm two signal voltages can be applied to
There is an intelligent multisensor for po- determine the measured angle using a
sition measurement built up with simple microcontroller or an ASIC. This applies
barber poles also known under the com- throughout a range of 180°, and is for the
mercial name of POMUX (position multi- most part independent of temperature
plexer). It exploits the fact that the symme- changes and magnetic-field fluctuations
try point or zero point of the characteristic (distance, aging).
curve is absolutely independent of the air A further prerequisite for the high accu-
gap and the temperature. Its use in a motor racy of this sensor principle is that the
vehicle has often been considered (e.g. field at both bridges is at least in the same
shock absorber stroke measurement), as it direction (above a given magnitude, field
has excellent characteristics, in particular, strength is irrelevant). This can only be
extreme accuracy. It has also already been guaranteed when both bridges are directly
illustrated in a circular form as an angular- above one another. A design was drawn up
500 μm
5 μm
Ua
MS Ua
MS
I
I U0/2
s 1 to 2 % U0
U0 H
N
SAE1062E
0
S
H 0
Measured travel
188 Sensor measuring principles | Position sensors
in which the two bridges, which are at 45° Angular-position sensor for 360°
to each other, were interwoven so that they One serious drawback with AMR angular-
can be regarded as being at the same point position sensors is their natural limitation
and quasi “on top of one another” (Fig. 29). to an unambiguously detectable angular
range of 0° to 180°. This restriction may,
however, be overcome by modulation of
29 Nested AMR bridges the direction of the magnetic flux by
means of an alternating auxiliary magnetic
field (Fig. 31). By contrast with the COS
and SIN sensor signals which have a 180°
periodicity, these modulation signals have
a 360° periodicity. In this way it is possible,
simply by evaluating the sign of the modu-
lation signals, to distinguish between
Fig. 30
BH
BH
Measuring range
sin
U
up to 180° Ucos
BH
a Measuring principle
30 Magnetoresistive angular-position sensor
BH Bext
b Output signals (pseudo Hall)
1 Thin NiFe film w
(AMR sensor)
2 Rotatable
USS
permanent magnet b
a 1 2
with control B
Usin
Voltage
induction B
IV Supply current
UH1,UH2 Measurement Ucos
UH1 UH2
voltages
w Angle of rotation IV c
IV DUsin
45
Voltage
Fig. 31
a Bridge circuit w
b Output signals from DUcos
the Wheatstone
bridges UH1 = U0 . sin2w; UH2 = U0 . cos2w d
c Influence of the
Signal curve
b UH1
auxiliary field on
the signals 2w
UH2 45
d Output signal from p
2 0 UH2
the evaluation UH1 90
p 0 90 180 270 360
circuit 180 Angle of rotation w
BH Control induction
45 Usin
UDD, USS Supply 135 a = 1 · arctan
UAE0642-3E
2 Ucos
UAE1069Y
voltages
Angle of rotation w a0 – 180 : DUcos < 0
USIN, UCOS Measurement
a180 – 360 : DUcos > 0
voltages
w Angle of rotation
Sensor measuring principles | Position sensors 189
ranges and thus to double the unambigu- The magnetic auxiliary field is generated
ous range to 0° to 360°. Because the auxil- by a planar coil integrated into the AMR
iary field for the two sensor bridges points sensor chip (Fig. 32). The auxiliary field
in different directions, the two modulation in the COS and SIN full bridge points in
signals are phase-shifted. It is sufficient, directions 45° apart in accordance with
to distinguish ranges, merely to determine the wiring arrangement.
the sign of the largest modulation signal in
respect of absolute value. This means that The sensor can only be mounted on the
distinguishing the ranges is not critical and end of a rotating shaft. Thus, for instance,
is still easily possible, even in the case of it may be mounted on the end of the steer-
modulation signals suffering heavy inter- ing spindle for measuring the steering-
ference. wheel angle in systems that do not require
determination of multiple rotations of the
steering spindle (e.g. steering-angle sensor
LWS4).
32 Layout of the AMR360 angular-position sensor
Angular-position sensor in the range over
360° (multiple revolutions)
A dual-configuration of pseudo-Hall angu-
lar-position sensors (180°) can be used to
measure multiple rotations of a rotating
component, a steering spindle, for in-
stance. The two associated permanent
magnets are rotated via a step-up gear
train (Fig. 33). As the two driving smaller
gear wheels, which carry the control mag-
nets, differ by one tooth (number of teeth
m and m+1), their mutual phase difference
UAE1074Y
function of the
15
magnetization
angle 10 0
5
FM1 Antiferromagnetic
single layer 0
UAE1070E
UAE1071E
FM2 Ferromagnetic
–5 –3
single layer –80 –40 0 40 mT 0 90 180 270 360
NM Nonmagnetic single Magnetic field Magnetization angle U
layer
Sensor measuring principles | Position sensors 191
FL
200 mm
NML Fig. 37
b Vcc1 Vcc2
a Layout
RL b Circuit
I/3 MR MR MR MR Magnetic reference
SAF NML MR I/1 II/1 II/3
magnetization
+ V1 − + V1 −
PL
MR I/2 I/4 MR MR Fig. 36
AF MR II/2 II/4
FL Free layer
0
UAE1073Y
UAE1072Y
NML Interlayer
GND1 B GND2
a RL Reference layer
PL Pinned layer
AF Antiferromagnet
192 Sensor measuring principles | Position sensors
Fig. 38
1 Long-range radar 38 Near-range and long-range distance measurement in the motor vehicle
(77 GHz)
2 Long-range/near-
range infrared
viewer (night 6 4 6
3
vision)
3 Video coverage 2
of the vehicle’s
immediate vicinity 3
(night vision, mid-
1 5
range < 40 m)
4 Near-range radar
24 GHz (near
range < 10m)
UAE0869Y
5 Passenger-
compartment video
6 Ultrasound (near
range < 1.5 m)
Sensor measuring principles | Position sensors 193
can be determined from the signal propa- being off-set from the center. The angle
gation time and/or the phase displacement of the vehicle in front can be determined
between the signal transmitted and the from this (see “Adaptive cruise control”
echo received. The antenna transmit/re- chapter).
ceive characteristics are aligned in four
different directions due to the antennas GPS position and distance traveled
measurement
39 Principle of distance measurement using GPS is the global positioning system using
ultrasound satellites, originally created by the USA for
military purposes, but later increasingly re-
a Medium leased for civil uses. The system was com-
(velocity of sound c)
US transmit- pleted in 1993 with a total of 24 satellites
ter/receiver Propagation time distance s, t (21 operating, three in reserve) orbiting at
Measuring distance l an altitude of 20,183 km. More than 24 sat-
ellites have since become available. They
b are distributed over six circular orbital
Transmitter Receiver
pulse pulse planes taking 12 hours to complete an orbit
and so at least four (but generally up to
eight) satellites are always visible above the
horizon from any point on the earth’s sur-
UFS0043-1E
Fig. 41
Representation
in the plane (two-
c a b dimensional):
If the position of the
B satellites is known,
with the propagation
times t1 and t2
t1 measured, the possible
2 1
reception locations are
t2 on two circles around
A
the satellites which
UKD0085-3Y
intersect at points A
SAE1024-1Y
cision determination of the transmission the sky. Since complete release for civil
time. The signal propagation times to be use (May 2000), the accuracies obtainable
evaluated lie typically in the region of ap- are about 3 to 5 m in a plane and around
proximately 70 ms. The satellites identify 10 to 20 m in the determination of altitude.
themselves with a pseudo random code With the refinement of GPS to DGPS (Dif-
(PRN number), which is 1,023 bits long ferential GPS, mobile stations have contact
and is continuously repeated after every with a fixed reference station via long
1 ms. It is imposed on the carrier as a wave signals) this variance can be signifi-
phase modulation. cantly further reduced. This makes resolu-
A user can take this information and de- tions down to less than 1 m possible today.
termine his own geographical position in
three dimensions with a GPS receiver, con- These accuracies are the more astonishing
sisting of a GPS antenna, signal receiver, when the manifold sources of error in this
precision clock and microprocessor. Theo- very complex measurement is taken into
retically, the signals from three satellites consideration. For example, simply the
are sufficient for this; since, however, the fact that at the very high velocity of ap-
less complex clocks in mobile receivers proximately 12,000 km/h at which the
(oscillating crystals) can differ from the satellites move, relativistic effects already
satellite clocks somewhat, a fourth satellite play a not insignificant role. Time passes
must be used in order to eliminate the more slowly at high velocities than it does
errors generated by the receiver clock. on earth. Time passes more quickly in
The distance to the visible satellites is de- weaker gravitational fields as are found in
rived from the signal propagation times the orbital planes. The high velocity causes
measured. a dilation of time of 7.2 µs per day, the
The position is determined – as shown lower gravitation even has an effect that
in Figure 40 in only two dimensions of is around six times greater, although
space – then using a trilateration method, opposing.
according to which there is precisely one If the position data determined in a
point in space which satisfies the three di- close sequence is stored in a mobile GPS
mensional conditions. In addition, there is receiver, such as in a motor vehicle, it is
also the knowledge that the motor vehicle, easy to derive the orbit and the speed of
unlike an airplane, must be located on the the vehicle. If the data is sent via a radio
earth’s surface. Measurement is thus the module to a fixed central location, the lo-
more accurate the more satellites can be cation of the vehicle at any time will then
received and the better, i.e. the more uni- be known.
formly the satellites are distributed across
Sensor measuring principles | Speed and rpm sensors 195
not provided with any form of local/on-site ber of scanned rotational segments
electronics. With the newer sensors, how- (for instance, equivalent to the number
ever, measurement is based on less-pro- of engine cylinders).
nounced measuring effects (for instance, • Simple speed sensor, with only a single
the Hall effect), and these sensors thus scanned marking per revolution, so that
need local, integrated electronics for signal only the average rotational speed can be
conditioning. They belong in the broadest registered.
sense to the category of “intelligent sen-
sors” (which are also often referred to as
“active” sensors).
In fact, the sensors used for measuring
absolute rotating speed (yaw rate) need
highly complex electronic circuitry di-
rectly at the sensor since the measuring
effects used here are not only particularly
small, but also require complex signal con- 1 Determination of the rotational speed (rotor forms)
ditioning.
Incremental rotational-speed measure-
ment takes advantage of a wide variety of
a b c
different physical effects (some of which
can be applied in sensors at a very reason-
ably price). Optical and capacitive sensors,
SAE0780-2Y
longer used. From time to time, an inner- or at extremely low cranking or wheel
ring sensor is used which is introduced speeds)
into the end of a hollow shaft featuring an • Larger air gap (non-aligned mounting
widely used sensor type, the rod-shaped • Independence from air-gap fluctuations
b Rod shape
no longer independent of the air gap when
(proximity they register the tangential-field strength
principle) (here though, the fact that the air gap is
dL Air gap
Sensor measuring principles | Speed and rpm sensors 197
often enlarged due to the sensor is a disad- As a rule, presuming the same increment
vantage). width and output signal, the pole wheel’s
Radially measuring differential-field or intrinsic magnetism (a pole wheel is de-
gradient sensors are often used. These al- fined as a magnetically active rotor) per-
ways register only the gradients of the ra- mits a considerably larger air gap.
dial-field components, the signs of which
do not change with the air gap but only Normally, passive rotors are in the form of
with the angle of rotation. gear wheels. In many cases, these are al-
ready present on the engine (for instance
Rotors the starter ring gear). Otherwise they must
The rotor is of decisive importance when be installed in a specific position in order
measuring rotational speed. It is usually to generate the required signal (as needed
provided by the vehicle manufacturer, for instance for ABS). In the latter case,
while the sensor itself comes from a com- both planar-toothed and axial-scan ver-
ponent supplier. Previously, magnetically sions are in use.
passive rotors have been used almost ex- An easily identifiable reference mark is
clusively. These are made from magneti- required for each revolution when pick-off
cally soft materials (usually iron), and are the crankshaft speed or position (for in-
less expensive than magnetically hard ro- stance, at the starter ring gear). This refer-
tors (also known as pole wheels). Apart ence mark must allow a fault-free and
from that, since they are not magnetized optimum timing of ignition and injection.
they are easier to handle, and there is no The reference mark can be in the form of
danger of mutual demagnetization (for in- a completely (or partially) removed tooth.
stance during storage). Unfortunately, this Due to the fact that a tooth space “takes
form of rotor is the most difficult to scan, more time”, the reference mark is immedi-
particularly in combination with rod sensors. ately identifiable, particularly since the
engine speed can only vary gradually and
3 Sensors insensitive to air-gap fluctuations never abruptly.
In addition to gear wheels, stamped per-
forated disks or wave-shaped metal rings
have been introduced in the meantime as
S N
N S
S
S
N
S N N It was the integration of ABS sensors in the
S N S
vehicle’s wheel bearing which led to the in-
troduction of pole wheels some of which
also assume the role of a sealing ring (plas-
b
tic-bound magnetic powder). Small, for the
most part encapsulated, tachometer sen-
sors connected through a short flexible
N
S shaft with one of the vehicle’s wheels, also
use pole wheels (with only very few poles)
c for generating a speed signal. These are
usually picked off by means of integrated
Fig. 3
Hall sensors.
a Radial-field sensor
SAE0779-2Y
5 Ferromagnetic gear-
3 In other words it is shaped like a pole “blade”
wheel (or rotor or
pulse wheel)
l 4 which usually projects through the metal
6 Rotational or
6 5 or plastic housing and is adapted to the in-
reference mark crement structure regarding shape and di-
l Tooth interval rection.
Sensor measuring principles | Speed and rpm sensors 199
The rotor can be provided with one or detection of such a rotational or reference
more rotational markings (6). Figure 5 mark. According to Faraday’s Law, in all
shows the flux curve and the voltage in- phases the signal’s amplitude is propor-
duced by a single rotational or reference tional to rotational speed.
mark (slot, cam, or pole pin). In order to ensure adequate, interfer-
Normally, the steep passage through ence-free evaluation in the control unit,
zero which takes place at the mid-point of the spacing between the peaks of a double
maximum flux is utilized for the electronic pulse (or of a periodic voltage pulse) USS
2 8 S
3 4
U~
3
Schmitt
Schmitt
trigger
trigger
output
output
5 6
N N
L
b Periodic increment
structure (e.g. gear
S S
S
3 1 Cam
2 Slot
3 Switching point
4 Steep passage
Schmitt
trigger
output
through zero
evaluated
5 Priming edge
Angle of rotation w Angle of rotation w 6 Switching flank
7 Shifting point
8 Pole pin
Schmitt 9 Sensor
c 9
UAE0782-1E
trigger
g/2 Phase shift
L Inductance
U Voltage
F Magnetic flux
200 Sensor measuring principles | Speed and rpm sensors
should be at least 30 mV. The major disad- The reference point is detected when the
vantage of the inductive-type sensors is distance between the passages through
the fact that at high speeds/rotational zero changes abruptly and causes a far
speeds their output voltages can reach higher signal voltage (corresponding to
levels far in excess of 100 V which are dif- an apparently larger tooth) which has a
ficult to process electronically. negative effect upon the previous and
If Zener diodes are used to clip the high upon the subsequent incremental voltage –
voltage peaks, the resulting changes in the this can under certain circumstances be
sensor’s load impedance lead to considerable undesirable.
phase-angle errors. With camshaft and
crankshaft sensors this can have highly Advantages
undesirable results with regard to the igni- • Low manufacturing costs
tion where the correctness of phase rela- • High immunity to interference: low
tionship must be better than approx. 0.2°. static internal resistance (dynamically
Normally, the prepulse generated by the higher)
magnetic return field can be ignored at low • No local electronics (electrically pas-
(exponentially) upon air gap and tooth size. ized ignition with induction-type pulse
As is the case with all magnetic increment generator TZ-I)
processes, up to air gaps of dL, teeth can be • Needle-motion sensor (diesel-fuel
dL ≤ l/(2…3)
Fig. 7
a Passive rotor
7 Hall rod sensors 8 Gradient sensor for gear wheel scanning
b Active rotor
1 Incremental rotor
a
2 Simple Hall sensor
3 Permanent magnet
4 Pole wheel w 1
5 Housing
w
2
Fig. 8 N 4
3 1
1 Magnetoresistors
S 2
R1, R2 or Hall S
5 3
elements H1, H2 N
2 Ferromagnetic wafer
(soft-magnetic
b w
substrate) S
3 Permanent magnet N N
S 1
4 Gear wheel R2 R1
UAE0022Y-3
UAE0783-1Y
U0 Supply voltage 4 2 U0
UA(w) Measuring UA(w)
voltage for an angle 5
of rotation w
Sensor measuring principles | Speed and rpm sensors 203
sures the difference in field strength be- given point. Local amplification is neces-
tween two neighboring points on the cir- sary, even though their measuring effect is
cumference of the rotor. The output signal approximately 1 to 2 orders of magnitude
corresponds roughly to the field strength larger than that of the silicon Hall sensors.
derived as a function of the angle at the In the case of the crankshaft speed sen-
circumference, and its sign is therefore in- sor integrated in the bearing (composite
dependent of the air gap. Being as they do seal with sensor), the AMR thin-film sen-
not alter the gradient signal’s sign, air-gap sor is mounted together with an evaluation
fluctuations does not cause missing pulses. IC on a common leadframe.
For signal evaluation, it is a simple mat- For the purposes of space saving and
ter to connect the two magnetoresistors temperature protection, the evaluation IC
as a voltage divider which is supplied by is bent at an angle of 90° and also located
a constant voltage and whose (usually un- further away from the sensor tip.
loaded) output signal is registered by the
control unit. At room temperatures and Giant magnetoresistive (GMR) elements
with the customary air gap, this signal is in The giant magneto resistance effect (GMR
the volts range, and even at high tempera- effect) was first demonstrated on multilay-
tures it is suitable for transmission to the ers consisting alternately of thin soft mag-
control unit without any form of preampli- netic and nonmagnetic layers (thickness of
fication. a few nanometers). An antiparallel align-
Provided appropriate circuitry is used, ment of the magnetization of adjacent fer-
measuring the loaded output current of romagnetic layers leads to the maximum
the magnetoresister divider instead of its electrical resistance, while parallel align-
open-circuit voltage permits the sensor’s ment shows a significantly lower resistance.
pronounced temperature measurement The relative change in resistance for appli-
sensitivity to be compensated for to a great cation-relevant layer structures thus var-
extent. ies in the range 20 to 30 %. This represents
In the case of a gradient sensor based on an increase over the AMR effect by a factor
the Hall effect, the current paths of both of around 10.
Hall elements can be connected in parallel,
and their opposite-polarity output voltages
in series, so that their differential voltage 9 AMR speed sensor in the form of a
can be picked off directly and inputted to tangential-field sensor
the downstream amplification and evalua- Fig. 9
tion stages. 1 Gear wheel (Fe)
w 2 Permanent magnet
1
Tangential sensors 3 Sensor
B Control field
Tangential sensors differ from gradient
strength with
sensors by their reaction to variations in
tangential
polarity and intensity in the components B Br B B’
components Bt and
of a magnetic field located tangentially to radial component
the periphery of the rotor. Using AMR S Br (B' off position,
2
thin-film techniques, tangential sensors Bt = 0),
R1, R2 permalloy
are available as barber-pole or permalloy 3
thin-film resistors
resistor types in full-bridge or half-bridge R1 R2
(AMR)
UAE0643-2Y
The simplest layer system that shows a A bridge circuit of four GMR resistance
GMR effect is a spin valve (see also “Posi- elements, designed as a gradiometer is
tion sensors” section). It consists of two suited for the determination of rotational
soft magnetic layers, separated by a non- speed (Fig. 12). The resistors are intercon-
magnetic layer. While the magnetization nected here in such a way that only one
of the one soft magnetic layer is fixed by magnetic field difference at the two bridge
an antiferromagnet, the magnetization of locations results in a signal. The effects
the second soft magnetic layer can ideally of homogenous interference fields can be
follow the external field without interfer- suppressed in this way. As the reference
ence (free layer). The resistance is then direction for all resistors is identical, local
minimal if the magnetizations of the two heating in the magnetic field, as is neces-
layers are aligned in parallel and is in- sary to write differing reference magne-
creased by approximately 5 % if the mag- tization directions in an angular-position
netizations are aligned antiparallel. The sensor, is not required.
interaction of the reference magnetization
with the external field may be minimized
with the help of a synthetic antiferromag- 11 Characteristic curve for a GMR spin valve
interference fields. 4
3
Figure 11 shows a typical characteristic
curve for a spin valve. The two charac- 2
teristic states for the two opposing direc-
tions of the external magnetic field can 1
clearly be distinguished. The spin valve is
UAE1065Y
sensitive to field strength changes in the 0
–120 – 80 – 40 0 40 80 mT
transitional range between high and low m0H
resistance.
10 Layer stack for a GMR spin valve 12 Bridge circuit for the GMR sensor
a Uv
1
R1 R3
Fig. 10
1 Free layer 2 UBr
2 Interlayer
3 Reference layer
3 SAF R2 R4
4 Pinned layer 2
5 Antiferromagnet 4
b
SAF Synthetic
antiferromagnet
5
UAE1064Y
UAE1066Y
Fig. 12
a Electrical wiring
b Layout of a
gradiometer sensor
Sensor measuring principles | Speed and rpm sensors 205
The maximum signal amplitude for a gradi- are out of the question for automotive ap-
ometer sensor then results when the direc- plications due to the high costs involved.
tion of the field at the two bridge locations On the other hand, the slightly less-severe
is precisely 180° phase-shifted. This is the requirements on precision for applications
case on a multipole wheel, for instance, in the motor vehicle can be complied with
if the distance between the resistance ele- by gyroscopes manufactured using fine-
ments corresponds to the distance between mechanical and micromechanical pro-
poles in the multipole ring (Fig. 13). cesses. Instead of a rotational movement,
these units use an equivalent, elastic, os-
Examples of application cillatory movement to generate the mea-
• Hall sensor (transistorized ignition TZ-H) suring effect. In principle, these sensors
• Hall phase sensor (camshaft) are similar to mechanical gyroscopes.
• Transmission Hall sensor (RS50, RS51) They exploit the Coriolis accelerations
• Active Hall speed sensor which are generated when rotary motions
• Active AMR speed sensor are coupled with an oscillatory component
• Magnetoresistive sensor (for diesel (velocity v) (Fig. 14). These sensors are
radial-piston distributor pumps) known as oscillation gyroscopes and are
• Active GMR speed sensor used in the electronic stability program
(ESP) for the detection of the vehicle
Absolute rotating-speed measurement breaking away, in navigation systems for
Measuring principle of the oscillation the detection of the direction of travel and
gyroscope in cameras to stabilize the image against
Basic principles wobbling. They also comply adequately with
Mechanical gyroscopes (gyros for short) all automotive stipulations such as freedom
utilize inertial forces in precisely measur- from maintenance, long service life, switch-
ing angular movements in space indepen- on time constant etc., not to forget the ques-
dent of the reference system. Notwith- tion of costs.
standing their pronounced measuring ef- Oscillation gyroscopes measure the
fect, rotating gyroscopes as well as optical yaw rate around their “sensitive” axis.
sensors based on the interferometric The yaw rate Vz around the vehicle’s Fig. 13
Sagnac effect (laser and fiber gyroscopes), vertical axis (yaw axis) is measured in Field lines in the space
surrounding a multipole
ring
The two squares
13 Speed of rotation measurement with GMR sensor 14 Relationships in the rotary motion
symbolize the two
bridge locations
The arrows indicate the
direction of the field
z
lines at these points
Fig. 14
Ωz
Interrelationship
between yaw rate,
y oscillation, and Coriolis
acceleration at a
N yy
S lumped mass m.
S m
Vz Yaw rate
acoriolis vy Speed of the
SAE0781-3Y
x
UAE1067Y
oscillation
aCoriolis Coriolis
acceleration
m Lumped mass
206 Sensor measuring principles | Speed and rpm sensors
the electronic stability program (ESP) and The Coriolis force acts in accordance with
in the navigation system. Systems for trig- a known vector law perpendicular to the
gering rollover protection systems need rotary motion and speed of the mass in
data on the yaw rates Vx and Vy around the motion (Fig. 14). This gives the Coriolis
vehicle’s pitch and roll axes. acceleration as:
(1) aCoriolis = ax = 2?vy?x?Vz
Measurement of the Coriolis acceleration
Oscillation gyroscopes measure the Whereby, the velocity vy changes sinusoi-
Coriolis acceleration in the following dally in accordance with the oscillatory
way: as the distance between a mass and movement:
the axis of rotation increases, the mass (2) vy = vy?sinvt
must cover a greater distance in the time
of one revolution because of the greater This means that, at a constant yaw rate Vz,
radius. Circumference increases with the a sinusoidal Coriolis acceleration aCoriolis of
radius. The mass must, therefore, acquire the same frequency is measured. The am-
a higher tangential speed and must be plitude is then:
accelerated to achieve this. This acceler- (3) aCoriolis = 2?vy?Vz
ation (Coriolis acceleration) is measured
by suspending the mass on springs and The acceleration ay which is also applied
measuring the bend in the suspension. to the mass m in the oscillatory direction is
If the distance of the mass, now rotating usually several orders of magnitude higher
at a higher tangential speed, from the than the useful Coriolis acceleration.
axis of rotation is now reduced, the mass (4) ay = dvy/dt = v?vy?cosvt
must now become slower, as it needs
only cover a shorter distance for each As the Coriolis acceleration has the same
revolution. The braking deceleration re- frequency as the exciting function, the use-
quired is also measured via the bend of ful signal (the yaw rate) can be obtained by
the suspension. multiplication of the exciting signal and
In the oscillation gyroscopes, the dis- the Coriolis signal with subsequent averag-
tance of one (or more) masses from the ing (phase-correct rectification). Interfer-
axis of rotation is periodically increased ence signals of other frequencies are fil-
and then reduced again by an oscillation tered out (principle of the lock-in ampli-
excitation (Fig. 14, movement in the y di- fier). Averaging (with a low-pass filter)
rection). This means that the mass must be frees the output signal from the excitation
accelerated and then braked again in the frequency. An output voltage is generated
same cycle (movement in the x direction). which is proportional to the yaw rate:
The forces necessary for this depend on (5) UA = const ?aCoriolis = const'?V
the amplitude of the exciting oscillation
and the current yaw rate. If the exciting Examples of application
oscillation is kept constant, the yaw rate V • Piezoelectric yaw-rate sensors
can be determined from the acceleration • Micromechanical yaw-rate sensors
forces.
Sensor measuring principles | Acceleration sensors 207
Fig. 1
1 Displacement or travel-measuring acceleration sensors Schematic:
a Excursion-
measuring
a b b Closed-loop
position controlled
a a a Measured
acceleration
m m
x x System excursion
x 0
FM Measuring force
(inertial force on
the mass m)
FM FM FK
SAE0809-2Y
UA ~ x ~ a FK Compensating
IA ~ force
IA Output current
UA Output voltage
208 Sensor measuring principles | Acceleration sensors
2 Measuring principles
This dimensionless variable permits a sim- chanics. Because of the capacitive evalua-
ple description and comparison of differ- tion, the measurement signal is deter-
ing resonant systems. Natural vibration mined only by the geometry and stable
and increase in resonance sharpness are material parameters and is barely influ-
largely determined by this damping factor. enced by variables such as temperature.
Values of D = 0.5 to 0.7 are preferred in The very small measuring capacities of
practice (Fig. 2). these sensors, however, requires that eval-
In the case of position-controlled sys- uation electronics are provided in the im-
tems, damping is implemented and ad- mediate vicinity.
justed in the closed control loop. The advantage of surface micromechan-
ics is the opportunity it provides to control
Physical implementation by position or to deflect the systems by ap-
The majority of the acceleration sensors plying electrostatic forces (to the measur-
currently in use in the motor vehicle are ing electrodes or to an additionally fitted
manufactured in silicon surface microme- electrode set). The latter, being a genuine
electro-mechanical self test, is an effective
means of checking the entire signal path.
2 Resonance curves for the transfer function G
-60 D= 1 Q amplitude
D = 1.5 F V = v/v0
-80
D= 2 Q Standardized
-100 D = 3
Angle G
circular frequency
b F X
F D Damping
-120 Z
Y
-140
Q
-160 Fig. 3
F
Q a Longitudinal effect
-180
SAE0812-1Y
SAE0810-2E
Y
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.7 1 2 3 4 5 7 10 b Transverse effect
c X
Z
0.3 0.5 c Tangential force
polarization
F Measuring force F
1 a
U Total voltage F= 0 1
a
U1, U2 Part voltages Q
U1 = 0
2
U2 = 0 U U
U= 0
Fig. 5
a Voltage pick-off
b Charge pick-off CM
1 Supply lead 1 F 0
2 Piezoelectric b b F 1
specimen with
«>0 Q CP
capacitance CP U1
U 0 «<0 2 U=Q/CM
SAE0813-1Y
SAE0814-1Y
CM Measuring capacity U2
F Measuring force
Q Charge
U Voltage
Sensor measuring principles | Acceleration sensors 211
3 2 3
a
5
Fig. 6
a Acceleration a = 0
b Acceleration a > 0
1 Heated gas zone
2 Heater element
3 Temperature sensor
SAE1078Y
4 Substrate coating
5 Displaced heated
zone
212 Sensor measuring principles | Pressure sensors
d Capacitive
measurement using surement of pressure (also in automotive
p p
the deformation of applications) uses a thin diaphragm as a
a diaphragm cell (4) mechanical intermediate stage which is
Sensor measuring principles | Pressure sensors 213
exposed on one side to the pressure to be varies under the influence of mechanical
measured and which deflects to a greater or stresses. The resistors are connected
lesser degree as a function of the pressure. together to form a Wheatstone bridge.
Within a very wide range, its diameter and Its voltage is a measure for the pressure.
thickness can be adapted to the particular Table 1 presents a systematic overview
pressure range. Low-pressure measuring of the proven pressure-measurement tech-
ranges lead to relatively large diaphragms niques which to a great extent have al-
which can easily deform in the range 1 to ready been used in automotive applica-
0.1 mm. Higher pressures though demand tions. The list is arranged according to
thicker, small-diameter diaphragms which the type of diaphragm material and the
generally only deform by a few µm. applied strain gage technology. The combi-
In case (capacitive) pick-offs for spacing nations have been marked to indicate ei-
or distance measurements are also re- ther those which are already actually in
quired, voltage-measuring methods domi- production and which will be described as
nate in the medium-pressure to high-pres- actual examples in the “sensor designs”
sure ranges. Here, practically only strain chapter (x), or those which are already
gage techniques are used. being closely considered for production
(marked in blue):
Capacitive pick-off
In contrast to their application in inertia 1 Strain gage pick-off and diaphragm material
sensors (see acceleration/yaw-rate sen- Strain gage Diaphragm material
sors), capacitive pressure sensors are still pick-off
Ceramics Metal Silicon
only rarely encountered even though they
(steel)
could possibly provide similar advantages
Foils 1)
(particularly with respect to their accu- (glued)
racy). This is more than likely the result of Thick-film
one important difference compared to the Metal x Table 1
other sensors referred to above: pressure thin-film 1) Low suitability
sensors need a direct contact with the Silicon x for large-scale
monitored medium. The dielectric charac- thin-film production, (x)
current examples
teristics of which practically always affect Diffusion x
◼◼ Suitability
the calibration of such capacitive pressure resistors
considered
sensors. This means that the calibration
would then not only be dependent upon With regard to the particular measuring
the medium in question, but would also be effect’s magnitude and type, the strain-gage
impossible without it (that is, in the “dry” techniques listed above have widely vary-
state). Clear separation of the sensor from ing characteristics. The gage factor (K) de-
the monitored medium has up to now only fines the magnitude of the measuring effect
been achieved at the cost of considerable of strain-gage resistors. It gives the relative
technical outlay. change in such a resistor’s resistance R re-
ferred to the relative change in its length l
Strain gage pick-off (equation 1):
The elongations of the diaphragm occur-
ring on the deflection of a diaphragm-type (1) K = –––––––– r/r
DR/R = 1 + 2?n + d––––––––
Dl/l «
sensor are detected using strain-gage
technology (strain-gage strips or strain- Here, the symbol « (elongation) is often
gage resistors). Strain-gage resistors are used for the relationship ∆l/l, and is used
affixed to the diaphragm (e.g. vapor- in multiples of 10–6 (ppm) as “micron” or
deposited). Their electrical resistance “micro strain”.
214 Sensor measuring principles | Pressure sensors
n is the material’s Poisson ratio, r repre- sure applied to its top and bottom sides.
senting its electric conductivity. n charac- This means that there are four different
terizes the reduction in cross-section of the basic types of pressure sensor (Table 3):
material on elongation and, in the ideal- • Absolute pressure
εt sure
w Width
« Elongation εt = Δw
w
Vacuum Absolute Barometric –
w Δw pressure pressure
K Gage factor
Sensor measuring principles | Force and torque sensors 215
the point of view of measurement tech- kept as small as possible. Often, this means
niques is only in an area of a few percent that the magnetically active measuring cir-
and needs electronic amplification. cuit is closed with ferromagnetic material,
The advantages of the magnetoelastic even when this is not included in the
effect are to be found in its broad tempera- power flux.
ture range and the fact that technical ap- Figure 2 shows the two most important
plications are possible up to temperatures possibilities of evaluating the magneto-
as high as approximately 300 °C. On the elastic effect: If a coil is arranged on the
other hand, it represents a marked volume measurement structure so that its direc-
effect. This means that the coils used for tion of field coincides with the direction of
detection not only register a local variation applied force, the change in inductance L
of permeability (as with a strain gage, for can be picked-off and applied directly. In-
instance) caused by the application of force, dependent of the magnitude of the applied
but more or less the effects throughout force, the excitation field strength H and
the whole of the coil’s cross section. This the induction B always have the same di-
makes the sensor somewhat less sensitive rection (Fig. 2a).
to the possibility of force being applied If the field strength H of the supply coil
asymmetrically. is not axially parallel to the applied force,
Since the changes in permeability as a the effect of the latter not only changes the
function of applied force are practically magnetic induction B, but also its direction
always registered with the help of alter- (due to the anisotropy of the permeability,
nating fields, the penetration depth of Fig. 2b). Assuming that with no force ap-
these fields, which is highly frequency- plied the directions of H and B are super-
dependent, must be observed: posed one upon the other in the normal
Only those mechanical forces can con- manner, these assume increasingly differ-
tribute to the measuring effect which are ent directions when force is applied and
present in the measuring field’s effective increased. This can be exploited particu-
penetration depth. In order to be able to larly advantageously in the variation of the
put the measuring effect to maximum use, magnetic coupling of two coils affixed at
the magnetically active air gap should be 90° to one another (Kreuzduktor) (Fig. 3).
a F b F
H B (F 0)
H
B (F=0)
B (F 0) Fig. 2
B (F=0) a With direction of
force parallel to the
a
direction of field
b For different
F F directions of
UAE0836-1Y
field strength H
NAE0838Y
and force F
B Induction
a Enclosed angle
218 Sensor measuring principles | Force and torque sensors
Strain gage principle (piezoresistive) surface of the selected elastic member that
Strain-gage measuring resistors (strain- they follow its surface elongation perfectly.
gage strips) represent the most wide- The change in resistance resulting from
spread and probably the most reliable and the resistor’s elongation is defined by the
precise method for measuring force and particular gage factor K of the resistor in
torque (Fig. 4). Their principle is based question (refer to “pressure sensors”):
on the fact that in the zone of the elastic-
member material to which Hooke’s Law (2) DR/R = K?«
applies there is a proportional relationship
between the mechanical strain s in the The K factor generally does not exceed a
member, caused by the introduction of value of 2 for metal-film resistors, but is
force, and the resulting elongation «. In generally somewhat below this in practice.
this case, in accordance with Hooke’s law: Strain gages are designed such that they
(in conjunction with a specific elongating
(1) « = Dl/l = s/E material (substrate) and their thermal
elongation) have no inherent temperature
whereby the proportionality constant E is sensitivity where possible (TCR ≈ 0). Any
the modulus of elasticity. Since it does not residual temperature sensitivity is usually
directly measure the strain resulting from eliminated by depositing the resistors on
the applied force, but rather the – locally – the elastic member in the form of a half
resulting elongation, the strain-gage or full bridge. Since temperature effects
method can be regarded as an indirect result in same-direction changes on the
measuring method. For instance, if the strain gage this results in no output signal.
modulus of elasticity decreases by 3 % The auxiliary bridge resistors can be (but
above 100 K, a figure which is normal for need not be) located within the elastic mem-
metals, then the force indicated by the ber’s elongation zone. They can also be
strain-gage method is 3 % too high. fitted as purely compensation resistors
Strain-gage resistors in the form of film (Fig. 4c). It must be noted that often the
resistors – by contrast with cemented-on K factor itself also has a temperature coef-
strain gages – are so closely bonded to the ficient (TCK). Usually, this decreases along
a b Rl Rq
F F
F F
Fig. 4 F
a Rod-shaped
b Toroidal-shaped Rq
c Electronic F
evaluation
F Force Rl
Rl,q Metal-film resistors, F
lengthwise, c Rl
Rq
crosswise
U0 -
UAE0839-2Y
R Auxiliary bridge
F R R
resistors
+ UA
U0 Supply voltage
UA Output voltage
Sensor measuring principles | Force and torque sensors 219
with increasing temperature, which means (and only this strain) at the point at which
that in favorable cases it can compensate it is applied. This, of course, no longer
for the signal increase caused by the mod- holds true in cases in which the strain-
ulus of elasticity. Apart from this, signal gage structure is distributed across the
reductions caused by the K factor are usu- elastic member’s complete surface. This
ally compensated for by a bridge supply necessitates extremely precise and repro-
voltage U0 which increases accordingly. ducible application of the force to be mea-
sured if measuring errors due to uneven
In addition to the longitudinal K factor Kl force introduction are to be avoided.
described above, there is also the transverse
K factor Kt, which must then be applied if the Application:
direction of strain is transverse to the cur- As a rule, in order to carry out force mea-
rent flow. It has an inverse sign (negative) surements, very small strain-gage resistors
and is no greater than 0.5 in value. must be attached to larger force-carrying
parts or elastic members. The traditional
Disadvantages/limitations: method of applying the strain-gage resis-
Notwithstanding their high levels of accu- tors to the elastic member by means of a
racy and reliability, since the elongations foil backing (as applied in such devices as
and therefore also the changes in resis- high-precision scales), is not inexpensive
tance (at least in the case of metal film re- enough for large-batch “low-cost” produc-
sistors) are only in the percentage range tion. First attempts are therefore being
of the original state, the strain-gage sen- made to apply low-cost, large batch film/
sors only generate output signals in the layer techniques by depositing the strain-
mV range so that in general local amplifi- gage resistors on small metal wafers which
cation is required. A further disadvantage are then pressed into, or welded onto the
of small strain-gage sensors is the fact elastic element.
that they measure precisely the strain
Orthogonally printed resistors
Practically all electrical film resistors
5 Piezoresistive behavior of various resistance mate- change their resistance not only under the
rials when orthogonal compression is applied
influence of laterally applied deformation
strain but also when compression is ap-
plied vertical to the film plane (orthogo-
4 1 nal). Here, the so-called “conductive plas-
Relative resistance change DRp/R0
s Torsional stress
M Torque round steel plate (for instance, using thin-
+s s 1
r Radius film techniques) which is then welded to
l Rod length the shaft. The two ring transformers re-
Sensor measuring principles | Force and torque sensors 221
quired for power and signal transmission Up to now, since adequate accuracy de-
can be manufactured at an extremely mands extremely precise bearings, to-
low cost from a soft-magnetic molding gether with the necessity to provide corre-
compound. High precision levels can be spondingly accurate angular or incremental
achieved with such a configuration in subdivision around the complete periph-
spite of reasonable manufacturing costs. ery, this method has been regarded as too
complicated. Nevertheless work is forcing
Angle-measuring (torsion-measuring) sensors ahead with solving this problem (magneti-
Sensors for measuring angular difference cally or optically), because such a system
It is a relatively easy matter to determine would incorporate two distinct advantages:
the torsion angle when two mutually-inde- • Possibility of simultaneous measure-
pendent incremental speed sensors, or an ment of the angle of rotation with the
absolute-measuring (analog or digital) same system
non-contacting angular-movement pick- • Possibility of measurement without far-
off, are provided at each end of the reaching modifications to the torsion
section of the shaft subject to torsion shaft being necessary, so that essentially
(L ≈ 5 to 10 cm) (Fig. 8). The difference the sensor could be in the form of a
in their outputs w2 - w1 is a measure for plug-in sensor providing an efficient
the torsion angle: interface for a supplier component
M
M Fig. 7
w1 1 Torque indicator
s Torsional stress
1 M Torque
3 U0 Supply voltage
f 1 R1 to R4 Strain-gage
U measuring resistors
9.81 Nm
R2 R4 s +s
Fig. 8
Strain 2
l 1, 2 Angle/speed
gage
R1 R3 sensors
3 Angle markings
w2 l Torsion-
measurement
UAE0709-2Y
UAE0844-1Y
section
U0 M Torque to be
measured
w1,2 Angle signals
222 Sensor measuring principles | Force and torque sensors
By contrast with a pure incremental track, cated in the second sine cycle. If the value
which would permit only a resolution of an is between 216° and 252°, one is located
N-th of the circumference, this sinusoidal in the 6th cycle. The precise measuring
signal structure, however, theoretically angle w is then formed by adding another
permits as fine a resolution per circumfer- angle, in the first case of 360° and in the
ence as is required by the application of second case of 216° to the measured, but
the arcsin function within a single sine not unambiguous fine signal w.
cycle. This fine resolution is, however, In practice however, the arcsin function
only useful if it is always known in which is not used to resolve the individual sine
of the N similar cycles one is located. cycles finely, as it would be necessary to
The unambiguity can easily be created guarantee a constant and normalized sig-
if a second track with a little less spatial nal amplitude for this. It is rather the case
frequency in which only N-1 sine cycles that a second, cosine-wave track, phase-
fit on the circumference is applied around shifted against the first by precisely 90°,
the circumference. Although the two sig- is applied next to the sine-wave marking.
nals do not supply an unambiguous signal Because of the spatial vicinity, it may be
for an angle-of-rotation measurement, assumed that both tracks are sensed with
it is, however, possible to draw firm con- the same amplitude u, so that the angle w
clusions from the phase difference Dw be- within the sine cycle can be determined by
tween the two signals, in which sine cycle the arctan function from the two individual
one is currently located. The pitch differ- signals u1 and u2 independently of u:
ence between the two signals varies over
the entire circumference by precisely 360°. (4) w = arctan (u1/u2)
Figure 10 shows an example with N = 10. where u1 = u?sin w and
If the phase difference between the two u2 = u?cos w
signals is, for instance, in the range be-
tween 36° and 72°, then one is clearly lo-
9 Optoelectronic angular difference steering torque 10 Angle measurement using the vernier principle
sensor
9 Dw
1.0 360
8
7
Fig. 9 6 0.5 180
Signal values
6 Optical ASIC
7 LED
8 Sensor module
9 PCB
Sensor measuring principles | Force and torque sensors 223
Thus a total of four tracks are required for must be precisely manufactured and as-
the determination of a precise and unam- sembled in order to achieve the stipulated
biguous angle of rotation w. The steering accuracy. The associated electronics are
angle and TAS (Torque Angle Sensor) steer- appropriately accommodated very near
ing-angle sensor illustrated in Figure 9 thus to the coils.
requires a total of eight tracks, which are Although this sensor principle was de-
read optoelectronically, to measure two veloped at Bosch for motor vehicle appli-
angles w1 and w2. Its angular precision over cations, it was only used in electric power
360° is 1°, the angular resolution is 0.0055°, tools (torque sensing in industrial power
the resolution of the difference angle Dw is screwdrivers). A license-holder in Japan
0.0044° with a measuring range of + 9°. has further developed this, very cost-ef-
fective, sensor principle for motor vehicle
Eddy-current sensors applications to product maturity.
Two slotted sleeves of electrically con-
ducting aluminum are attached to each Examples of application for torque sensors
end of a sufficiently long section of the • Strain gage steering torque sensor (de-
measuring shaft. These are inserted one veloped up to A prototype for electrical
inside the other (Fig. 11). Each sleeve is power-assisted steering)
provided with two rows of slots so that • Angle-measuring eddy-current torque
when the shaft is twisted, it becomes in- sensors (electric power tools, third-
creasingly visible through one row of slots, party product in Japan)
and is hidden more and more by the other • Angle-measuring optoelectronic steering
Fig. 11
2
1 Slotted sleeves
UAE0710-2Y
1 2 Air gap
3 High-frequency
coils
M Torque
224 Sensor measuring principles | Flowmeters
pressure Time t
pS = 0.96 bar, errors). This fact means that such air-mass
mean air-flow rate meters must be sufficiently rapid in follow-
QLMm = 157.3 kg/h ing the pulsations which mostly have a
Sensor measuring principles | Flowmeters 225
The flow profiles illustrated by way of ex- QV = v?A Volume flow rate
ample only establish themselves after the QM = r?v?A Mass flow rate
flow has been uniformly formed for some
time. In the motor vehicle, a profile lying
2 Flow profiles
y (r) Fig. 2
1 Laminar flow
Q Q profile
2 Turbulent flow
R r
profile
A 1 2 A A Cross-sectional
area of the tube
Q Flow
UAE0803-1Y
R Tube radius
r Distance from
the tube center
v(r) Flow profile
226 Sensor measuring principles | Flowmeters
1 1
Measuring principles p1 + ___ ?r1?v12 = p2 + ___ ?r2?v22 = const
2 2
Up to now, of the practically unlimited
variety of flowmeters on the market, only These laws are to be applied for two different
those which operate according to the im- measuring cross-sections A1 and A2 (Fig. 3).
pact-pressure principle have come to the Assuming constant density r = r1 = r2, this
forefront for air-quantity measurement in results in the pressure drop:
the vehicle. This principle still depends
1 1
upon mechanically moving parts, and in Dp = QV2?r?(____ – ____)
A22 A12
principle correction measures are still
needed to compensate for density fluctua- This pressure drop can be measured either
tions. directly with a differential-pressure sensor,
Today, true air-mass meters applying or by means of the force acting against a
thermal methods (hot-wire or hot-film air so-called sensor plate. It should be noted
flowmeters) are used which can follow here that impact-pressure gages of this
sudden flow changes without mechanically type measure a flow value that corresponds
moving parts. neither to the volume flow rate nor to the
mass flow rate, but to a geometrical mean
value of the two:
Fig. 3 ––
QSt = const ? √ r ? v = const ? √QV ? QM
a Ring orifice
b Sensor plate
1 Orifice plate
AS Disk cross-section 3 Impact-pressure flowmeter 4 Impact-pressure air-mass meter
Fig. 4 b Dp 2
p1 p2
1 Sensor plate
2 Air-temperature 3
sensor
3 To control unit QLM A1 AS 1 A2 QLM
UAE0299-2Y
UAE0804-1Y
4 Potentiometer
5 Damping chamber 4 5 6
6 Compensation flap
QL Intake-air flow
Sensor measuring principles | Flowmeters 227
time constants in the 1 ms range for average out any asymmetries in the flow
changes in air-flow rate. In cases where profile (Fig. 6). Adequate service lives only
closed-loop control is not used the time became possible when the platinum wire
constants would be 40 to 100 times higher. was stabilized by alloy additives so that
its resistance no longer changed due to
If the heater temperature were to be main- deposits and cracks on its surface. This
tained constant simply by keeping its (tem- meant though that the deposits on the hot
perature-dependent) resistance constant, wire had to be burned-off automatically
with constant mass flow and higher me- (approximately 1,000 °C) following every
dium temperature, this would result in a operating phase.
current drop and therefore a false mea-
surement. In practice, this error is avoided Notwithstanding a number of functional
by using a bridge circuit containing a sec- advantages, this sensor concept was far
ond high-ohm compensation resistor RK of too costly. A thick-film version (HFM2 hot-
the same type (e.g. platinum). Here, the film air-mass meter) was able to combine
heating resistor is kept at a constant over- all the resistors concerned with the mea-
temperature Dq compared to the medium surement on a single ceramic substrate.
(Fig. 5) by a control loop. In case of a sud- Due to the ceramic substrate’s consider-
den jump in the medium temperature, the able thermal capacity, it was difficult not to
sensor reacts with a long time constant exceed the maximum permissible switch-
since in this case the heat content of the ing constants. Furthermore, a complicated
hot wire must be changed. The heating saw cut had to be made to reduce the un-
current generates a control voltage UM desirable heat coupling between heating
proportional to the air-mass flow on a pre- and compensation resistors. On the other
cision resistor (measuring resistor RM). hand though, this version permitted the
The heating resistors in the first air- burn-off process to be dispensed with since
mass meters (hot-wire air-mass meters) the special flow conditions no longer led to
used for automotive applications were of unwanted deposits.
very fine platinum wire. This wire was In contrast to both its predecessor
stretched in trapezoidal form across the types, a further silicon-based microme-
Fig. 5 flow cross-section so that it was able to chanical version (HFM5 and HFM6 hot-
QLM Air-mass flow
UM Measurement
voltage
RH Hot-wire resistor 5 Hot-wire air-mass meter (circuit) 6 Hot-wire air-mass meter (components)
RK Compensation
resistor
IH
RM Measuring resistor
R1,2 Calibration QM tL
resistors
RK RH
1 2 3
Fig. 6
1 Temperature R1
compensation
resistor RK
2 Sensor ring with
RM
hot wire RH
RM UM QM RM
UMK0311-2Y
UMK1302-1Y
R2
3 Precision RH
measuring
resistor (RM)
QM Air-mass flow
Sensor measuring principles | Flowmeters 229
film air-mass meters) fulfilled practically this flowmeter must ensure that the partial
all expectations. In particular, this version flow it measures represents the same frac-
is able to measure in both flow directions tion of the total flow throughout the whole
with the correct sign (Fig. 7). This means measuring range. This precondition can be
that the brief return flows that occur as a achieved by means of a flow rectifier (grill)
result of pulsation no longer lead to mea- built into the measuring pipe.
suring errors (Fig. 8).
To this end, in addition to the heater Examples of application
control circuit used in the previous ver- • HFM5 and HFM6 hot-film air-mass
sions, a temperature sensor is located on meters for gasoline and diesel engine
each side of the heating resistor, in other applications
words upstream and downstream. This
principle is similar to the Thomas process
often encountered in the literature. When
there is no flow (QML = 0), each of these
sensors indicates the same temperature.
When flow starts though, since the up-
stream sensor is cooled by the medium,
the higher the flow the higher the temper-
ature difference between the two resistors.
The output signal derived from the tem-
perature difference has a similar charac-
teristic curve to the anemometers used up
to now, whereby its sign is a clear indica-
tion of the flow direction.
Due to its small size, the micromechani-
cal flowmeter is only a partial-flowmeter.
In other words, it is no longer in any way
able to average-out any non-homogeneity
in the flow velocity as a function of the
flow cross-sectional area. Rather,
7 Micromechanical hot-film air-mass meter with 8 Determination of the pulsating air-mass flow
air-quantity measurement in both directions in a 4-cylinder engine
5 kg/h
V
4 100
Air-mass flow QLM
Signal voltage U
Fig. 7
3 QR Return flow
QR 50 1
2
0 Fig. 8
1 At full load and
2
engine speed
0 -50 n = 900 rpm
-100 0 100 200 300 kg/h
UAE0807-1E
UAE0808-1E
0 10 20 30 40 50 ms 1 Hot-wire
Air-mass flow QLM Time t air-mass meter
2 Hot-film
air-mass meter
230 Sensor measuring principles | Gas sensors and concentration sensors
1 Gas-analysis processes (without particular attention being paid to the moisture-measurement process)
(X) = for automotive applications
Physical process Physical-chemical process Chemical process
Thermal conductivity Heat of reaction Selective absorption
Magnetic processes Heat of absorption Selective absorption with prior
chemical conversion
Radiation absorption Characteristic color reaction
Gas chromatography Electrolytic conductivity X
Table 1 Radioactive processes Electrochemical processes X
Sensor measuring principles | Gas sensors and concentration sensors 231
90
80
70
60
y
idit
50 hum
la tive
40 Re
30
20
10
0
Water level Absolute humidity
Dew point τ –10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(C)
Partial pressure Pw
2.14 4 6 8 10 20 30 40 50 60 80 100 150 200 300 400 500 600 760
(Torr)
Absolute humidity ƒa
2.35 3 4 6 8 10 20 30 40 50 60 80 100 130 150 200 300 400 500 597
SAE0901E
(g/m3)
Absolute humidity χ
1.8 2 4 6 8 10 20 30 40 60 80 100 120 150 200 300 500 1000 2000 5000
(g/kg)
232 Sensor measuring principles | Gas sensors and concentration sensors
100 100
C temperature. The typical time constants
of these sensors are about 30 s.
10 10
R
Table 2 gives an overview of the numerous
1 1
measurement processes that have been
0.1 0.1
developed in the course of time for humid-
SAE0902E
In 1880 Pierre Curie and his brother Jacques The change in length Dx when a voltage U is
discovered a phenomenon that is still very lit- applied results from the following:
tle known today, but is present in the everyday U / d = Dx (Example of quartz: deformation of
lives of millions of people: the piezoelectric approximately 10–9 cm at U = 10 V)
effect. For example, it keeps the hands of a
quartz clock operating in time. The piezoelectric effect is not only used in
quartz clocks and piezo-inline injectors, it has
Certain crystals (e.g. quartz and turmaline) are many other industrial applications, either as a
piezoelectric: Electric charges are induced on direct or inverse effect:
the crystal surface by exerting a compression Piezoelectric sensors are used for knock
or elongation force along certain crystal axes. control in gasoline engines. For example, they
This electrical polarization arises by shifting detect high-frequency engine vibrations which
positive and negative ions in the crystal rela- is a feature of combustion knock. Conversion
tive to each other by exerting force (see Fig., of mechanical vibration to an electric voltage
Item b). The shifted centers of charge gravity is also used in the crystal audio pickup of a
within the crystal balance each other out auto- record player or crystal microphones. In the
matically, but an electric field forms between piezoelectric igniter (e.g. in a cigarette lighter),
the end faces of the crystal. Compressing mechanical pressure produces the voltage
and elongating the crystal create inverse field needed to generate a spark.
directions. On the other hand, if an alternating volt-
On the other hand, if an electrical voltage age is applied to a piezoelectrical crystal, it
is applied to the end faces of the crystal, the vibrates mechanically at the same frequency
effect reverses (inverse piezoelectric effect): as the alternating voltage. Oscillating crystals
The positive ions in the electric field migrate of this type are used as stabilizers in electrical
toward the negative electrode, and negative oscillating circuits or as piezoelectric acoustic
Principle of the
ions toward the positive electrode. The crystal sources to generate ultrasound, for instance.
piezoelectric effect
then contracts or expands depending on the When used in clocks, the oscillating quartz (illustrated on the
direction of the electric field strength (see is excited by an alternating voltage whose example of a unit cell)
Fig., Item c). frequency is the same as the quartz’s natural
frequency. This is how an extremely time-con- a Quartz crystal SiO2
The following applies to piezoelectric field stant resonant frequency is generated. In a
b Piezoelectric effect:
strength Ep: calibrated quartz, it deviates by only approx.
When the crystal
Ep = d Dx/x 1/1,000 second per year.
is compressed,
Dx/x: relative compression or elongation
negative O2– ions
d: piezoelectric coefficient, numeric values shift upward,
109 V/cm to 1011 V/cm positive Si4+ ions
shift downward:
electric charges
a b c +
Si4+ are induced at the
+ crystal surface.
O2¯ ¯ ¯ + ¯ ¯ +
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ c Inverse piezoelectric
effect:
+ + + + When an electrical
+ +
SAN0170Y
+ + ¯ + + voltage is applied,
¯
O2– ions shift
¯
upward, Si4+ ions
¯
shift downward: the
crystal contracts.
234 Sensor measuring principles | Temperature sensors
dependent
struction of the voltage-divider circuit. measuring
Notwithstanding this fact, in the case of resistor
resistance characteristics which display a UA(T) Output voltage
236 Sensor measuring principles | Temperature sensors
slightly progressive curve it does have a oxidized mixed crystals. These are sin-
linearization influence (an effect which is tered in bead form or disc form (Fig. 3) and
usually very welcome). Very often, in this have a polycrystalline structure. Because
connection, the auxiliary resistor is so di- of their very steep temperature curve, they
mensioned that it equals the measuring re- are also known as NTC resistors or therm-
sistor at a given reference temperature T0 istors. To a good approximation, and by
(e.g. 20 °C): applying the exponential law, their charac-
teristic curve can be defined as follows:
RV ≈ R (T0) (4)
a
a 1 RS RNi
Fig. 2
a Resistance sensor
b Characteristic R(T) t b
curves
1 Auxiliary contacts T
2 Bridge
RNi Nickel-film resistor 2 RP c
Rtot(T) Total resistance b 10 5
RP Increase
referred to Ω
temperature T
RP Adjustable
10 4
Resistance R T
parallel resistor
Curve-slope
RS Adjustable
calibration
series resistor
Total resistance Rtot
10 3
RS Increase
Fig. 3
a Pearl form 10 2
Curve-position
UAE0821E
UAE0822E
b Disk form
c Characteristic
calibration
-50 0 50 100 150
curve with limits
Temperature T Temperature T
of variation
Sensor measuring principles | Temperature sensors 237
It reduces considerably along with increas- Even though the b coefficient is generally
ing temperature, and the resistance value very small for metals, it cannot be ignored
itself frequently varies by 4 to 5 powers of completely. This is why the measurement
ten, e.g. typically from a few 100 kΩ to a sensitivity of such sensors is usually char-
few 10 Ω. This pronounced temperature- acterized by means of a mean TC, the
dependence means that applications are “TC 100”. The TC 100 corresponds to the
restricted to a “window” of about 200 K. mean curve gradient between 0 °C and
This though can be selected in the range 100 °C (Table 2 and Figure 4).
from –40 to approximately 850 °C. Tighter
tolerances of up to ± 0.5 K at a given refer-
R(100 °C) – R(0 °C)
ence point are complied with by using a se- Where TC 100 = –––––––––––––––––––––––––– (8)
R(0 °C) · 100K
lection process, or possibly even by grind-
ing in oil, a method which of course has an
affect upon costs. The aging stability of
these sensors has been vastly improved
compared to earlier versions which means
that it is quite possible for the very close 2 Temperature coefficient TC 100
where ∆T = T – T0 and
UAE0823E
T0 = 20 °C (reference temperature),
a linear temperature coefficient (TC),
b square temperature coefficient.
238 Sensor measuring principles | Temperature sensors
kΩ
2.0
3
Temperature tolerance ΔT
1.6
Resistance R
1 1.2
Fig. 6
0
a Design 0.8
b Characteristic -1
curve 0.4
1 Contacts -2
2 Passivation 0
-3
(Nitride, oxide) -100 0 100 200 C
3 Si substrate -200 0 200 400 C Measurement temperature TM
4 Counter- Measurement temperature TM
UAE0824E
UAE0825E
electrode without
connection
R(T) Temperature-
dependent resistor
Sensor measuring principles | Temperature sensors 239
Uth
T2 > T1
Fig. 8
1 1 Heat source
2 Metallic conductor
A 2
+ High,
3 – low thermal velocity
of the electrons
1 2
NAE0827Y
T2 High temperature
1
T1 Low temperature
Uth Thermoelectric
voltage
2 Glass
Manganite +0.60
3 Si crystal
Iron +1.88
Silicon +44.80 Table 3
240 Sensor measuring principles | Temperature sensors
these are also subject to the same temper- of the thermoelement configuration are at
ature difference, so that unfortunately the same (reference) temperature, other-
only the difference between the metallic wise the temperature difference at the free
conductor and the connecting cables is ends will also be included in the measure-
measured. Thermoelectric voltages are ment. Thermocouples, therefore, always
always listed based on Platinum as the measure only the temperature difference
reference material (Table 3). to a given reference point. If the measur-
In order that the generated voltages are ing point’s absolute temperature is to be
as high as possible, a number of material measured, other devices (such as resistive
pairs have established themselves (Fig. 9, sensors) must be used to also measure the
e.g. iron/constantan etc.). It is important temperature at the reference point.
Fig. 9
that the “limbs” of such a thermocouple The characteristic curve of the thermo-
1 Copper/Constantan
are joined at the end to which the heat is electric voltage against temperature is usu-
2 Iron/Constantan
3 Nickel-chromium/ applied in such a manner that the joint is ally not as linear as that given in equation
Nickel electrically conductive (by means of twist- (9). The sensor signals are usually small, and
4 Platinum rhodium/ ing, welding, soldering, etc., Fig. 10). ICs are used for their amplification and for
Platinum their linearization. In order to increase the
Thermocouples themselves are usually measurement voltage, it is common practice
short, and the extensions up to the point to connect a number of identical thermocou-
Fig. 10
A/B Material pair
where the signal is captured can be made ples in series. These have their “hot” junc-
(thermocouple with compensating cables which use the tions at the temperature to be measured,
legs) same material pair as in the thermocouple and their “cold” junctions at the reference
1 Measuring point itself. It is important that both free ends temperature (Fig. 11, thermopile).
(electrically
conductive 9 Common thermocouples (characteristic curves) 11 Thermocouples connected in series
junction)
2 Connection head mV
Thermoelectric voltage Uth
3 Compensating
cable 40 a TM
4 Reference point 1 2 3
30 2
5 Connection cable
(Cu)
20
TM Measurement
temperature 4
10 3
TR Reference
temperature 0
NAE0828E
TR
Uth Thermoelectric 0 400 800 1,200 C
voltage Measurement temperature TM
Fig. 11 b
10 Thermocouple measuring set-up
a Principle of the
thermopile
b Example of A 3 TR
application
1 Sensitive surface TM
2 “Hot” junctions at
the measurement 1 Uth
temperature TM 1 2 3 4
(TM ) (TR )
NAE0829E
3 “Cold” junctions
NAE0830Y
at the reference
B 2 3 4 5
temperature TR
4 Thermopile
Sensor measuring principles | Temperature sensors 241
Although thermocouples are robust (for sensor, and may necessitate additional cal-
instance, high-level EMC due to low inter- ibration elements in order for a precise
nal resistance), they are not particularly measurement to be made. Above all, it is
accurate as a measuring device. Their the temperature-dependent saturation
deviation can easily be in the 5° to 15 °C current Isat which is responsible for the
range, and they are not outstanding re- negative temperature coefficient (NTC).
garding their resistance to aging, which This current increases dramatically with
means that individual calibration does rising temperature. Here, the silicon’s in-
not result in a permanent improvement trinsic conductivity limits this sensor’s ap-
of their accuracy. plication to temperature ranges <150 °C.
Of course, thermocouples can be manu- Sometimes, emitter-coupled transistor
factured using both thin-film and thick- pairs are used in a similar manner for tem-
film techniques. Metallic films stacked one perature measurement. With this form of
on top of the other provide for excellent temperature measurement, the ratios of
thermal contact, and extremely small ther- the collector currents to each other repre-
mocouples can be produced by applying sent a very good reproducible measure for
microsystem technology. Thermocouples the temperature. Usually, an integrated
are particularly suitable for use in thermo- supplementary circuit is used for the
piles comprised for instance from 50 to “on-chip” conversion to an analog output
100 individual thermocouples. They are voltage.
used in non-contacting radiation ther-
mometers (pyrometers). Zener diodes operated in the reverse di-
rection can also be used as highly practical
Semiconductor depletion layers temperature sensors. Their voltage changes
Presuming a constant current, the forward are highly dependent upon the Zener volt-
voltage of semiconductor depletion layers age. Here, the option exists of various lev-
(Fig. 12) such as those in diodes and in the els of voltage reduction at Zener voltages
basis-emitter path of a transistor, demon- <4.7 V, and voltage increases at Zener volt-
strate very good linearity as a function of ages >4.7 V.
temperature: Such sensors are often used for temper-
ature compensation on the chip itself.
k · T · ln (––––
UF(T) = ––––––– IF + 1) (10)
q Isat
Where:
Isat = Isat (T) and IF = constant, 12 Semiconductor depletion layers
current
age decreases by almost exactly 2 mV/°C, E UF Forward voltage
the absolute voltage at each depletion UBE Voltage between
layer differs considerably from sensor to base and emitter
242 Sensor measuring principles | Temperature sensors
Measuring principles for non-contacting ture of the body being measured. A given
temperature measurement temperature difference at the object often
The radiation emitted by a body is used for corresponds to only 1/1,000th of this dif-
the non-contact measurement (pyrometry) ference at the measuring point. Neverthe-
of its temperature. This radiation is for the less, the object’s temperature can be deter-
most part in the infrared (IR) range (wave- mined with an accuracy of 0.5 °C.
length: 5 to 20 µm). Strictly speaking, the
product of the radiated power and the Bolometer
emission coefficient of the body is mea- The Bolometer is a highly sensitive resis-
sured. The latter is a function of the mate- tance temperature sensor for measuring
rial, but for materials which are technically minute temperature increases (Fig. 13).
of interest (including glass) it is usually A further sensor is needed for measuring
around 1, although for reflective and IR- the temperature of the sensor housing. If
permeable materials (e.g. air, silicon) it is this device is to operate efficiently across
far less than 1. a wide temperature range, it is necessary
The measuring point is reproduced on a though for both these sensors to feature
radiation-sensitive element, which heats an extremely high degree of synchronism.
up slightly with respect to its environment The Bolometer housing is therefore usu-
(typically 0.01 to 0.001 °C). The element’s ally thermostatically controlled (and well-
temperature is a measure for the tempera- insulated to the housing) so that the pri-
Fig. 13 mary detecting element (sensor) always
1 Lens housing with 13 Prototype of a bolometric sensor array for operates at the same temperature.
automotive applications
lens
2 Connections Thermopile sensor
3 Infrared detector
When a very extensive temperature range
housing
is concerned, it is more practical for the
4 Infrared window
5 Detector temperature difference generated by the
radiation from the object to be measured
4 5
using thermocouples. In order to increase
Fig. 14 the measuring effect, a number of thermo-
a Principle of the
couples are connected in series (thermo-
measuring cell 3
2 pile). Such a thermopile sensor (Fig. 14) is
UAE0832Y
1 Silicon chip
2 Thermocouples
inexpensive to manufacture micromechan-
1 ically. All its “hot” junctions are located on
connected in series
(e.g. Al/poly-Si) a thermally well insulated thin diaphragm,
3 SiN diaphragm
4 Thermopile 14 Pyrometric sensor produced using micromechanical techniques, with thermopile pick-off.
terminals
5 Absorber layer
a 2 5 b 5 6 7 8
b Sensor type
1 Thermocouple
2 “Cold” junction 1
3 Diaphragm 2
4 Absorber
5 Heat radiation
6 Electrical
connection
UAE0833Y
7 Si3N4 layer
8 SiO2 layer 3 4 1 3 4 9
9 Heat sink
Sensor measuring principles | Temperature sensors 243
and all its “cold” junctions are in contact sive curved mirror is usually ruled out due
with the thicker chip rim (heat sink). Typi- to it needing too much room. Glass lenses
cally, the sensor’s response time is approx. are impermeable for IR light, and plastic
20 ms. Using such a so-called “single-pixel lenses can only be used for operating tem-
sensor”, it is an easy matter to determine peratures of up to approx. 85 °C max. On
the windshield’s surface temperature so the other hand, Si lenses are highly suit-
that measures can be taken to prevent able for thermal radiation and up to diam-
misting should the temperature fall below eters of approx. 4 mm micromechanical
the dew point. techniques can be used to inexpensively
manufacture them in the form of a Fresnel
Single-point sensors, imaging sensors or refraction lens. Fitted in the cover of
If a number of pixels are combined on a a TO5 housing, these then also serve to
single chip (e.g. 4 x 4) to form an array, protect the sensor against direct damage
this provides the basis for a rough form (Fig. 15). Even though filling the housing
of image analysis (Fig. 16). However, there with an inert gas improves the crosstalk
should not be too much insensitive surface between the individual pixels, it also nega-
area between the pixels and the pixels tively affects their response time.
themselves must be thermally well insu-
lated against each other. As all the pixels
can optionally respond electrically, the 16 Micromechanical thermopile array
b Simple IR camera
1 Electronics
2 Lens system
3 Camera’s field
UAE0834Y
of view
3 4 5 4 Si IR lens
5 Sensor array
244 Sensor measuring principles | Imaging sensors (video)
3 Storage electrode F1
4 Shift gate
5 Transfer electrode t1 t2 t3
6 Optical masking
Sensor measuring principles | Imaging sensors (video) 245
While CCD sensors can only be used in 3 CMOS imaging sensors with random pixel access
motor vehicles to a very limited degree
because of their limited brightness/dark-
ness dynamics (50 dB), their read time and
15 bit address bus
their temperature range (< 50 °C), newer,
smart, imaging sensors based on CMOS
technology appear to be fully suitable for Gap Gap
use in the motor vehicle. The logarithmic decoder decoder
1 of 128 1 of 128
brightness/signal curve possible here,
Analog-multi-
Analog multi-
Line decoder
Line decoder
Sensor Sensor
1 of 128
1 of 128
element
dynamic response of 120 dB. This makes field 1 field 0
aperture control, for instance, unneces-
128 x 128 pixels
sary and supplies a constant contrast reso-
lution across the entire brightness range.
These sensors permit a digitally controlled,
random access to the individual pixels in
Video switch
a matrix sensor (Fig. 3) with simultaneous
higher sensitivity (higher read rate).
The first steps in preprocessing the Buffer Buffer Buffer Buffer
signals on the imaging-sensor chip have
already been implemented (intelligent Fig. 3
imaging sensor). A resolution of – + – + – + Pixel processors at
1,280 × 1,024 pixels with typical indi- AOUT_1 AOUT_c AOUT_0 each pixel in the active
vidual dimensions of 6 µm × 6 µm is pixel matrix ensure
3 differential analog outputs
logarithmic signal
already possible in sensors currently
compression.
on the market. Iphoto X Y
Reading is random
SAE1080E
2
A1
1
A2
3
Fig. 2
1 Column clock pulse
A1/A2
2 Photosensors
3 CCD array
UAE0717-3Y
Sensor types
6 Air gap
7 Pulse wheel with
N
reference mark 4
UMZ0138-5Y
5 3
6
2
UAE0727-1E
Fig. 2 7
1 Tooth
2 Tooth space Time
3 Reference mark
a 1 S
N a 1 2 3 1 Magnet
2 3 2 Hall sensor 1
3 Hall sensor 2
4 4 Pulse wheel
b 5 6 b
Fig. 4
7 a Configuration at
various times
b Signal from
c AMR sensor
c Output signal
UAE0994-1E
c 1 Pulse wheel
Time 2 Sensor element
3 Magnet
248 Sensor types | Hall phase sensors
tooth/segment (Z)
Z
and space (L) Low ics integrated in the sensor’s Hall IC condi-
a Air gap tion the signal and output it in the form of a
Angle of rotation ϕ
w Angle of rotation square-wave signal (Fig. 1b).
c Slant read
using a suitable oil-resistant package.
1 Direction of
detection
250 Sensor types | Speed sensors for transmission control
SAE0907-1Y
2 Requirements complexity
Vibration immunity
Direction of rotation detection
ASIC complexity
Sensor types | Speed sensors for transmission control 251
low level and 14 mA for the high level) is Some transmission controls include func-
obtained, the modulation frequency of tions that require detection of a standstill.
which corresponds to the frequency of For this application, the sensor must have
tooth change on the trigger wheel and as great an immunity as possible against
thus represents the speed of rotation. vibration-induced variations in the air gap
The sensor signal is evaluated in the elec- and the torsional vibration of the trigger
tronic control unit by means of a measur- wheel. This property of the sensor, known
ing shunt RM, which converts the sensor as immunity against vibration, can only
current IS into the signal voltage URM. be implemented to a very limited degree
On principle, it does not matter for in differential Hall sensors with only two
the operation of a differential Hall ASICs Hall plates, by the use of adaptive trigger
whether the sensor is operated with a thresholds, for example. Two phase-
steel trigger wheel or on a multipole shifted differential signals become avail-
wheel (Figs. 4a and 4b). able with the use of a third Hall plate.
This makes both the detection of the di-
rection of rotation (Figs. 4c to f) and addi-
tional function algorithms for increasing
4 Transmission speed sensor operating principle immunity against vibration possible.
a Rotation
The typical values for “value” and “high Fig. 4
feature” sensors differ in the air gap range a Configuration with
1 achievable (distance between the sensitive trigger wheel
L C R area on the sensor and the trigger wheel), b Configuration with
2
the signal frequency range and the addi- multipole wheel
3 c Sensor signal
tional functionalities implemented (Table 1).
(difference signal
b Rotation between Hall plates
The complexity of transmission type, R and C)
4
N S N
mounting space restrictions including d Sensor signal
all the derived marginal design conditions (difference signal
L C R
2 and the functional requirements leads to between Hall plates
R (C optional
for direction of
5 1 Typical characteristics rotation detection)
e
Type Value High feature 3 Permanent magnet
(back-bias)
Maximum air gap
Output
signal
4 Multipole wheel
at trigger wheel 2.5 mm 3.5 mm
5 Phase shift
at pole wheel 5 mm 7 mm
dependent on
f Signal frequency 0 to 8 kHz 0 to 12 kHz
the direction of
Direction of rotation No Yes
SAE1083E
rotation
detection
Output
signal
pole pin
(lozenge-shaped
pole pin)
Sensor types | Wheel-speed sensors 253
1 2 3 4
Fig. 2
1 Permanent magnet
SAE0975Y
2 Solenoid coil
3 Pole pin
5
4 Steel pulse wheel
5 Magnetic field lines
Umax Umin
a
t
Fig. 3
b a Passive wheel-
speed sensor with
t pulse wheel
Voltage
b Sensor signal
c at constant
wheel speed
SAE0976E
SAE0977Y
c Sensor signal
Time t at increasing
wheel speed
254 Sensor types | Wheel-speed sensors
2 1 b
IMR
I
Fig. 6 1
1 Sensor element
2 Multipole ring
SAE0979Y
SAE0980Y
with alternating
4
north and south
magnetization
Sensor types | Wheel-speed sensors 255
This type of data transmission using digital Compact dimensions combine with low
signals is less sensitive to interference weight to make the active wheel-speed
than the signals from passive inductive- sensor suitable for installation on and even
type sensors. The sensor is connected to within the vehicle’s wheel-bearing assem-
the control unit by a two-conductor wire. blies (Fig. 10). Various standard sensor
head shapes are suitable for this.
Left
= (Left + Right)/2 - Center
by the “hill hold control” function.
The information is also used for self-
diagnosis.
• Signal quality of the sensor:
9 Signal conversion in Hall IC Information about the signal quality of
the sensor can be relayed in the signal.
a b If a fault occurs the driver can be ad- Fig. 9
vised that service is required. a Raw signal
Os1 b Output signal
Voltage
Us1
OS1 Upper switching
Time t Time t
SAE0982E
threshold
11 Coded information transfer with
pulse-width-modulated signals US1 Lower switching
threshold
a 90μs
c 1440μs Fig. 11
a Speed signal when
reversing
0,74 s b Speed signal when
driving forwards
c Signal when vehicle
d 45μs
is stationary
SAE0983Y
SAE0984Y
d Signal quality
of sensor, self-
diagnosis
256 Sensor types | Micromechanical yaw-rate sensors
2 Part of the
oscillating element 2 lating elements, there is a miniature, sur-
3 Coriolis face-type micromechanical capacitive ac-
acceleration sensor celeration sensor. When the sensor chip
1 Frequency-determin- V
ing coupling spring
2 Permanent magnet
3 Direction of
oscillation
4 Oscillating element
3y
5 Coriolis acceleration
sensor
2 N
6 Direction
of Coriolis
S
acceleration
1
7 Retaining/guide B
spring
UAE0706-2Y
V Yaw rate
v Oscillation velocity
B Permanent-magnet
7 6 5 4 0 2 mm
field
Sensor types | Micromechanical yaw-rate sensors 257
rotates about its vertical axis at yaw rate V, below 40 dB). Here, the drive and mea-
these register the Coriolis acceleration in surement systems are rigorously decou-
the wafer plane vertical to the direction of pled from each other.
oscillation (Figs. 1 and 2). These accelera-
tions are proportional to the product of MM2 micromechanical yaw-rate sensor
yaw rate and the oscillation velocity which If the silicon yaw-rate sensor is manufac-
is maintained electronically at a constant tured completely in surface micromechan-
value. ics (SMM) and, at the same time, the mag-
To drive the sensor, all that is required is netic drive and control system is replaced
a simple, current-carrying conductor track by an electrostatic system, the decoupling
on each oscillating element. In the perma- of drive and measuring system does not
nent-magnet field B vertical to the chip need to be so thorough. Comb-like struc-
surface, this oscillating element is sub- tures (Figs. 3 and 4) electrostatically force
jected to an electrodynamic (Lorentz) a centrally mounted rotary oscillator to os-
force. Using a further, simple printed cillate. The amplitude of these oscillations
conductor (which saves on chip surface), is held constant by means of a similar ca-
the same magnetic field is used to directly pacitive pick-off. Coriolis forces result at
measure the oscillation velocity by induc-
tive means. The different physical con- 3 MM2 yaw-rate sensor: structure
CDrv1
CDrv2 1
CDrv Det1
CDrv Det2
0,5 mm
Fig. 4
y
1 Comb-like structure
2 2 Rotary oscillator
CDet1 CDet2 3 Measuring axis
CDrv Drive electrodes
V -FC +FC CDet Capacitive pick-off
3
UKI0044-3Y
FC Coriolis force
v Oscillation velocity
V = DCDet, measured
yaw rate
258 Sensor types | Micromechanical yaw-rate sensors
the same time in an out-of-plane tilting navigation (Travel Pilot), adaptive cruise
movement, the amplitude of which is pro- control (ACC), roll over mitigation (ROM),
portional to the yaw rate V, and which is electronic active steering (EAS), active
detected capacitively by the electrodes un- suspension control (ASC), Steer-by-Wire.
derneath the oscillator. To avoid excessive DRS MM3.7k is the base variant of the
damping of this movement, the sensor MM3 generation for ESP applications.
must be operated in a vacuum. Although It comprises a yaw-rate sensor and an
the chip’s small size and the somewhat integrated lateral acceleration module.
simpler production process result in con-
siderable cost reductions, this miniaturiza- Operating principle
tion is at the expense of reductions in the The new micromechanical measuring ele-
measuring effect, which in any case is ment for measuring yaw rate belongs to
not very pronounced, and therefore of the familiar group of vibrating gyroscopes
the achievable precision. It also places operating according to the Coriolis prin-
more severe demands on the electronics. ciple (CVG = Coriolis Vibrating Gyros).
The system’s high flexural stability, and It consists of an inverse tuning fork with
mounting in the axis of gravity, serve to two linear vibration modes perpendicular
mechanically suppress the effects of un- to one another, the drive circuit and the
wanted external acceleration from the evaluator circuit. Drive and evaluation
side. take place electrostatically in a comb-like
structure. The Coriolis acceleration is
DRS MM3x sensor cluster measured electrostatically using elec-
A new generation of micromechanical ele- trodes that extend into each other. The
ments are used in the DRS MM3x sensor measuring element consists of two masses
cluster. These can measure and digitally connected by a coupling spring. The reso-
process angular velocities and accelera- nant frequency the same for the two vibra-
tions. They create a modular concept for tion modes. It is typically around 15 kHz
hardware and software based on circuit and is thus outside the usual interference
board technology with many new safety spectrum in the vehicle and is hence resis-
features which lead to a versatile and tant to interfering vibration. The evalua-
reliable solution for many applications tion circuit (ASIC) and the micromechani-
in the vehicle. cal measuring element are contained in a
prefabricated housing with 20 terminals
Application (Premold 20).
The ESP system, the connection to further
chassis comfort systems and the develop- The acceleration module is comparable
ment of advanced driving stability systems in form with the yaw-rate sensor module
called for inertia signals with high require- and consists of a micromechanical mea-
ments, in particular in respect of signal suring element, an electronic evaluating
quality and robustness, additional measur- circuit and a housing with 12 terminals
ing axes and high reliability. This is why (Premold12). The spring-mass structure is
Bosch has developed a third generation, deflected in its sensitive axis by external
the versatile yet inexpensive DRS MM3.x accelerations and is evaluated by means
sensor cluster, to meet the requirements of a differential capacitor in a comb-like
of functions such as hill hold control form.
(HHC), automated parking brake (APB),
Sensor types | Piezoelectric “tuning-fork” yaw-rate sensor 259
UA Output voltage
(proportional to
the yaw rate)
V Yaw rate
260 Sensor types | Micromechanical pressure sensors
6 Cap
7 Supply for Operating principle
measured The diaphragm of the sensor cell is de- p
pressure p flected to varying degrees depending
Sensor types | Micromechanical pressure sensors 261
of the voltages across them. This leads to The signal-conditioning electronic cir-
a change in the measurement voltage UM. cuitry is integrated on the chip. Its func-
This as yet unamplified voltage is there- tion is to amplify the bridge voltage, com-
fore a measure of the pressure applied pensate for temperature influences, and
to the diaphragm. linearize the pressure curve. The output
The measurement voltage is higher voltage is in the range of 0 to 5 V and is
with a bridge circuit than would be the supplied via electrical connections to
case if an individual resistor were used. the engine control unit (Fig. 3, Item 5).
The Wheatstone bridge circuit thus per- The control unit uses this output voltage
mits a higher sensor sensitivity. to calculate the pressure.
Fig. 5
2 1 Protective gel
3 1 2 Gel frame
5
4 2 3 Glass base
6 4 Ceramic hybrid
6
3 5 Chamber with
7
7 reference vacuum
4 6 Measuring cell
(chip) with
UMK1645-1Y
UMK1644-1Y
evaluation
electronics
1 cm 7 Bonded connection
p Measured pressure
262 Sensor types | Micromechanical pressure sensors
glass base. The complete measuring element injection (pressure up to 200 bar)
is mounted on a ceramic hybrid (4), which • Rail-pressure sensor for common-rail
resistors
4 Pressure
connection p
5 Mounting thread
Sensor types | Temperature sensors 263
1 2 3 4 5 6 :
2ESISTANCE
Fig. 1
1 Electrical
connection
2 Housing
UMK0124-7Y
UMK1998E
3 Sealing ring
# 4 Thread
4EMPERATURE 5 Measuring shunt
1 cm 6 Coolant
264 Sensor types | Accelerator-pedal sensors
Accelerator-pedal sensors
In Motronic systems with electronic throt-
tle control (ETC), the accelerator-pedal 1 Characteristic curve of an accelerator-pedal sensor
Output voltage
the accelerator pedal in the accelerator- 1
pedal module. These ready-to-install units
make adjustments on the vehicle a thing of 2
Fig. 1
the past.
1 Potentiometer
UAE0724E
(reference
Potentiometric accelerator-pedal sensor 0.75
potentiometer)
2 Potentiometer The engine control unit receives the mea-
Pedal travel approx. 25 mm
(half voltage) sured value picked off at the potentiome-
ter wiper as a voltage. The control unit
uses a stored sensor curve to convert this 2 ARS1 Hall angular-position sensor
UAE0770-2Y
4 6
4 Air gap
5 Hall sensor
age of the first potentiometer at all operat-
6 Shaft (soft ing points. Thus, two independent signals
magnetic) are available for fault-detection purposes
(Fig. 1). Instead of the second potentiome-
ter, another version uses a low-idle switch, 3 Principle of ARS2 Hall angular-position sensor
outside the
in force in a mechanical kickdown cell. NS -30
3 -60
midpoint This is the most frequently used solution. 270° Angle of rotation ϕ
(linearization)
3 Magnet
Sensor types | Accelerator-pedal sensors 265
which does without soft magnetic conduc- 0° 180° 360° 540° 3 Conductive element
Angle of rotation 4 Hall elements
tive elements (Fig. 3). In this version, the b sin α (for recording
magnet moves around the Hall sensor in a 2 N S cos α x-components of B)
circular arc. Only a relatively small section 3 5 Hall elements
of the resulting sinusoidal characteristic Bx 4 5 4 (for recording
curve features good linearity. If the Hall y-components of B)
sensor is located slightly outside the cen- 5
Bx 4 Bx Homogenous
ter of the circular arc, the characteristic
4 magnetic field
curve increasingly deviates from the
(x-components)
UAE0997Y
data (cos and sin signals) using the arctan 9 Stop damper
10 11
function. The sensor is positioned between 10 Thrust member
two magnets to generate a homogenous 11 Floor cover
266 Sensor types | Steering-angle sensors
UFL0030-1Y
6 Gear wheel with ing wheel turns through ±720° (a total of
n > m teeth 4 complete turns), conventional angular-
7 Gear wheel with
position sensors can only measure maxi-
m + 1 teeth
mum 360°. This means that with the major-
ity of the sensors actually used for this
purpose it is necessary to continually reg- 2 LWS3 AMR steering-angle sensor (view)
croprocessor. Here, even the measuring These short connections enhance the
inaccuracy of the two AMR sensors can be sensor’s robustness against external
compensated for. In addition, a self-check interference.
can also be implemented so that a highly The two GMR elements measure the
plausible measured value can be sent to direction of the field lines of the two mag-
the control unit. nets. The steering angle is calculated from
Figure 1 shows the schematic represen- this in the microprocessor. The sensor
tation of the LWS3 steering-angle sensor. element and microprocessor communicate
The two gear wheels, with magnets inserted, via a digital interface (SPI interface).
can be seen. The sensors are located above The calculated steering angle value is
them together with the evaluation elec- placed on the CAN by the microprocessor.
tronics. Because of the greater sensitivity, by
comparison with the AMR effect, the LWS5
A different design is the LWS4 steering- can work with weaker magnets and greater
angle sensor which unambiguously mea- air gaps. This brings considerable cost
sures a steering angle of 180°. It is mounted benefits in materials and design. The 360°
on the shaft end of the steering axle (Fig. 3) angular measuring range of a single GMR
element (a 180° measuring range is typical
Steering-angle sensor with GMR element for AMR), allows the use of smaller gear
The LWS5 is the first steering-angle sensor wheels on the LWS5. It thus requires a sig-
based on the GMR effect (Giant Magneto nificantly smaller installation space than
Resistive). Its mechanical structure and the LWS3. In addition, it has a significant
operating principle have been taken from level of scaleability, reflected in the mea-
the LWS3. The LWS3 and LWS5 are me- suring range (±90° to ±780°) and in the de-
chanically and electrically compatible. gree of redundancy. This means that the
The GMR layers are processed on the sensor can meet the specific requirements
planarized surface of the evaluation circuit of the various vehicle manufacturers as
(vertical integration). The GMR resistor closely as possible.
bridge and the evaluation module are con-
nected by means of plated-through holes.
1 2 3 4
Fig. 3
1 Steering column
UFL0032-1Y
2 Steering gear
3 Steering-angle
sensor
4 Steering rack
268 Sensor types | Position sensors for transmission control
1 Oil-resistant
package
b 2 Coding on the magnetic carriage
2 Electrical
connection by
a Magnetic North Pole terminal plate
3 Magnetic South Pole 3 Printed-circuit
1 board potted Hall
elements
4 Carriage with
2
permanent magnet
4 bit code 5 Locating pin
4 b
Fig. 2
P R N D 4 3 2 a Magnetic encoding
b Position ranges
Switching and intermediate ranges
SAE1084E
UTS0363Y
Fig. 3
a Components
1
(without housing)
b Printed-circuit 2 Typical characteristics
board Position sensor Hall switch Eddy current
c Rotor
Measuring principle Hall effect Eddy current
b c (digital) (analog)
1 Selector lever shaft
2
2 Sensor PCB Sensitivity to exter- Yes No
3 Redundant nal magnetic fields
transmitter and Sensitivity to metal- No Yes
3
receiver coil lic surroundings
4 Redundant 5
Flexible position No Yes (software)
electronics
scaling
5 Rotor with
4 Operating voltage 4 to 12 V 4.5 to 5.5 V
return coil
SAE1085Y
range
Sensitivity to the High Low
Table 2 air gap
Sensor types | Axle sensors 271
2 3 Housing
4 Ring-magnet mount
1 2 3 4
5 Stator with Hall IC
6 Ring magnet
3
Fig. 2
N
1 Bodywork mounting
5 4
UAE0792Y
S
3 Pivot lever
5
4 Connecting rod
5 Vehicle axle
272 Sensor types | Hot-film air-mass meters
UMK1691-1E
measuring cell is dependent on the air mass –100 0 200 400 600 kg/h
Air-mass flow
flowing past. The temperature difference is Reverse Forward
(irrespective of the absolute temperature of flow flow
the air flow past) a measure of the air-flow
mass. It is also direction-dependent so that
the air-mass meter can record both the 3 Hot-film air-mass meter (measuring principle)
3 2
Figure 4
1 Diverting edge 1
2 Partial-flow 5
measuring passage
(first duct)
3 Sensor element
SMK2055Y
4 Air outlet
5 Second passage
6 Particulate and 6 4
water outlet
Sensor types | Piezoelectric knock sensors 275
Application
Regarding their principle of functioning, 1 2 3 4
knock sensors are basically vibration sen-
sors and are suitable for detecting struc-
ture-borne acoustic oscillations. These F
occur as “knock”, for instance, in gasoline
engines when uncontrolled combustion V
takes place. They are converted by the
Fig. 2
knock sensor into electrical signals (Fig. 1) 5 1 Piezoceramic
F
and transmitted to the Motronic control element
6
unit, which counteracts the engine knock 2 Seismic mass
by adjusting the ignition angle. with compressive
forces F
3 Housing
Design and operating principle
7 4 Bolt
UMK1634-1Y
Due to its inertia, a mass (Fig. 2, Item 2)
5 Contact washer
excited by a given oscillation or vibration 6 Electric connection
exerts a compressive force on a toroidal 7 Engine block
1 cm
piezoceramic element (1) at the same V Vibration
frequency as the excitation oscillation.
These forces effect a charge transfer Mounting
within the ceramic element. An electrical In four-cylinder engines, one knock sensor
voltage is generated between the top and is sufficient to record the knock signals for
bottom of the ceramic element which is all the cylinders. Engines with more cylin-
picked off via contact washers (5) and ders require two or more knock sensors.
processed in the Motronic control unit. The knock-sensor installation point on
the engine is selected so that knock can
be reliably detected from each cylinder.
The sensor is usually bolted to the side
1 Knock-sensor signals (oscilloscope display) of the engine block. It must be possible
for the generated signals (structure-borne-
noise vibrations) to be introduced without
Without resonance into the knock sensor from
knock
the measuring point on the engine block.
a A fixed bolted connection satisfying the
b following requirements is required for
this purpose:
c • The mounting bolts must be tightened to
a defined torque
With • The contact surface and the bore in the
knock
engine block must comply with prespec-
a ified quality requirements
• No washers of any type may be used
b
Fig. 1
a Cylinder-pressure
UMZ0121-1E
c characteristic curve
b Filtered pressure
signal
c Knock-sensor signal
276 Sensor types | SMM acceleration sensors
Fig. 1 1
1 First packaging 1
stage (module)
4
in SO16 housing
5 2
2 Evaluator chip
(ASIC)
3 SMM sensor
element
6 3
SAE1079Y
4 Populated PCB
5 Second packaging
stage (device)
6 Plug
Sensor types | SMM acceleration sensors 277
The acceleration applied to the spring- Up to three acceleration sensors (for ESP
mass system deflects it by an amount lin and HHC) and one or two yaw-rate sen-
early related to the acceleration applied- sors (for ESP) are incorporated in the ESP
over the spring return force. An electrical sensor cluster. This clustering of sensor
output signal that is linearly dependent on modules reduces the number of individual
the acceleration is obtained by evaluation components and signal lines by compari-
of this differential capacitor. son with separate sensor devices. It also
The acceleration signal obtained in means that fewer mountings and less in-
the first stage of the evaluation circuit is stallation space are needed in the vehicle.
further conditioned in the ASIC, i.e. it is
amplified, filtered and prepared for the
output interface.
Analog voltages, pulse-width-modulated
signals, SPI protocols or current loop in
terfaces are usual as the output interface. -
Tolerances arising from the manufacture
of the sensor element, the evaluation cir
cuit and package influences on sensitivity -
and zero point are eliminated by means of 3 Comb-like structure of the sensor measuring cell
with electrode
2 Spring
3 Fixed electrodes
4 Anchor areas
1 2 3 Fig. 2
1 Spring-mounted
seismic mass
with electrodes
2 Spring
3 Fixed electrodes
a with capacity C1
4 Printed Al
conductor track
5 Bond pad
6 Fixed electrodes
with capacity C2
UAE0801-2Y
7 Silicon oxide
C1 C2 CM
a Acceleration in the
sensing direction
4 5 6 7 C2 CM C1
CM Measuring capacity
278 Sensor types | Micromechanical bulk silicon acceleration sensors
1 2 3
a
Fig. 1
1 Upper Si plate 4
2 Center Si plate
5
(spring-held or
seismic mass)
3 Si-oxide
4 Bottom Si plate
UAE0646-2Y
5 Glass substrate
C1-M C2-M
a Acceleration in the C1 CM C2
sensing direction
CM Measuring capacity
Sensor types | Piezoelectric acceleration sensors 279
Application
Piezoelectric spring elements are used
as acceleration sensors in passenger-
restraint systems for triggering the seat-
belt pretensioners, the airbags, and the
rollover bar.
UAE0797-1Y
as electrodes from which the resultant
voltage is picked off. This structure is
packaged together with the electronics Fig. 2
1 Spring element
required in a hermetically sealed housing
(Fig. 2).
The electronic circuit consists of an im- can be measured (lower cutoff frequency
pedance converter and a tunable amplifier is typically 1 to 10 Hz).
with predefined filter characteristics. Piezo-spring elements do not require
The design means that no static signals any additional seismic mass. Their own
mass is adequate for an easily evaluated
signal.
1 Spring element in a piezoelectric acceleration
sensor
a 1
a =0
UA = 0
Fig. 1
a Not under
acceleration
b 1 a=0 b Under
UA > 0 acceleration a
1 Piezoceramic
UAE0293-2Y
bimorphous
spring element
UA Measurement
voltage
280 Sensor types | iBolt™ force sensor
iBolt™ force sensor nals and transmits the result of the classifi-
cation to the airbag control unit.
Applications
NHTSA FMVSS-208 (National Highway Design and operating principle
Traffic Safety Administration; Federal The iBolt™ sensor’s operating principle
Motor Vehicle Safety Standards and is based on the measurement of the deflec-
Regulations 208) came into force in the tion of a bending beam caused by the pas-
USA in 2004. These regulations were intro- senger’s weight. The amount of the deflec-
duced to prevent or reduce injuries to tion is detected by measurement of the
children traveling in the front passenger magnetic field strength in a special Hall
seat caused by the airbag triggering. Clas- sensor/magnet configuration (Fig. 2a).
sifying the front passenger by means of a The iBolt™ is designed such that it is the
weight measurement makes it possible to z component of the passenger’s weight that
switch the airbag off selectively if a small causes the deflection of the bending beam.
child is occupying the seat. The vehicle’s co-oordinates system here
The BOSCH iBolt™ (intelligent bolt) defines the x axis as the direction of travel,
sensor was developed to perform this the z and y axes being perpendicular and
weight classification reliably and robustly. horizontal to this. The configuration of the
This is done by fitting four iBolts™ in the magnet and the Hall IC in the sensor is se-
seat frame of the front-passenger seat lected such that the static magnetic field
(a sensor in each corner of the seat, Fig. 1). which penetrates the Hall IC results in an
A control unit also built into the seat analy- electrical signal linear to the deflection
ses the four analog, electrical weight sig- of the bending beam. The special design
of the iBolt™ sensor prevents a horizontal
deflection of the Hall IC in relation to the
1 Fitting four iBolts™ in the seat base frame of the magnet, to minimize the influence of trans-
front passenger’s seat
verse forces and moments. In addition,
the maximum stress in the bending beam
is limited by a mechanical overload
stop (Fig. 2b). This protects the iBolt™,
especially in the event of overloads in a
crash.
Calibration
The linear Hall sensor uses the spinning
current measuring principle which allows
calibration of the sensitivity, the offset and
UAE1077Y
passed from the bending beam into the generated by the seat occupant’s position,
lower seat structure. The bending beam which also depends on the position of the
was designed as a double bending beam seat back. For this reason, the measuring
as this has an S-shaped deformation line. range of the iBolt™ sensor has been de-
The two vertical connection points of the signed such that the forces can be detected
double bending beam remain vertical over in both the positive and negative z direc-
the entire deflection range. This guaran- tions. This permits an unambiguous deter-
tees a linear and parallel movement of the mination of the front passenger’s weight.
Hall IC in relation to the magnet, resulting Thanks to its symmetrical measuring
in a linear output signal (Fig. 3). range, the iBolt™ sensor detects compres-
sion and tensile forces with the same sen-
Symmetrical measuring range sitivity and the same tolerances. This means
Tests of the system in vehicle seats have that the same sensors can be used in both
shown that both positive and negative vertical mounting orientations for all four
forces can act on the sensors. This has a points of connection between the upper
number of causes: on the one hand, nega- and lower seat structures.
tive forces can act on an individual tension
as a result of initial tensions as a conse-
quence of tolerances in the assembly of
the seat and of its installation in the vehi-
cle. On the other hand, negative forces
arise on individual sensors as a function
of the distribution of forces on the sensors
a 1 FG < 850N 2 3
Fig. 2
a Ratios for weight
FG < 850 N (within
SN the measuring
range)
3 Typical output signal from the sensor
b Ratios for weight
FG > 850 N (outside
5.0 the measuring
V range)
FR 4 5 6 7
1 Oscillating crank
b FG > 850N 2 Air gap
Output voltage UA
3 Sleeve
Overload Overload 4 Seat rail
range range
2.5 5 Double bending
beam
SN 6 Magnet
7 Hall IC
UAE1076E
UAE1075Y
Fig. 3
0
–1,500 –1,000 –500 0 500 1,000 N Output signal as a
FR function of the force
Weight FG
applied
282 Sensor types | Torque sensor
4 4
sensor chip and 0
signal amplification 2 –4
UAE1063Y
5 Steering pinion/
0 –12
balancer shaft –8 –4 0 4 8
6 Magnetic multipole Angle of rotation
wheel
Sensor types | Rain/light sensor 283
4 4 Photodiode
3 5 Light sensor set
up for distance
6 LED
284 Sensor types | Two-step Lambda oxygen sensors
a Rich mixture
ary layers. This means that the oxygen 0
0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
(air deficiency) content in the exhaust gas can be used as
Excess-air factor
b Lean mixture a measure of the air-fuel ratio. The inte-
(excess air) grated heater ensures that the sensor
Sensor types | Two-step Lambda oxygen sensors 285
UMK1684Y
layer (porous)
ceramic multiple layer (spinel layer) to 7 Exhaust gas
protect it against contamination and 8 Outside air
US Sensor voltage
Fig. 2
1 Sensor housing
2 Ceramic support
1 2 3 tube
1 cm
3 Connecting cable
4 Protective tube
with slots
5 Active sensor
ceramic
6 Contact element
7 Protective sleeve
8 Heater element
UMK0143Y
9 Clamp-type
connections for the
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
heater element
10 Disk spring
286 Sensor types | Two-step Lambda oxygen sensors
erosive damage. The ceramic element is The sensor’s complete internal structure is
also protected against mechanical impact located and held in place by a protective
and thermal shocks by a metal tube. A metal sleeve (7) which at the same time
number of slots in the protective tube are acts as the support for the disk spring.
specially shaped so that on the one hand The protective sleeve also guards against
they are particularly effective against ex- contamination of the sensor’s interior.
tensive thermal and chemical stresses, The connecting cable is crimped to the
while on the other hand preventing a contact element which protrudes from the
sharp drop in sensor-ceramic temperature sensor, and is protected against moisture
when the exhaust gas is “cool”. and mechanical damage by a temperature-
The sensor’s “open” inner chamber is resistant cap.
connected to the surrounding air, which The tube-type (finger) Lambda oxygen
acts as a reference gas (Fig. 3). sensor is also equipped with an electrical
heater element. This ensures that the ce-
Sensor element with heater element and ramic-element temperature remains suffi-
electrical connection ciently high, even at low engine load and
A ceramic support tube (Fig. 2, Item 2) thus low exhaust-gas temperature.
and a disk spring (10) serve to locate, fix, This external heating is so quick that
and seal-off the active, finger-shaped sen- the sensor reaches operating temperature
sor ceramic in the sensor housing. A con- 20 to 30 s after the engine has started and
tact element (6) between the support tube therefore Lambda control can come into
and the active sensor ceramic element operation. Finally, sensor heating provides
provides the contact between the inner for an optimal ceramic-element operating
electrode and the connection cable. temperature above the operating limit of
The outer electrode is connected to the 350 °C and thus ensures low and stable
sensor housing by the metal sealing ring. exhaust-gas emissions.
Fig. 4
1 Porous protective
layer
2 Outer electrode
4 Planar Lambda oxygen sensor 5 LSF4 planar Lambda oxygen sensor
3 Sensor foil (functional layers) (schematic diagram)
4 Inner electrode
5 Reference-air-
channel foil
6 Insulation layer
1
7 Heater
8 Heater foil 2 2 3 1
9 Connection
contacts
3
4
UA
5
Fig. 5
1 Exhaust gas 6
2 Porous ceramic 7
protective layer
6
3 Measuring cell
with microporous 8
noble-metal layer 4 5
9
UMK1640Y
UMK1789Y
4 Reference-air
channel
5 Heater
UA Output voltage
Sensor types | Two-step Lambda oxygen sensors 287
LSF4 planar Lambda oxygen sensor It is integrated and insulated in the ce-
Regarding their function, planar Lambda ramic wafer and ensures that the sensor
oxygen sensors correspond to the heated heats up quickly even in the event of low
finger sensors with their voltage-jump power input.
curve at l = 1. On the planar sensor
though, the solid-state electrolyte is The reference-air channel inside the
comprised of a number of individual LSF4 Lambda oxygen sensor – operating
laminated foils stacked one on top of the as a reference-gas sensor (Figs. 5 and 6) –
other (Fig. 4). The sensor is protected has access to the ambient air. This enables
against thermal and mechanical influ- it to compare the residual oxygen content
ences by a double-walled protective tube. of the exhaust gas with the oxygen content
The planar ceramic element (measuring of the reference gas. In other words, with
cell and heater are integrated) is shaped the air inside the sensor. This means that
like a long stretched-out wafer with rect- the sensor voltage also features a charac-
angular cross-section. teristic jump in the case of the planar sen-
The surfaces of the measuring cell are sor, in the area of stoichiometric air-fuel
provided with a microporous noble-metal mixture (l = 1) (Fig. 1).
layer, which also has a porous ceramic
layer on the exhaust-gas side to protect
it against the erosive effects of the ex-
haust-residues. The heater is a wave-
shaped element containing noble metal.
Fig. 6
1 Planar measuring
cell
2 Double protective
1 cm
tube
3 Sealing ring
4 Seal packing
5 Sensor housing
6 Protective sleeve
7 Contact holder
8 Contact clip
9 PTFE grommet
UMK1607Y
8 Oxygen-pump 2 3 4
cell with pump
electrode
9 Porous protective US IP
+
layer –
10 Gas-access passage UP
11 Porous diffusion URef
1 11
barrier
10
IP Pump current
UP Pump voltage
UH Heating voltage UH
URef Reference
UMK1260-1Y
On the one side, the Nernst concentration cell trols the voltage (UP) across the pump cell
is connected to the atmosphere by a refer- in order that the composition of the gas in
ence-air channel (5), on the other it is con- the diffusion gap remains constant at l = 1.
nected to the exhaust gas in the diffusion gap. If the exhaust gas is lean, the pump cell
The sensor requires control-electronics pumps the oxygen to the outside (positive
circuitry to generate the sensor signal and pump current). On the other hand, if the
to regulate the sensor temperature. exhaust gas is rich, the oxygen (due to the
An integral heater (3) heats up the sensor decomposition of CO2 and H2O at the ex-
quickly so that it soon reaches its operating haust-gas electrode) is pumped from the
temperature of 650 to 900 °C needed for surrounding exhaust gas and into the diffu-
generating a usable signal. This function de- sion gap (negative pump current). At l = 1,
cisively reduces the effects that the exhaust- no oxygen needs to be transported, and the
gas temperature has on the sensor signal. pump current is zero. The pump current
is proportional to the exhaust-gas oxygen
Operating principle concentration and is this a nonlinear mea-
The exhaust gas enters the actual measur- sure for the excess-air factor l (Fig. 3).
ing chamber (diffusion gap) of the Nernst
concentration cell through the pump cell’s 3 Pump current IP of a wide-band Lambda oxygen
small gas-access passage. In order that the sensor as a function of the excess-air factor l
of the exhaust gas
excess-air factor l can be adjusted in the
diffusion gap, the Nernst concentration mA
Fig. 2
2 LSU4 planar wide-band Lambda oxygen sensor (view and section)
1 Measuring cell
(combination
of Nernst
concentration
cell and oxygen-
pump cell)
2 Double protective
tube
3 Sealing ring
1 cm
4 Seal packing
5 Sensor housing
6 Protective sleeve
7 Contact holder
8 Contact clip
9 PTFE grommet
UMK1607Y
Electric Actuators
Electrical voltage
Electric current
Electro-
magneto-
mechanical
Micro Micro Micro Bi- Memory Airbag
converter
UAE0308-1E
a b
F
Fig. 3
I a Electrodynamic
B
B principle:
N i d I
Force on moving
F d or charge
F = B · I · l · sin a
S
b Electromagnetic
UAE0309-1E
i principle:
Force between
pole faces
F = B2 · A/2 µ0
292 Electric Actuators | Electromechanical actuators
and permeability.
Design 2
Design selection is essentially determined
Fig. 5
by operating conditions (i.e. installation
UAE0311-1E
1 Solenoid plunger 3
2 Conical armature space, required force/travel characteristic
3 Cylindrical curve, and dynamic response). Travel s
armature
Electric Actuators | Electromechanical actuators 293
1
The torque motor (Fig. 7) is a bidirectional
2 electromagnetic rotary actuator featuring
a stable operating point and without coun-
3 terforces. The rotor is maintained in a sta-
ble position by the excitation field of the
permanent magnet in the stator. The mag-
UAE0312-1Y
Electrodynamic actuators
In a pot magnet (immersion-coil actuator,
3
Fig. 9) a cylindrical immersion coil (arma-
ture coil) is set in motion in a working air
1 gap. The adjustment range is limited by the
UAE0313-1Y
Application
3 2
Electromechanical actuators are direct-
action control elements, and without an
UAE0315-1Y
Fig. 9 intermediate ratio-conversion mechanism,
1 Immersion coil they convert the energy of the electrical
2 Permanent magnet control signal into a mechanical position-
3 Magnetic yoke ing factor/work. Typical applications in-
clude positioning of flaps, sleeves, and
valves. The described actuators are final- 10 Electrodynamic short-stroke linear motor
control elements without internal return
mechanisms, i.e. without a stable operat-
ing point. They are only capable of carry- 1 2 2 3
ing out positioning operations from a
stable initial position (operating point)
when a counterforce is applied (e.g.
return spring and electrical control).
A solenoid armature provides a stable
static operating point when its force/travel
curve is superimposed on the characteris-
tic response of a return spring. A variation
of the coil current in the solenoid shifts UAE0316-1Y
Figure 10
1 Coil the operating point. Simple positioning
2 Permanent magnet
is achieved by controlling the current.
3 Magnetic yoke
However, particular attention must be
paid here to the nonlinearity of the force-
11 Electrodynamic rotary actuator
current characteristic and the positioning
system’s sensitivity to interference factors
(e.g. mechanical friction, pneumatic, and
hydraulic forces). The temperature sensi-
a b
tivity of the coil resistance results in posi-
tioning errors, making corrective current 1
Fig. 11
a Single-winding control necessary. A high-precision posi- 3
rotary actuator tioning system with good dynamic response 5
b Dual-winding must incorporate a position sensor and a
rotary actuator controller. 4
1 Coil 1 2
UAE0317-1Y
2 Coil 2
3 Stator
4 Permanent magnet
5 Shaft
Electric Actuators | Fluid-mechanical actuators 295
2
With incompressible fluids:
3
Qheat = Q1 · (p1 – p2) Fig. 13
4 1, 2, 3 Characteristic
UAE0319-1E
Fload
a b
w pA QA
s
QA F QA pA
pA A
Fig. 14 M
a Linear actuator
F = pA · A p1 Q1 p2 Q2
s = QA / A
UAH0103-1Y
UAH0104-1E
b Rotary actuator
M = (pA · Vth)/2 p
w = (QA / Vth) · 2 p
Electric Actuators | Electrical machines 297
UAE1061Y
S Stator field generated
rent flow in the coils. The different rota-
by permanent magnet
tional speed vs. torque characteristics re-
or electromagnet
sult from the method selected for connect-
ing the excitation winding and armature.
17 Series-wound machine
load
• High starting torque
Rotational speed
Torque
UAE0277-1E
298 Electric Actuators | Electrical machines
n0 = 60 ⋅ f / p
a Stator winding,
star-connected design.
b Stator winding,
delta-connected
Electric Actuators | Electrical machines 299
2
Fig. 20
3 S
Slip-ring rotor with
excitation winding
G
N
1
Fig. 21
1 Electrical machine
with rotor-position
UAE0280-1Y
UAE0282-1Y
sensor
2 Control and power
electronics
3 Input
300 Electric Actuators | Electrical machines
The EC motor’s potential applications Machines which are intended only for
are a result of the advantages which this single-phase operation have only a single-
drive principle provides: commutator and phase main winding in the stator, as well
carbon brushes are replaced by electron- as auxiliary starting circuits. The stator
ics, dispensing with both brush noise and also contains an auxiliary winding con-
wear. EC motors are maintenance-free nected in parallel with the main winding
(long service life) and can be constructed for this purpose. The necessary phase dis-
to meet high degrees of protection. The placement of the auxiliary winding current
electronic control feature makes it easy can be achieved through increased wind-
for drive units with EC motors to incorpo- ing resistance (low breakaway torque) or
rate auxiliary functions such as infinitely by means of a capacitor connected in se-
variable speed governing, direction rever- ries with the auxiliary winding (somewhat
sal, soft starts, and antilock protection. greater breakaway torque).
The auxiliary winding is switched off
The main areas of automotive application after the motor starts. The direction of ro-
are in the HVAC (Heating/Ventilation/Air- tation of the motor is changed by reversing
Conditioning) sectors, and for pumps and the two auxiliary or main winding connec-
servo units. In the area of production ma- tions. A motor which has a capacitor in
chinery, EC motors are chiefly employed series with the auxiliary winding is called
as precision drive units for feed-control a capacitor motor. Capacitor motors with
in machine tools. Here the decisive advan- a starting and running capacitor also oper-
tages are freedom from maintenance, ate continuously with capacitor and auxil-
favorable dynamic properties and consis- iary winding. Optimum operation for a
tent torque output with minimal ripple. specific operating point can be achieved
by correct selection of capacitor. An addi-
Single-phase alternating-current tional capacitor is often used in order to
machines increase the starting torque; this capacitor
Universal motors is then disconnected after the motor starts.
The direct-current series-wound motor
can be operated on alternating current if
a laminated rather than a solid iron stator
is used. It is then called a universal motor.
When operated on alternating current,
a torque component at twice the frequency
of the current is superposed on the con-
stant torque component. 22 Two-value capacitor motor
Electrohydraulic Actuators
Electrohydraulic actuators form the interface The actuators are important switching and
between electrical signal processing (data control elements in an electrohydraulic trans-
processing) and the system process (mechan- mission-control system. They control the oil
ics). They convert the low-power command (fluid) flow and the pressure characteristics in
signals into an actuating force with the in- the hydraulic control plate. The following dif-
creased power required for the process. ferent actuator types are available:
1. On/off solenoid valves (on/off, o/o)
Application and Function 2. Pulse-width modulated
solenoid valves (PWM)
The transmission types most commonly in 3. Pressure regulators
use today (AT, CVT, AST) are equipped with (spool-type) (PR-S)
actuators to perform the most varied of 4. Pressure regulators
functions. Table 1 provides an overview of (flat-seat-type) (PR-F)
the most important applications and high-
lights the link between the transmission In most automatic transmissions, these
functions and the actuator types that can be actuators currently serve as pilot-control
used. elements, whose outlet pressure or volumetric
flow is boosted in the hydraulic control plate
before operating the clutches. In contrast, di-
rect-action control elements without this
1 Transmission functions and associated actuators boosting facility supply the clutches with suit-
Automatic transmission (AT) ably high pressure and volumetric flow.
Function Actuator type
Requirements
On/Off
PR-S
PWM
PR-F
PR-F
ON time, because, for example, they have to PWM switching valves are suitable because
maintain the pressure while the gear is held or of their pulse-width-modulated input signal
control a torque converter lockup clutch dur- (constant-frequency current, variable ratio of
ing driving. This creates a need to limit the ON to OFF time) for use as pressure actua-
power loss and to implement copper windings tors, whose outlet pressure is proportional or
of suitably generous dimensions. inversely proportional to the pulse duty fac-
Vehicle and transmission-specific function tor. The characteristic curve is referred to as
characteristics (switching performance, con- rising or falling.
trol response, technical characteristic data), Pressure-control valves finally are operated
electrical and hydraulic interfaces tailored to with a controlled input current and can
individual applications, and the drive towards likewise be designed with a rising or falling
miniaturization and reducing costs are fur- characteristic. These valves are activated
ther boundary conditions for developing ac- by analog means whereas PWM valves are
tuators for transmission-control applications. activated digitally.
Design and
Operating Concept
Automatic transmissions require switching
valves for the simple on/off switching opera-
tions and/or proportional valves for infinitely 1 Boundary conditions for actuator development
Input
(Current I)
Current I
n.c. Time t
Pressure p
Output
(Pressure p) n.o.
Pressure p
æ STS0285E
æ UTS0313Y
쐌 geometrically (installation area),
쐌 electrically (contacting), or
쐌 hydraulically (interface to control plate).
b
Fmag
Fig. 2 The function data must be constructively
a View as switching adapted to the requirements in the trans- 1
valve with ball seat mission, particularly with regard to
b Oil flow in valve 쐌 feed pressure and pclutch
1 Return to tank
쐌 dynamics (i.e., reaction speed and control pfeed
Fmag Magnetic force
Ffeed Feed-pressure
stability). Ffeed
æ UTS0287E
force
pfeed Feed pressure
pclutch Clutch pressure
On/off solenoid valves are mainly used in Figure 4 shows the characteristic of the 3/2
simple 3-speed or 4-speed transmissions switching valve with the pressure switching
without overlap control. However, they are cycles.
being used increasingly less in progressive or
complex transmission-control systems (possi- A switching valve of this type offers the
bly still for safety functions). A pressure regu- following features:
lator controls the gearshift. 쐌 low costs,
쐌 non-susceptible to dirt and contamination,
In the 3/2 switching valve (n.o.) depicted in 쐌 low leakage, and
Figure 3, the feed pressure pfeed generated by 쐌 simple actuation electronics.
the transmission pump is applied before the
flange (P) and seals the ball seat. This feature Areas of application for On/off switching
is referred to as self-sealing. Since no pressure valves are:
is applied at zero current in the working-
pressure channel (A), the valve is closed at 쐌 Gear change
zero current. with multiple use of the same main
In this state, the working pressure, which in pressure regulator.
the end supplies the consumer (e.g. a clutch),
is directly connected to the return line to the 쐌 Safety functions
tank (oil pan) so that a pressure that is ap- e.g. hydraulic disabling of the reverse gear
plied there can reduce or an oil volume con- during forward travel.
tained therein can drain.
When current is applied to the switching- 쐌 Torque converter lockup clutch
valve winding, the magnetic force generated Cutting in and out (often controlled with a
reduces the working air gap, and the arma- PWM valve or pressure regulator for econ-
ture moves with its permanently connected omy or convenience reasons).
push rod towards the ball and opens it. Oil
flows to the consumer (from P to A) and 쐌 Changeover of register pump
builds up the pump pressure there. The Selected for two different flow-rate ranges
return line to the tank is closed off at the via o/o (mainly for CVT transmissions).
same time.
Fig. 3
3 3/2 switching valve (sectional view) 4 3/2 switching valve A Working-pressure
(characteristic with switching cycles)
channel
kPa P Feed
T Return to tank
T 600 pfeed Feed pressure
A
500 Characteristic data
Pressure p
P (typical example):
pfeed 400
Feed 400...600 kPa
pressure
300
Flow rate > 2.5 l · rpm
Operating 9...16 V
200
voltage
100 Resist- 12.5 ⏐
æ UTS0289E
æ UTS0290E
ance
0 Number 2 · 106
0 10 20 30 40 ms of switching
Time t
cycles
306 Electrohydraulic Actuators Actuator Types
pfeed
Ffeed Feed-pressure Ffeed
force
pfeed Feed pressure
pclutch Clutch pressure
pwork
2
æ UTS0292E
æ STS0293E
Fig. 6
1 Feed from pump
2 Return to tank
pwork Working pressure
Electrohydraulic Actuators Actuator Types 307
In all, PWM valves exhibit the following The ends of the characteristic demonstrate
features: slight discontinuity. This is caused by the
쐌 low costs, transition from the switching to the holding
쐌 non-susceptible to dirt and contamination, operating state (when closed or open). This
쐌 free from hysteresis, inaccuracy is tolerable in these closely limited
쐌 low leakage, and areas.
쐌 simple actuation electronics.
3/2 PWM Valve with High Flow Rate
However, drawbacks are The PWM valve with high flow rate has
쐌 pressure pulsation and essentially the same design as the standard
쐌 dependence of the characteristic on the PWM valve described above, but provides
feed pressure. larger opening cross-sections with a greater di-
ameter and a longer opening stroke of the
Areas of application for the PWM valves with closing element (comparison in Table 1). This
rising characteristic or high flow rate de- design calls for a larger copper winding with a
scribed in the following are: higher magnetic force (Figures 8 and 9).
쐌 control of the torque converter lockup
clutch,
쐌 clutch control, and
쐌 main-pressure control.
the closing element of this PWM valve (Fig- PWM valve type Rising With high
characteristic flow rate
ure 6) results in low inertial forces. Even this
circumstance meets the demand for fast Feed pressure kPa 300…800 400…1200
Flow rate l · rpm > 1.5 > 3.9
switching times, low noise emission, and long (at 550 kPa)
service life. The pronounced linearity of the Timing frequency Hz 40…50 40…50
characteristic (Figure 7) in a broad character- Coil resistance Ω 10 10
istic and temperature range is an important Dimensions
Diameter mm 25 30
advantage for use in the vehicle.
Free length mm 30 42
Table 1
8 3/2 PWM valve with high flow rate 9 3/2 PWM valve with high flow rate
(sectional view) (characteristic)
1000
kPa
800
Working pressure pwork
1
600
pwork
400
200
æ UTS0294E
æ STS0295E
0 Fig. 8
0 20 40 60 80 100 %
1 Feed from pump
Duty factor
2 Return to tank
pwork Working pressure
308 Electrohydraulic Actuators Actuator Types
10 Pressure regulator (basic layout) 11 D30 spool-type pressure regulator (view and oil flow)
Fig. 10
a a
a Spool type pfeed
b Flat-seat type
Fhyd 1
1 Feed from pump
2 Return to tank
Fspring Spring force Fmag
Fhyd Hydraulic-
æ UTS0303Y
pressure force
Fmag Magnetic force Fspring
preg
preg Regulated
pressure to clutch 2
pfeed Feed pressure Fhyd = Fspring+ Fmag
from pump
b pfeed b
1
Fig. 11 Fhyd
pfeed
a Cutaway view of
spool-type 1 Fmag
pressure regulator
b Oil flow in valve
1 Feed from pump
preg
2 Return to tank Fspring preg
æ UTS0296E
æ UTS0297E
preg Regulated 2 2
pressure to clutch
Fhyd = Fspring+ Fmag
pfeed Feed pressure
from pump
Electrohydraulic Actuators Actuator Types 309
The advantages of the spool-type pressure 2 Technical data of spool-type pressure regulator
regulator are: PR-S (typical)
쐌 high accuracy, Feed pressure kPa 700…1600
쐌 non-susceptible to influencing quantities, Regulated pressure kPa typical 600…0
쐌 low temperature sensitivity, Current range mA typical 0…1000
≤ 600
쐌 non-susceptible to system leakage, Activation frequency Hz
Dimensions
쐌 low leakage, and Diameter mm 32
쐌 zero pressure can be achieved. Free length mm 42
Table 2
The disadvantages of the spool-type pressure 12 D30 spool-type pressure regulator (sectional view)
regulator are:
쐌 expensive production of the precision com-
ponents, and
쐌 precision electronics required. pwork
æ UTS0298E
2 Fig. 12
leakage, fluctuations in feed pressure, or tem- 1 Feed from pump
perature changes. 2 Return from tank
The spool-type pressure regulator shown in pwork Working pressure
Figures 11 and 12, with its typical technical
13 Spool-type pressure regulator (falling characteristic)
data listed in Table 2, exhibits none of the
drawbacks of the flat-seat pressure regulator
discussed below, but is more expensive than kPa
the latter due to its higher-quality individual 200
Regulated pressure pwork
쐌 non-susceptible to dirt and contamination, precisely matched with the upstream perma-
쐌 high leakage, nent restrictor. Suitable measures can be used
쐌 residual pressure present even to compensate temperature sensitivity to
(dependent on temperature), and a certain extent.
쐌 expensive electronics.
This pressure regulator described by way of
Flat-seat pressure regulator, example has been specially optimized such
falling characteristic that the pressure/current characteristic ex-
Figures 14 to 16 show the example of a D30 hibits low hysteresis and a narrow tolerance
flat-seat pressure regulator with falling range. These properties are achieved by using
characteristic. high-quality magnetic-circuit materials and
The pressure regulator operates in conjunc- modern manufacturing procedures.
tion with a restrictor (diameter 0.8... 1.0 mm) Since the ratio of the hydraulic resistance
which is either arranged externally in the hy- of both restrictors cannot be indiscriminately
draulic-control system or integrated directly small, the pressure/current characteristic of a
in the pressure regulator. The advantage of the typical flat-seat pressure regulator exhibits a
latter type of restrictor lies in the fact that the residual pressure which increases as the tem-
pressure-regulator characteristic (of the vari- perature decreases. The hydraulic-control sys-
able restrictor at the flat seat) can be more tem of the transmission must take this cir-
a 1
æ UTS0365Y
pwork
æ UTS0301E
2
Fig. 14
a Cutaway view of b
flat-seat pressure 1
regulator
b Oil flow in valve 2
1 Feed from pump
2 Restrictor
3 Clutch
4 Return to tank
3
4
æ UTS0300Y
æ STS0302E
Fig. 15
1 Feed from pump
2 Return to tank
pwork Working pressure
Electrohydraulic Actuators Actuator Types 311
æ UTS0314Y
with increased volumetric flow. These draw-
backs can be avoided by increasing the level
of sophistication in the actuator or in the
hydraulic-control system. However, this
cancels out to some extent the main benefits
of the flat-seat pressure regulator (simple
design and low costs). The options offered
by the closed-end function are discussed in
the following. 18 D20 flat-seat pressure regulator, rising characteristic
(sectional view)
Fig. 18
istic precision while taking up the minimal 2 1 Feed from pump
amount of space. 2 Return to tank
pwork Working pressure
Dimensions
0
Diameter mm 30 23 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 A 0.8
Free length mm 33 42
Current I
Table 3
312 Electrohydraulic Actuators Actuator Types
Accuracy:
Comparison value ≈ 7% (recirculation) ≈ 11 % ≈ 13% (control)
(manufacturing ±5...±25 kPa ±5...±30 kPa ±20 kPa
tolerance) (dependent on (dependent on (constant)
characteristic range) characteristic range)
Influence of feed pressure pC = 400 ±0.2 kPa ΔpC ≈ 0.2 · Δpfeed ΔpC ~ Δpfeed
at pfeed = 800 ±50 kPa
Noise – – If necessary
damping required
b
Flow Simulation
The Fire tool used by Bosch to calculate
hydraulic losses and flow forces enables,
0…21.7 m·s-1
for example, the geometries of the hydraulic
section of a pressure-control valve to be opti-
mized is such a way that flow influences on
the pressure/current characteristic are mini-
mized under all operating conditions and
a flow cross-sections are optimized.
Fig. 1
æ STS0306E
a b
Fp FFr
FM x ˙ x
x
¯ d
FFl
c
æ STS0308E
æ STS0307E
Fig. 2
a Basic model
FM = 5.8 N FM = 10.2 N
b Optimization
FM Magnetic force
Electrohydraulic Actuators Simulations in Development 315
æ STS0309Y
The cumulative volumetric flow flowing into
the chamber, which is responsible for the pres-
sure build-up, is calculated from (Figure 4):
5 “Restrictor flow” model
Q = (QE – QA)
Where:
Q cumulative volumetric flow,
QA outlet volumetric flow,
QE inlet volumetric flow. Q
2苶
Q = αf · Ao · 冪苶· Δp
ρ
;
where
Δp = p1 – p3
And where:
αf flow-rate coefficient,
Ao cross-sectional area of a restrictor,
ρ density of medium,
Δp pressure differential,
p1 pressure at point 1,
p3 pressure at point 3.
316 Electronic Transmission Control Drivetrain Management
? Slip Converter
ment system and a variables motion
higher-level driving strat- Vehicle Body and Trans-
? Gear ratio
egy. When the driver variable interior mission
presses the accelerator User Electrical Provision of propulsion
variables ? system
pedal, the system inter-
æ STS0256E
165…170
sociations (JAMA and KAMA) have adopted 160
the same limits for the year 2009. In order for 140
this target to be achieved, the next few years 140
2 CAFE fuel-consumption requirements (passenger cars, light commercial vehicles not included)
25
Fuel consumption
20
15
10
5
æ STS0258E
0
1978 1990 2000
Year
318 Electronic Transmission Control Control of Automated Shift Transmission AST
ME Engine torque 0 2 4 6 8s
tD Declutching time electric-motor actuator. This step removed
Time t
S1 Signal for gearshift the need for a pump, an accumulator, and
command valves as well as the need for a travel sensor in
Electronic Transmission Control Control of Automated Shift Transmission AST 319
Application a
Today the AST is used primarily in the lower 1 2 3
torque classes (e.g., VW Lupo, MCC Smart,
Opel Corsa Easytronic, see also chapter enti- Fig. 2
tled “Transmission Types”), where, in com- MC Clutch torque
parison to the fully automatic transmission, ME Engine torque
the cost benefit makes up for the downside of tD Declutching time
S1 Signal for gearshift
the interruption in tractive force.
command
4
200
MC 3 Gear recognition
100 4 Shift-intention
ME recognition on
0 shift lever
5 Clutch actuator with
¯100
æ STS0260E
æ STS0261E
t1
t2
Fig. 4 1 t0
Acceleration a
1 Current gear
2 Next gear
t3 Disengage and
select gear
t4 Synchronization Time t
t5 Shift through gear
Electronic Transmission Control Control of Automated Shift Transmission AST 321
Figure 5 shows a comparison of the shifting trol strategy such as torque correction or by
times that can be achieved with a hydraulic the interaction of the engine and the clutch.
system and an electric-motor system and the
shifting time necessary for a comfortable It is important to highlight here that there
shifting operation. The bar lengths equate to is hardly any difference between the two
the times required for the individual phases systems in the phases for response time, gear
and the same shading schemes are used. disengagement, and gear engagement. The
response times are not extended practically,
When the capacity of the actuators is even in the case of comfortable shifting.
exploited to maximum effect, the electric- However, the phases relevant to acceleration
motor system only demonstrates a time must be two to four times as long as in the
disadvantage compared with its hydraulic extreme case, both for the hydraulic and the
counterpart in the clutch-operation phase. electric-motor actuator systems.
This could be reduced in particular in the
torque-reduction phase by an intelligent con-
100 ms
Maximum
hydraulic force
Maximum
electronic force
Comfortable
æ STS0263E
12 Air supply
___ Electrics
4 5 6 12 7
---- Pneumatics
___ CAN communication
322 Electronic Transmission Control Control of Automatic Transmissions
æ UTS0265Y
1 Exploded view of a hydraulic-control system (example: GM HYDRA-MATIC 4L60-E)
æ UTS0264Y
Electronic Transmission Control Control of Automatic Transmissions 323
housing
M 6 Clutch
æ STS0266Y
4 5 6
p1 Fig. 4
1 Supply to actuator
Pressure p
2 Actuator
4 Direct control (pictorial diagram) 3 Clutch
p2
Fig. 5
1 nE p1 Pressure,
cutting-in clutch
Speed n
æ STS0268E
æ STS0267Y
p2 Pressure,
2 3 cutting-out clutch
Time t nE Engine speed
M Torque
324 Electronic Transmission Control Control of Automatic Transmissions
which it sticks. After the end of the shifting Downshift Under Load
operation, the clutch pressure is controlled In contrast to upshifts, downshifts take place
upward to a level of safety. with an interruption of tractive force.
The speed difference between the engine Figure 7 shows the time progression.
and the transmission output speed remain- At t0 shifting begins with the clutch being
ing after t4 is caused by the converter, which drained. Engine torque is no longer trans-
Fig. 6
always operates with slip when locked up. ferred from t1 onwards and the engine revs
pC Clutch pressure up. At t2 the synchronization speed of the
pF Filling pressure The progression of the output torque in the new gear is reached and the one-way clutch
pS Safety pressure phase t1...t4 determines the gear-shift so- is engaged; up to t3 the converter slip is set
t0 Start of shift phistication (ease of shifting). To ensure according to the engine torque. The shifting
t1 Start of torque good shift quality, the clutch pressure must operation is completed at t3. The gear-shift
transfer, clutch
be set so that the output torque is between sophistication (ease of shifting) is deter-
torque rises,
one-way clutch
the level at t < t1 and the level at t > t4. The mined by the torque drop in the phase t0...t1
torque drops torque jump at t4 should also be as low as and depends quite significantly on the
t2 One-way clutch possible. torque increase between t2 and t2.
released The load on the friction elements is de- All the shifting scenarios that occur are
t3 Clutch slips, termined by the clutch torque and the slip primarily controlled by the electronic sys-
clutch torque
time (t4 – t1). It is clear here that controlling tem; the hydraulic system is left above all
remains constant
t4 Clutch sticks, clutch
the shifting sequence always involves a com- with the function of clutch power control.
torque decreases, promise. In all newer transmissions (5-speed
converter operates and 6-speed types), one-way clutches are
with slip replaced by regular clutches for weight
reasons. However, during the shifting
1 Output operations, they require overlap control
2 One-way clutch
3 Clutch
4 Engine
6 Pressure, torque and speed curve during an upshift 7 Time curve of a downshift
5 Transmission output
1
1
Torque M
2
Torque M
Fig. 7 2
pC Clutch pressure
3
pF Filling pressure 3
t0 Start of shift,
clutch drains
t1 End of torque
transfer, engine
revs up pS
t2 Synchronization
Pressure p
reached, one-way
clutch engaged,
converter operates
with slip
t3 Shifting operation
completed
4
4
Speed n
Speed n
1 Output 5 5
æ STS0269E
æ STS0270E
2 One-way clutch
3 Clutch t0 t1 t2 t3
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4
4 Engine Time t
Time t
5 Transmission output
Electronic Transmission Control Control of Automatic Transmissions 325
for the clutches (Figure 8). This means that 8 Overlap control US
while clutch 1 opens for gear x, clutch 2 must
close for gear y. Since this type of control is
very elaborate and time-critical, it is necessary M
Torque M
to provide considerably higher computing
power in the ECU than for the simple shifting
sequences with one-way clutch shifts (see also
chapter entitled “ECUs”). p1
Pressure p
The most important features of overlap
control are: p2
쐌 low mechanical complexity,
쐌 minimal space requirement,
쐌 multiple use for different gear steps Fig. 8
nE p1 Pressure,
possible,
Speed n
cutting-in clutch
쐌 high control precision for load transfer
æ STS0271E
p2 Pressure,
required, cutting-out clutch
쐌 high software complexity for torque Time t nE Engine speed
control, M Torque
쐌 in event of incorrect control: excessive
speed (engine races) or onset of a braking 9 Fill time
tshift tvertex
tion of the calculated torque or the torque
Time t
transferred by the engine which can occur
on account of changes to the engine or
manufacturing tolerances.
In this case, an important role is played by Fill-Time Measurement
pressure adaptation with the aid of the shift- The fill time tfill (Figure 9) is the time from
ing times applied by the manufacturer. To this the start of the gearshift tshift to the start of
end, the applied shifting times are compared synchronization (a drop in speed is identified
with the real shifting times that occur. If the during the upshift [US]):
measurements are repeatedly outside a pre-
specified tolerance range, the pressure para- tfill = tvertex – tshift
meters pertaining to the shifting operation
are incrementally adapted. A distinction is Slip-Time Measurement
made here between the fill time and the slip The slip time tslip (Figure 10) of the clutch is
time of the clutch. the time from recognition of the speed vertex
(start of synchronization) to complete syn-
chronization of the speed in the new gear.
326 Electronic Transmission Control Control of Automatic Transmissions
æ STS0273E
tvertex tsync The individual programs differ in the posi-
Time t tion of the shifting points in relation to the
position of the accelerator pedal and the dri-
tslip = tsync – tvertex ving speed. The Economy and Sport shifting
maps of a 5-speed transmission are used here
The speed thresholds used for measuring the as examples (Figure 11).
slip time tslip (Figure 10) are calculated in
advance of the start of shifting, where the If the current driving speed or the accelera-
following relationship applies to upshifts: tor-pedal position corresponding to the
Start of fill-time measurement = start of driver command (accelerator-pedal value) in-
shifting tersects the shift curve, a gearshift is triggered.
A requested gearshift can be either canceled
Vertex: A decrease in the turbine speed ntu by or converted into a double shift within a spe-
at least ntu (vertex) revolutions is detected. cific period of time (which depends on the
ntu (t – 1) – ntu (t) > ntu (diff) hydraulic system of the automatic transmis-
sion)
Synchronization speed: An increase in the tur- For example, the driver is driving in fifth
bine speed ntu by at least ntu (sync) revolu- gear on an interstate highway and would like
tions is detected. to overtake. To do so, he presses the accelera-
ntu (t) – ntu (t – 1) > Δntu (sync) tor pedal to the floor, whereupon a downshift
is requested.
Pressure Correction
Pressure adaptation is only permitted within 11 US and DS characteristics in Economy mode (XE)
and Sport mode (XS)
specific limits on account of operational reli-
ability. The typical adaptation width lies in 2-1 RS 1-2 HS
the range of ±10% of the modulation pres- % XE XS XE XS
sure calculated for the shift. The correction 100
Accelerator-pedal position
Fig. 11 0
0 50 km/h
1 Upshift
XE Economy mode Vehicle speed υF
XS Sport mode
Electronic Transmission Control Control of Automatic Transmissions 327
Driving-Situation Recognition
For driving-situation recognition, different
transmission-control input variables are
linked to conclusions about the present
driving condition. The following situations
can generally be recognized:
쐌 uphill driving,
쐌 cornering,
쐌 winter operation, and
쐌 ASC operation.
328 Electronic Transmission Control Control of Automatic Transmissions
冢 冣
2
1 MC · JE 2 1–i
Upshifts take place without an interruption of Q= · · ωO (5)
2 M E – MC i
the tractive force. Synchronization of engine
and transmission takes place via a friction i.e., the lost energy is dependent only on the
element in slipping-intervention operation. clutch and engine torques, the driving speed,
The following relative speed ensues between and the gear ratios.
the drive and output side of the clutch: When the clutch torque determined by (4) is
applied in (5), this produces the lost energy as
330 Electronic Transmission Control Control of Automatic Transmissions
the sum of a share of the kinetic energy which 12 Lost energy Qcom (a) and clutch torque MC (b)
is released when the rotational masses are of a clutch as a function of slip time tS and engine
torque ME
braked to the synchronization speed and a
share of the engine combustion energy: Nm
a Qlimit
冢 冣
2
ω2 1–i ω 1–i
Q = Qkin + Qcom = JE · O · + ME · tS · O · (6) +2,000 S
2 i 2 i
Nm
+1,600
200
0
der of magnitude. At speeds of n = 3000 rpm 50
10
+1,200
ME =
and typical values for the gear step and the 5
engine-drag torque (i = 0.8, +800
JE = 0.3 kg · m2, ME = 100 Nm, tS = 500 ms), 3
this produces: +400
Fig. 12 Nm
(6): Only the share of lost energy stemming 400
a Lost energy Qcom 8 ts limit
b Clutch torque MC from the combustion energy is dependent on
300
the slip time tS. The decisive factor is the
10
0
200 1
clutch torque time. This means, however, that the slip time MC limit
2
MCmin Minimum MC min
can be extended accordingly when the engine 100 4
clutch torque 6
torque is reduced without an increase in the
æ UTS0275E
ME Engine torque
Qlimit Maximum total lost energy. In actual fact, the wear of the 0
0 200 400 600 ms
permitted lost friction elements even decreases with con- Slip time ts
energy stant total lost energy when the slip time is
extended. The temperature of the friction lin-
ings corresponds to the load on the friction a reduction in gear-shift sophistication (con-
elements. venience). A reduction of the clutch pressure
Figure 12a shows the lost energy absorbed is not permitted in this case, as otherwise
by the friction element as a function of the Qlimit will be exceeded.
engine torque and the slip time. The maxi-
mum permitted lost energy Qlimit and the It is now easy to tell from Figure 12 which
engine torque to be transferred during this possibilities are offered by engine interven-
gearshift determine the maximum slip time, tion. It is taken that the engine torque to be
for instance in accordance with point S. The transferred ME = 100 Nm can be reduced
maximum permitted energy Qlimit corre- during the slip phase to an average of 50%.
sponds in accordance with (5) to the clutch When first the case of constant clutch torque
torque determined by the slip time MClimit (shift quality) is considered, reducing the en-
(point 1 in Figure 12b). gine torque to 50 Nm results in a shortening
To reduce the lost energy, the clutch torque of the slip time from 400 ms to 245 ms (point
in relation to point S would have to be in- 1 씮 point 2) with a simultaneous reduction
creased and thereby the slip time shortened. in lost energy to 61% (point 3). If, on the
However, this would lead in equal measure to other hand, the slip time is kept constant, the
Electronic Transmission Control Control of Automatic Transmissions 331
clutch torque can be reduced from 179 Nm to 1 Numerical values for text examples and Figure 12
128.5 Nm (point 1 씮 point 4) with a reduc-
ME MredE MC ME t0 Q/Q100
tion in lost energy to 72% (point 5). Nm Nm Nm Nm ms %
100 100 179 400 3740 100
The maximum sensible slip time is then ob- 100 50 179 245 2285 61
tained if the minimum clutch torque MCmin 100 50 128.5 400 2693 72
during the gearshift does not drop below the 100 50 100 628 3290 88
value after the end of the shift. On the one 200 200 360 200 3740 100
200 100 179 400 3740 100
hand, a smaller engine torque as a result of Table 1
engine intervention would result in a deterio-
ration in convenience; on the other hand, the determine the gear-shift sophistication
clutch torque for safety reasons should at any (convenience) to a substantial extent.
rate be so large that the non-reduced engine For a better understanding of the character-
torque can be transferred by the friction ele- istic relationships, damping in the drivetrain is
ment after the end of the shift. disregarded in the following analysis. It also ap-
In this example, it is taken that the torque plies on the assumption that the overall vehicle
to be transferred at least by the clutch is dynamics can be reduced to engine mass, in-
100 Nm in accordance with the engine torque put-shaft rigidity, and vehicle inertia.
(direct gear). This means that the slip time
can be stretched from 400 ms to max. 625 ms In the case of all the moments of inertia relat-
(point 6), again with a simultaneous reduc- ing to the transmission output, the engine and
tion in lost energy to 88% (point 7). the vehicle are governed by the following:
Finally, it can be gleaned from Figure 12 that JE · Φ̈E = ME, JV · Φ̈V = –W (9)
even an engine torque of 200 Nm, which
without intervention would require a maxi- At the point when the one-way clutch
mum slip time of 200 ms with a minimum engages, the drivetrain resembles a torsion
clutch torque of 360 Nm (point 8), can be damper (Figure 13, next page), and the
traced back to the example with a torque of motion equations are as follows:
100 Nm (point 1).
JE · Φ̈E = c (Φ̈V – Φ̈E) + ME (10a)
The results of this analysis are on the safe side
in this respect because extending the slip time JV · Φ̈V = c · (Φ̈V – Φ̈E) –W (10b)
with constant lost energy results in reduced
friction-lining temperature and thus protects Since in this case it is not the absolute angle
the friction linings. Table 1 lists the numerical of rotation but rather only the deviations
values for these examples. from the basic rotation (i.e., the rotation of
the input shaft) which are significant, these
Downshifts two equations can combined. If the driving
In contrast to upshifts, downshifts take place speed υ for the short time segments to be
in the throttling mode with an interruption considered is taken as constant, this produces
of load. The engine is decoupled from the with
drivetrain and runs as a result of the torque it
ΦE = ΦEo + φE, ΦV = ΦVo + φF,
Φ·Eo = Φ·Vo = υ = const.
has generated up to the synchronization
speed. Only after the one-way clutch or the
friction element has engaged is the frictional and
connection re-established. The torque ratios
ψ = φV – φE,
when the synchronization speed is reached
332 Electronic Transmission Control Control of Automatic Transmissions
ψ̈ + c · 冢 J1
E
+
1
JV冣· ψ = –ME (11) ψ = ω0 ·
2 M
c
cos (ω0 · t)
The natural frequency ω0 for this system as and (10b) the vehicle acceleration
follows
M
冑苴苴
Φ̈V = · [1 + cos (ω0 · t)] (14)
ω0 = 冢 冣 c·
1
+
1
JE JV
JV
This means that, at time t0 when the one-
The general solution produces the accelera- way clutch engages, an acceleration jump
tion acting on the driver: takes place, namely
from Φ̈V = 0 for t < t0 (15)
ψ = A · (sin ω0 · t) + B · cos (ω0 · t) (12)
M
to Φ̈V = 2 · for t = t0
JV
(9) produces as the end condition of the
engine run-up phase: followed by a drivetrain vibration damped
in the real vehicle.
ME
ψ̈E = for t < t0 (13)
JE
Similar conditions are present in a gearshift
The energy to be applied here simply to from friction element to friction element
accelerate the engine is transformed when (overlapping gearshift), only this involves
the one-way clutch engages (at time t0) the additional problem of cutting in the
abruptly into a torque, which causes the friction element of the new gear exactly
input shaft to rotate: when the synchronization speed is reached.
As the damping effects of the torque con-
φEo = M verter and the rest of the drivetrain have
c
been disregarded in this analysis, the possi-
13 Diagram of drivetrain during load interruption and bility which engine intervention offers is all
establishment of frictional connection
the more clear:
a W
According to (13), the initial acceleration
acting on the driver at time t0 is directly pro-
JV
portional to the engine torque and thus the
engine acceleration during the run-up
ME
phase. With precisely timed control of the
engine torque in the time segment t ≤ t0 to
t >> t0, it is possible to create an almost
JE
Fig. 13 continuous transition from the range of
a Load interruption tractive-force interruption to the range of
b Frictional connection
tractive-force transfer.
JV Mass moment of
Implementation takes the form of a
b
inertia of vehicle W marked reduction in engine torque at time
drivetrain JV t0 followed by renewed control-up in accor-
JE Mass moment of dance with a time function. The conve-
inertia of engine ΦV nience can be varied within broad limits
ME Engine torque ME
with this control-up.
ΦV Angle of rotation
æ STS0276E
of vehicle drivetrain
JE ΦE There is an equally clear possibility in
ΦE Angle of rotation
of engine gearshifts without a one-way clutch of influ-
W Running resistance encing the engine acceleration by control-
Electronic Transmission Control Control of Automatic Transmissions 333
ling the engine torque in the time range The overrunning point is identified through
t ≤ t0 and thereby reducing the time de- continual monitoring of the transmission
mands on the cut-in precision of the friction input speed in the time phase after t0. For
element at the synchronization point. this purpose, the maximum speed is calcu-
lated in the time phase t0...t3 as well as the
Sequence Control speed gradient.
The process of reducing the engine torque The overrunning point is identified in the
is essentially very simple. However, effective event of a reduction in the gradient by more
control requires precise coordination as the than a pre-specified threshold value, and
entire process only lasts approximately engine-torque control begins with control-
500 ms. down to a pre-specified value in accordance
with a pre-specified time function.
Pure time control of engine intervention is
not practicable because different variables In order to determine the speed n3 at the
which determine the sequence (such as start of control-up, the synchronization speed
clutch fill times, plate friction coefficients, n4 = n1/i in the new gear is calculated from
and similar) fluctuate within broad limits the maximum speed n1 at the overrunning
depending on the temperature and the point and the ratio jump i of the gear change
service life. to be carried out. A speed-dependent share
Δn is added to this synchronization speed
As engine intervention is directly linked to in order to obtain a derivative action for
the shifting sequence, a speed sequence control-up. When the speed n3 = n4 + Δn is
control system suggests itself. The character- reached, torque control-up begins in accor-
istic variable that characterizes the shifting dance with a pre-specified time function. The
sequence exactly is the transmission input end of the gearshift is identified as soon as the
sequence. The engine speed is also suited with value of the non-corrected torque is achieved.
limitations to transmissions with hydrody-
namic converters as the controlled variable. 14 Sequence control, upshifts with engine
intervention
This is therefore important because it re-
quires a separate sensor to record the trans-
mission input speed, and not every transmis- S2
signal S
speed
before the overrunning point is reached, t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 nE Engine speed
otherwise this would entail an intensified Time t ME Engine torque
dip in the output torque in the phase t1...t2. S Shift signal
334 Electronic Transmission Control Control of Automatic Transmissions
For upshifts in the upper load range (greater 쐌 retarding the ignition angle too early ex-
than half load), the engine speed is used as the tends the engine revving phase and thus
controlled variable instead of the transmission the time of tractive-force interruption and
input speed because here the shifting points 쐌 engine intervention after the one-way
are at such great engine speeds that the con- clutch has engaged does not bring about
verter operates in the clutch range and is thus any improvement in convenience, but
subject to roughly constant slip. rather a deterioration as this causes a dip in
Gearshifts at part load on the other hand torque for the duration of the engine inter-
take place in the converter range. This means vention.
that the slip can change very substantially
during a gearshift. Here the engine speed is The synchronization speed is calculated via
no longer suitable for determining the syn- the gear step from the transmission input
chronization speed. In this case, a speed at the start of the gearshift. The engine
superimposed form of time control, which torque is abruptly reduced approximately
terminates engine intervention after a pre- 200 rpm before the synchronization speed is
specified time, is suitable for the part-load reached until this speed is reached or slightly
range t3...t4. exceeded. Then the engine torque is slowly
controlled up again.
Downshifts The synchronization speed cannot be
The time curve of the characteristic variables calculated directly by means of the engine
for a downshift is depicted in Figure 15. speed as a result of the slip at the hydrody-
Precise determination and recording of the namic torque converter. A consideration of
synchronization speed are crucial to engine the converter program map with the requisite
intervention in the case of downshifts because accuracy requires too much computation
effort in the microcontroller.
nE3
nE2 The different possibilities of torque reduction
nE1 are now discussed in the following text.
nE
Speed n
nT
Fig. 15
2 Control-up phase ME 2
Torque M
a Acceleration
nT Transmission input
æ STS0278E
speed
nE Engine speed t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5
ME Engine torque
Time t
S Shift signal
Electronic Transmission Control Control of Automatic Transmissions 335
Engine
torque M Gradient ETI_Dyn_Lim
limitation
Parameter Calculate No
of shift status reduced intervention
torque
æ UTS0279E
phase and status Desired torque
of shift sequence intervention
Controlled Torque Converter Lockup Clutch point value and corrects the pressure contin-
The controlled torque converter lockup ually. Special functions perform changeovers
clutch (CTCC) sets a very low level of slip between the individual states and provide for
(40...50 rpm) and thus an almost stationary a comfortable shift performance.
state. In this way, it keeps unwanted vibra-
tions away from the drivetrain. The converter
lockup clutch therefore has three different
states:
쐌 open, 19 Characteristic (pictorial diagram) of controlled
torque converter lockup clutch (CTCC)
쐌 controlled, and
%
쐌 closed.
100
CTCC CTCC
These states are defined by means of charac- open closed
Throttle-valve opening
æ STS0280E
and turbine is constantly set to a low value. A 0
0 1,000 2,000 rpm 3,000
closed control loop constantly compares the Engine speed nE
speed differential with a pre-specified set-
Level
Adaptation of shift characteristics (transmission and torque converter lockup clutch)
Measured-value summation Modulation factor Shift/TCLC characteristics
1 Filtering MF1... MF5 SK5
SK3 SK4
Averaging MFA N SK1 SK2
Weighting % V
2
Short-time influencing Special function
Prevention of Gear holding Active shifting Upshift during
overrun upshifts in curves Jump to SC5 brake overrun
ahead of curves to low μ
3
Table 1
Electronic Transmission Control Control of Continuously Variable Transmission 339
Separate ECUs Engine control unit (ME) Transmission control unit (TC)
or alternatively:
ME
Add-on ECU (ME) TC
or integrated ECU (TC)
Engine Transmission
b
CAN
or alternatively: MEG
Combination ECU
and intelligent power
driver stages
Fig. 1
a Layout with separate
ME and TC printed
æ UAE0954E
2 Printed circuit board ECU for electronic transmission control (block diagram)
Ignition
Internal power supply On/Off
Battery voltage solenoid valves
Micro- ASIC for
controller current-controlled
high-power
Interface engine μC driver stages
management Actuators
CAN interface
Vehicle-speed
signals FEPROM
Rotational frequency
Analog RAM
voltage signals Interface for
analog signals ADC
Diagnosis EEPROM
Serial interface
for diagnosis
CAN
Digital Interface
æ UAE0953E
æ UAE0946Y
3 MEG drivetrain ECU for electronic transmission control (block diagram)
Voltage ME 7 MEG 7
regulator Memory Memory
Motronic
CAN Voltage Motronic
μC Motronic
Motronic regulator μC
output
Diagnosis output driver stages
EGAS driver stages
Motronic Controller CAN
inputs μC
Diagnosis EGAS
Voltage EGS Controller
regulator Memory
EGS Motronic
CAN + EGS ETC
μC output
ETC ETC μC
inputs driver stages
Diagnosis output
driver stages
ETC Watchdog Memory
æ UAE0952E
inputs
æ UAE0950Y
Figure 5 shows the current configuration of 1 Development of computer performance
a drivetrain ECU for the block diagram in Year Computer Memory RAM
Figure 3. Year Computer Memory RAM
1983 Cosmac 8 k ROM 128 byte
Since then, the demands on ECU computing 1988 80515 32 k ROM 256 byte
power and memory capacity have changed 1992 80517 64 k ROM 256 byte
1996 80509 128 k flash 2k
dramatically (see Figure 6 and Table 1).
199x C167 256 k flash 4k
As the figures in Table 1 demonstrate, these 1996 683xx 256 k flash 8k
demands are constantly rising and there is no 2001 MPC555 448 k flash 28 k
end in sight to their development. 2003 MPC555 1 MB flash 28 k
2005 ? 1.5 MB flash 66 k Table 1
8-Bit (80519)
Computing power/memory capacity
64k ROM
32-Bit (MPC555)
448k Flash
8-Bit (8051)
8k ROM
a a
Fig. 7 b b
a On LTCC standard
substrate
b On LTCC-fine-line
substrate
æ UTS0318Y
æ UTS0319Y
Fig. 8
a Inner layers
b Reverse side with
resistors
Electronic Control Units (ECUs) ECUs for Electronic Transmission Control 345
The following significant measures were Figure 9 shows the complete microhybrid in
taken to bring about an improvement in the its housing. The following procedures are
process for microhybrid ECUs: used for the assembly process:
쐌 use of finer punch needles, 쐌 All the components are bonded with
쐌 finer screens, conductive bonding agent.
쐌 adaptation of the pastes used, and 쐌 Bonding is carried out using a 32 μm gold
쐌 tolerance optimization through adapted wire and a 200 μm aluminum wire.
process management. 쐌 The hybrid is bonded to the steel plate with
heat-conducting bonding agent.
This compression of the layout makes it pos- 쐌 The connection to the glass bushing is
sible to produce the circuit for transmission made by a 200 μm aluminum bond.
control on an area measuring 2 x 1.2≤. In 쐌 The housing is hermetically sealed tight.
other words, a substrate with the working for-
mat of 8 x 6≤ alone can process 20 circuits in
parallel.
æ UAE0948Y
346 Electronic Control Units (ECUs) ECUs for Electronic Transmission Control
ASIC CG205
b Watchdog ASIC
CG120
c I/O ASIC CG115
Electronic Control Units (ECUs) Thermo-Management 347
æ UTS0320Y
ated in the valve housing in this example. RVe
4 Thermal vias
This is an LTCC microhybrid in a welded TUm
5 Al valve housing
steel housing which is mounted on the alu- 5 6 7 6 ATF
minum housing of the hydraulic main con- 7 Steel housing base
trol stage.
2 Cross-section through a 4-layer microhybrid with
thermal vias
Effective heat management of the IC neces-
sitates a close contact between the chips and
the housing. Materials with high thermal
conductivity are suitable for use in this re-
spect.
As other tests on the various substrates for
high-temperature applications have shown,
these materials demonstrate very different
thermal-conductivity properties. LTCC glass
ceramic shows itself to be less effective than
æ UTS0321Y
aluminum-oxide ceramic (Al2O3) by a factor 1 mm
of almost 10. However, this drawback is com-
pensated by thermal vias in the microhybrid
to such an extent that LTCC technology
demonstrates equally good levels of thermal Pl = (Tj – Ta) / Rjth
conductivity as aluminum-oxide technology.
where
Figure 2 shows an area of thermal vias.
The production process creates these heat- Tj Junction temperature
dissipating thermal vias (heat spreaders) in Rjth Thermal internal resistance
parallel to the electrical connections. Ta Ambient temperature
Essentially, the terms “power loss”, “depletion- The thermal resistance Rjth (auxiliary quan-
layer/junction temperature”, and “heat dissi- tity) is dependent on the geometric parame-
pation” define the limits for a microhybrid ters and the specific thermal conductivity
ECU. of the material and is determined from
measurements. The maximum permitted
The power loss Pl can be described in junction temperature Tj determines the maxi-
simplified form for stationary operation mum permitted power loss Plmax, where
as follows: Tj is dependent on the material (for silicon
Tjmax = 150...200°C). Current specifications
laid down by microcontroller manufacturers
establish an upper limit of Tjmax = 150°C.
Since Tj is also dependent on the design, a
348 Electronic Control Units (ECUs) Thermo-Management
Explanation of abbreviations:
DBC (direct bonded copper): copper-coated
ceramic
and
PCs (power chips): chips soldered onto
copper plates.
ceramic
Thermal resistance
1 Chip
2 Al2O3
3 LTCC (thermal vias) Thermal vias. surface
4 Aluminum
Electronic Control Units (ECUs) Processes and Tools Used in ECU Development 349
æ UTS0324Y
350 Modules for Transmission Control Application
Electronic
Sensors Actuators
control unit
• Single unit • Temperature • on /off
• Mounting • Pressure • PWM
• Integrated • Rotational speed • Pressure regulator
• Combined • Position • (Stepping motor)
4 to 8 4 to 8 4 to 8
actuators actuators actuators Transmission Transmission
4 to 8 4 to 8 4 to 8
sensors sensors sensors
Module Module
Electrohydraulic Electrohydraulic Electrohydraulic Transmission Transmission
module module module system system
æ STS0315E
• Only one partner for • Reduced costs scope
development and • Space saving
supply
4 Integrated switching
valves
5 Adapter plate with
hydraulic channels
352 Modules for Transmission Control Module Types
7 Electrohydraulic module
3 Fig. 7
1 Transmission
connector
2 Pressure-control
valves
3 Rotational-speed
æ UTS0223Y
sensor
4 Microhybrid-
technology ECU
5 Position sensor
354 Antilock braking system System overview
7 6 5 4 11 7 8 8 7
Fig. 1
11 Brake pedal
12 Brake booster
13 Master cylinder SB
A
14 Reservoir
15 Brake line
16 Brake hose
17 Wheel brake
with wheel-brake
cylinder
18 Wheel-speed
sensor
19 Hydraulic modulator
10 ABS control unit
(in this case,
æ UFB0697Y
setting
applied is transmitted directly to the brakes at Outlet valve:
each wheel. shown in closed
setting
356 Antilock braking system Requirements placed on ABS
1 Coefficient of friction, μHF, relative 2 Coefficient of friction and lateral-force coefficient, μS,
to brake slip, λ versus brake slip, λ, and slip angle
1.2
Coefficient of friction μ HF, Lateral-force coefficient μ S
1.2
1.0 α = 2° Fig. 1
1.0 1 1 Radial tire on
μ HF dry concrete
α = 10°
Coefficient of friction μ HF
æ UFB0362-2E
0 0 μS Lateral-force
0 20 40 60 80 % 0 20 40 60 80 %
coefficient
Brake slip λ Brake slip λ
α Slip angle
Blue shaded areas:
ABS active zones
358 Antilock braking system Dynamics of a braked wheel, ABS control loop
cylinder
5 Wheel-speed 2 1
sensor
6 Warning lamp
Antilock braking system ABS control loop 359
æ UFB0361-1E
λK Optimum
road-surface frictional torque, MR (torque
0 λK 100 % brake slip
that acts against the wheel through the fric-
Brake slip λ μHFmax Maximum
tion pairing of tire and road surface), and coefficient
time, t, as well as the relationships between of friction
the wheel deceleration (a) and time, t,
whereby the braking torque increases in lin- 3 Initial braking phase, simplified
ear fashion over time. The road-surface fric-
Road-surface frictional torque M R
æ UFB0363-1E
MR2 by a factor of 4)
(–a) Threshold for wheel
t1 t2
deceleration
Time t
M Torque difference
MB – MR
362 Antilock braking system Typical control cycles
During the initial phase of braking, the brake At the end of phase 2, the wheel speed, υR,
pressure at the wheel and the rate of wheel drops below the λ1 threshold. At that point,
deceleration (negative acceleration) rise. At the solenoid valves switch to the “reduce
the end of phase 1, the wheel deceleration pressure” setting so that the pressure drops,
passes the set threshold level (–a). and they remain at that setting as long as the
υF
υ Ref
λ1
υR
+A
Wheel acceleration
+a
0
–a
Fig. 1
υF Vehicle speed
υRef Reference speed Phase 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
υR Wheel speed
Brake pressure p
λ1 Slip switching
threshold –Δp ab
Switching signals:
+A, + a Thresholds for
æ UFB0365-1E
wheel acceleration
–a Threshold for
wheel deceleration Time t
–Δab Brake-pressure
drop
Antilock braking system Typical control cycles 363
Wheel locks
Vehicle no longer steerable
Brake pressure p
æ UFB0699E
Time t
wheel deceleration is above the threshold In phase 6, the brake pressure is once again
(–a). held constant because the acceleration is
above the threshold (+a). At the end of this
At the end of phase 3, the deceleration rate phase, the wheel acceleration falls below the
falls below the threshold (–a) again and a threshold (+a). This is an indication that the
pressure-maintenance phase of a certain wheel has returned to the stable zone of the
length follows. During that period, the wheel curve for friction coefficient versus brake slip
acceleration has increased so much that the and is now slightly underbraked.
threshold (+a) is passed. The pressure contin-
ues to be maintained at a constant level. The brake pressure is now increased in
stages (phase 7) until the wheel deceleration
At the end of phase 4, the wheel acceleration passes the threshold (–a) (end of phase 7).
exceeds the relatively high threshold level This time, the brake pressure is reduced
(+A). The brake pressure then increases for as immediately without a λ1 signal being
long as the acceleration remains above the generated.
threshold (+A).
By comparison, Fig. 2 shows the progressions
for an emergency braking sequence without
ABS.
364 Antilock braking system Typical control cycles
Control cycle on slippery surfaces threshold, the brake pressure is reduced over
(low coefficient of friction) a short, fixed period.
In contrast with good grip conditions, on A further short pressure-maintenance
a slippery road surface even very light pres- phase follows. Then, once again, the wheel
sure on the brake pedal is frequently enough speed is compared to the slip switching
to make the wheels lock up. They then re- threshold λ1 and, as a consequence, the
quire much longer to emerge from a high- pressure reduced over a short, fixed period.
slip phase and accelerate again. The process- In the following pressure-maintenance
ing logic of the ECU detects the prevailing phase, the wheel starts to accelerate again
road conditions and adapts the ABS re- and its acceleration exceeds the threshold
sponse characteristics to suit. Fig. 3 shows (+a). This results in another pressure-main-
a typical control cycle for road conditions tenance phase which lasts until the accelera-
with low levels of adhesion. tion drops below the threshold (+a) again
In phases 1 to 3, the control sequence is (end of phase 5). In phase 6, the incremental
the same as for high-adhesion conditions. pressure-increase pattern seen in the preced-
Phase 4 starts with a short pressure-main- ing section takes place again until, in phase 7,
tenance phase. Then, within a very short pressure is released and a new control cycle
space of time, the wheel speed is compared starts.
with the slip switching threshold λ1. As the
wheel speed is lower than the slip switching
υF
Vehicle speed υ
υ Ref
λ1
υR
acceleration signals
+a
Slip/wheel
0
-a
-λ
Fig. 3
υF Vehicle speed
Phase 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
υRef Reference speed
υR Wheel speed
Brake pressure p
λ1 Slip switching
threshold
Switching signals:
+a Threshold for -Δpab
æ UFB0366-2E
wheel acceleration
–a Threshold for
wheel deceleration Time t
–ab Brake-pressure
drop
Antilock braking system Typical control cycles 365
In the cycle described above, the control logic Control cycle with yaw-moment
detected that following pressure release – buildup delay
triggered by the signal (–a) – two more When the brakes are applied in situations
pressure-reduction stages were necessary to where the grip conditions differ significantly
induce the wheel to accelerate again. between individual wheels (“μ-split” condi-
The wheel remains in the higher-slip zone for tions) – for example, if the wheels on one side
a relatively long period, which is not ideal for of the car are on dry tarmac while those on
handling stability and steerability. the other side are on ice – vastly different
In order to improve those two characteris- braking forces will be produced at the front
tics, this next control cycle and those that wheels (Fig. 4). That difference in braking
follow incorporate continual comparison of force creates a turning force (yaw moment)
wheel speed with the slip switching threshold around the vehicle’s vertical axis. It also gener-
λ1. As a consequence, the brake pressure is ates steering feedback effects of varying types
continuously reduced in phase 6 until, in dependent on the vehicle’s kingpin offset.
phase 7, the wheel acceleration exceeds the With a positive kingpin offset, corrective
threshold (+a). Because of that continuous steering is made more difficult, while a nega-
pressure release, the wheel retains a high level tive kingpin offset has a stabilizing effect.
of slip for only a short period so that vehicle
handling and steerability are improved in Heavy cars tend to have a relatively long
comparison with the first control cycle. wheelbase and a high level of inertia around
the vertical axis. With vehicles of this type,
the yaw effect develops slowly enough for the
driver to react and take corrective steering
action during ABS braking. Smaller cars with
4 Yaw-moment build-up induced by areas of short wheelbases and lower levels of inertia,
widely differing adhesion
on the other hand, require an ABS system
supplemented by a yaw-moment buildup
delay (GMA system) to make them equally
controllable under emergency braking in
conditions where there are wide differences
in grip between individual wheels. Develop-
1 2 ment of the yaw moment can be inhibited by
delayed pressure increase in the brake on the
FB2 front wheel that is on the part of the road
FB1
offering the higher level of adhesion (the
“high” wheel).
MYaw
Fig. 5 (overleaf) illustrates the principle of
the yaw-moment buildup delay:
Curve 1 shows the brake pressure, p, in the
master cylinder. Without yaw-moment
buildup delay, the wheel on the tarmac
quickly reaches the pressure phigh (curve 2)
and the wheel on the ice, the pressure plow
(curve 5). Each wheel is braked with the
æ UFB0290-1E
Fig. 4
specific maximum possible deceleration
μ HF1 = 0.8 μ HF2 = 0.1 Myaw Yaw moment
(individually controlled). FB Braking force
1 “High” wheel
2 “Low” wheel
366 Antilock braking system Typical control cycles
3 Brake pressure,
phigh, with GMA 1 diminish. This generates a turning moment
4 Brake pressure, 6 towards the inside of the bend as a result of
phigh, with GMA 2 which the vehicle slews off its line towards the
5 Brake pressure, 7 inside of its intended course and is very diffi-
æ UFB0291-1E
plow
cult to bring back under control (Fig. 6a).
6 Steering angle, α,
without GMA Time t
7 Steering angle, α,
with GMA
Antilock braking system Typical control cycles 367
In order to avoid this critical response to The ideal method of inhibiting yaw-moment
braking, the GMA also takes the lateral accel- buildup involves a compromise between good
eration into account. The GMA is deactivated steering characteristics and suitably short
at high lateral acceleration rates. As a result, a braking distance and is developed by Bosch
high braking force is generated at the outside individually for a specific vehicle model
front wheel during the initial phase of brak- through consultation with the manufacturer.
ing in a corner and creates a turning moment
towards the outside of the bend. That turning
moment balances out the turning moment
acting in the opposite direction that is pro-
duced by the lateral forces, so that the vehicle
slightly understeers and thus remains easily
controllable (Fig. 6).
a
FB1
FS1
M1
b
FB2
FS2
Fig. 6
a GMA activated (no
M2
individual control):
vehicle oversteers
b GMA deactivated
(individual control):
æ UFB0367-1Y
vehicle slightly
understeers
FB Braking force
FS Lateral force
M Torque
368 Antilock braking system Typical control cycles
Control cycle for four-wheel-drive (whereby the wheel with the lower degree of
vehicles adhesion, μHF, determines the brake pressure
The most important criteria for assessing the for both rear wheels) is thus canceled, and
various types of four-wheel-drive configura- both rear wheels utilize the maximum brak-
tion (Fig. 7) are traction, dynamic handling, ing force. As soon as the inter-axle lock is en-
and braking characteristics. As soon as differ- gaged, the system forces the front wheels to
ential locks are engaged, conditions are cre- assume the same average speed as the rear
ated that demand a different response from wheels. All four wheels are then dynamically
the ABS system. interlinked and the engine drag (engine brak-
ing effect when backing off the throttle) and
When a rear-axle differential is locked, the inertia act on all four wheels.
rear wheels are rigidly interconnected, i.e.
they always rotate at the same speed and re- In order to ensure optimum ABS effectiveness
spond to the braking forces (at each wheel) under those conditions, additional features
and friction levels (between each tire and the have to be incorporated according to the type
road surface) as if they were a single rigid of four-wheel-drive system (Fig. 7) in use.
body. The “select low” mode that would
otherwise be adopted for the rear wheels
7 Four-wheel-drive configurations
a b c
2 1
1 1
2 2
Fig. 7
a Four-wheel-drive 3
6
system 1
b Four-wheel-drive 4
system 2
c Four-wheel-drive
system 3
1 Engine
2 Transmission
3 Freewheel and
viscous clutch
Differential with
4 Manual lock or
4 5 7
æ UFB0368-1Y
viscous lock
5 Proportional lock
6 Automatic clutch
and lock
7 Automatic lock
Antilock braking system Typical control cycles 369
VL HL
V Front
H Rear
R Right
L Left
The TCS regulates the slip of the driven The last two interventions are rapid
wheels as quickly as possible to the optimum interventions, the first a slower means
level. To do this the system first determines of intervention (Fig. 2). The availability of
a reference value for the slip. This value these interventions depends on the vehicle
depends on a number of factors which are in- manufacturer and engine version.
tended to represent the current driving situa-
tion as closely as possible. These factors in- In diesel-engine vehicles, the drive torque
clude: MKar is influenced by the electronic diesel
쐌 the basic characteristic for TCS reference control system (EDC) (reduction of the
slip (based on the slip requirement of a tire quantity of fuel injected).
during acceleration),
쐌 effective coefficient of friction, The braking torque MBr can be regulated
쐌 external tractive resistance (deep snow, for each wheel via the braking system.
rough road, etc.), The TCS function requires the original ABS
쐌 yaw velocity, lateral acceleration, and steer- hydraulic system to be expanded because
ing angle of the vehicle. of the need for active pressure build-up
(see also “Hydraulic modulator”).
TCS interventions
The measured wheel speeds and the respective Fig. 2 compares the response times with
drive slip can be influenced by changing the various TCS interventions. The figure
torque balance MGes at each driven wheel. shows that exclusive drive torque regulation
The torque balance MGes at each wheel results by means of the throttle valve can be unsatis-
from the drive torque MKar/2 at this wheel, the factory due to the relatively long response
respective braking torque MBr and the road time.
torque MStr (Fig. 1).
2 Throttle-valve
intervention/
TCS response time ignition adjustment
3 Throttle-valve
intervention
372 Traction control system Structure of traction control system
VR HR
1
υR, MR
2
Transversal
Engine MKar , υKar differential
Fig. 3
1 Wheel Drive axle Transversal
speed differential
2 Wheel brake controller lock controller
V Front VL HL
H Rear
R Right
L Left
Traction control system Typical control situations 373
FL force on μh
μl
M Kar
Fig. 5
υ Wheel speed
Fl μh MBr,l
æ UFB0383-1Y
FBr*
æ UFB0765E
torque
MFahVorga Driver-specified
than the speed difference of the left and right
Symmetr.
drive torque
æ UFB0759E
(via accelerator
MBr, Sym wheel of the driven axle (transversal differen-
pedal position) Time t tial lock controller, see above).
L Left
R Right
Traction control system Traction control system for four wheel drive vehicles 375
Fig. 8 shows the expansion of the TCS Electronic differential locks designed as part
concept from Fig. 3 for an all-wheel drive of the TCS software have the advantage that
vehicle. As with a single-axle driven vehicle, they do not require additional hardware.
the drive axle speed controller uses the drive There are therefore very cost-efficient. They
axle speed υKar to regulate the drive torque are used for road vehicles, which is usually
MKar provided by the engine. As already de- the intended application of SUVs. When
scribed, the longitudinal differential lock used in true off-road cross-country vehicles,
controller distributes this torque to the front electronic differential locks reach their limit
and rear axle (MKar, VA and MKar, HA, respec- in tough off-road conditions, at the latest
tively). The transversal
differential lock con- 8 TCS controller concept for a four-wheel-drive vehicle
troller uses the differ-
ential speed υDif, XA to
regulate the distribu- Fig. 8
tion of the drive 1 Wheel
torque MKar, XA per axle VR HR 2 Wheel brake
to the driven wheels. 1 Drive axle
Engine υ Wheel speed
This must now be car- 2 speed controller
MVR,υVR MHR,υHR υKar Drive axle speed
ried out for both the MKar , υKar
Transversal differential Transversal differential MKar Drive axle torque
front and rear axle
Transversal differential Longitudinal Longitudinal Transversal differential
A Axle
(“X” = “V” (front) or differential differential V Front
lock controller lock controller lock controller
“X” = “H” (rear)). M ,υ M ,υ H Rear
VL VL HL HL
R Right
L Left
VL MKar, VA , υKar, VA MKar, HA , υKar, HA HL æ UFB0761E
Fig. 7
1 Engine with
transmission
2 Wheel
3 Wheel brake
7 Drive concept of a four-wheel-drive vehicle with TCS 4 Transversal
differential
5 Longitudinal
differential
6 Control unit with
VR 6 HR TCS functionality
7 Transversal
2
differential
3 M Br, VR M Br, HR
Engine, transmission,
Engine intervention gear ratios of differentials
1
and losses are combined
M Kar , υKar M Kar, HA , υKar, HA
4 5 7 into one unit
υ Wheel speed
υKar Drive axle speed
MKar Drive axle torque
M Kar, VA , υKar, VA MBr Braking torque
M Br, VL M Br, HL R Right
æ UFB0760E
L Left
V Front
VL HL
H Rear
A Axle
376 Traction control system Traction control system for four wheel drive vehicles
when the brakes overheat. Vehicles for these Summary: Advantages of TCS
conditions are therefore often fitted with me- Below is a summary of the advantages of
chanical locks (examples can be seen in Figs. using TCS to prevent the driven wheels from
9 and 10). The lock controllers of the TCS spinning when starting off or accelerating
software are then only used as a backup sys- on slippery road surfaces under one or both
tem and they do not intervene during normal sides of the vehicle, when accelerating when
operation. cornering, and when starting off on an
incline:
쐌 Unstable vehicle conditions are avoided
and therefore the driving safety is en-
hanced.
쐌 Increased traction due to regulating the
optimum slip.
쐌 Mimicking the function of a transversal
differential lock.
쐌 Mimicking the function of a longitudinal
9 Classic solution of a differential lock differential lock with four-wheel-drive
vehicles.
쐌 Automatic control of the engine output.
쐌 No “grinding” of the tires when driving
around tight corners (unlike with mechani-
cal differential locks).
쐌 Reduction of tire wear.
쐌 Reduction of wear to drive mechanism
(transmission, differential, etc.) especially
on μ-split or if a wheel suddenly starts to
spin on a road surface providing good grip.
쐌 Warning lamp informs the driver during
æ UFB0762Y
2 4
3 5
1 6
Fig. 10
1 Output shaft
2 Working piston
æ UFB0763Y
3 Lamella
4 Axial-piston pump
5 Control valve
6 Input shaft
Control Unit Basic principles of automotive control engineering 377
Many subsystems of a driving safety system control variance is decreased, i. e., yactual = yref
(e. g. ESP) influence the driving dynamics of at least approximately.
a vehicle by means of a controller i. e., they This task may be made more difficult by
form a control loop together with the relevant unknown natural dynamics of the controlled
components of the vehicle. system and other external factors z, which also
influence the controlled system.
Control loop
A simple standard control loop consists Example: TCS transversal differential
of controllers and a controlled system. The lock controller
objective is to influence the characteristic of The principle of a control loop can be ex-
the parameter yactual (controlled variable) of plained using the transversal differential lock
the controlled system using the controller controller of the TCS system as an example.
such that the parameter follows a reference The controlled variable yactual = υDif is the differ-
characteristic yref as closely as possible. To do ential speed of the two wheels of a driven axle.
this the controlled variable is measured and The reference value υSoDif is determined by the
passed to the controller. The actual value of TCS and adapted to the current driving situa-
the controlled variable is constantly compared tion. When driving straight ahead, this value is
with the current reference value by generating typically 0. The asymmetric braking torque is
the control variance e = yref – yactual. used as a correcting variable to influence the
The main task of the controller is to deter- controlled variable. The controlled system is
mine a suitable value for the correcting vari- the vehicle itself which is affected by external
able u for every control variance e so that the influences such as changing road surfaces.
왘 Standard control loop using TCS transversal differential lock controller as an example
z
Reference value for Asymmetr. Differential
differential speed ˘SoDif Transversal braking torque speed ˘Dif yactual Controlled variable
differential Vehicle yref Reference variable
yref + e lock controller u
y actual e Control variance
(Controller) (Control loop)
æ UFB0764E
yref – yactual
u Correcting variable
z External disturbance
values
β
Fig. 1
1 Driver steers, lateral-
force buildup.
2 Incipient instability
because side-slip 4
angle is too large.
3 Countersteer,
driver loses control
of vehicle.
4 Vehicle becomes
uncontrollable. 3
β
MG Yaw moment
1 2
FR Wheel forces MG
æ UAF0085Y
β Directional deviation β
β
from vehicle’s FR
longitudinal axis
(side-slip angle)
Fig. 2
1 Driver steers, lateral-
force buildup.
β 2 Incipient instability,
ESP intervention at
4
right front.
3 Vehicle remains
under control.
4 Incipient instability,
ESP intervention at
left front, complete
stabilization.
3
β
MG Yaw moment
FR Wheel forces
1 2 β Directional deviation
MG
β
æ UAF0021-1Y
from vehicle’s
FR β longitudinal axis
(side-slip angle)
Increased braking
force
380 Electronic stability program Maneuvers
0
(Fig. 4 on right, phase 2) that follows the ini-
Lateral
Fig. 4
Increased braking
force
1 Driver steers, lateral-
force buildup.
2 Incipient instability
Right: ESP interven-
tion at left front.
3 Countersteer
Phase 4 Left: Driver loses
control of vehicle;
Phase 4
Right: Vehicle remains
Phase 3
under control.
4 Left: Vehicle becomes
Phase 3
uncontrollable,
Right: ESP interven-
tion at right front,
Phase 2 Phase 2
complete stabilization.
Fig. 5
æ UAF0060-1E
a Oversteering
Phase 1 behavior.
Phase 1
1 The rear end of the
vehicle breaks away.
2 ESP applies the
brake at the outer
5 Over and understeering behavior when cornering
front wheel and this
a b reduces the risk of
skidding.
3 The vehicle without
3 ESP breaks into
3 a slide.
b Understeering
2 behavior
2
1 The front of the
1 vehicle breaks away.
1 2 ESP applies the
brake at the inner
rear wheel and this
with ESP with ESP reduces the risk of
understeering.
without ESP without ESP 3 The vehicle without
Lane change with emergency braking 쐌 one equipped solely with the Antilock
When the last vehicle in a line of stopped Braking System (ABS) and
traffic is hidden by a rise in the road, and thus 쐌 one that is also fitted with ESP.
invisible to traffic approaching from behind, Both vehicles
drivers closing on the traffic jam cannot reg- 쐌 are traveling at 50 km/h and
ister the dangerous situation until the very 쐌 on a slippery road surface (μHF = 0.15)
last second. Stopping the vehicle without col- at the moment when the driver registers
liding with the stationary traffic will entail a the dangerous situation.
lane change as well as braking.
7 Curves for dynamic response parameters for lane
change during an emergency stop at υ0 = 50 km/h
Figs. 6 and 7 show the results of this evasive and μHF = 0.15
action as taken by two different vehicles:
50
6 Lane change during emergency braking
km/h
Vehicle without Vehicle with ESP
Vehicle speed
ESP, with ABS 1
2
0
4 4
+300°
1
Steering-wheel angle
0
2
-300°
+40
°/s 1
Yaw velocity
3 3 2
0
Fig. 6
+16°
υ0 = 50 km/h
μHF = 0.15 1
Side-slip angle
2 2
Increased brake slip
0
2
Fig. 7
æ UAF0062-1Y
υ0 = 50 km/h
æ UAF0063-1E
1 2 3 4
μHF = 0.15 1 1
-16°
0 Time s 15
1 Vehicle without ESP
2 Vehicle with ESP
Electronic stability program Maneuvers 383
Vehicle with ABS but without ESP the complexity of the steering process and
Immediately after the initial steering input lowers the demands placed on the driver.
both the side-slip angle and the yaw velocity Yet another asset is that the ESP vehicle stops
have increased to the point where driver in- in less distance than the vehicle equipped
tervention – in the form of countersteer – has with ABS alone.
become imperative (Fig. 6, on
left). This driver action then 9 Oversteering and understeering when cornering
generates a side-slip angle in the 1
opposite direction (technically:
with the opposite operational
sign). This side-slip angle in-
creases rapidly, and the driver 2
must countersteer for a second
time. Here the driver is able –
but only just – to restabilize the
vehicle and bring it to a safe halt.
intervention, vehicle
follows driver’s
with ESP steering movements.
1 3 Vehicle almost
without ESP breaks away again
æ UAF0087E
when recentering
the steering wheel
씮 ESP intervention.
4 Vehicle is stabilized.
384 Electronic stability program Maneuvers
Extended steering and countersteering clearly seen during this kind of dynamic ma-
sequence with progressively greater neuver when the steering wheel has to
input angles be turned to progressively greater angles to
A vehicle traversing a series of S-curves (for negotiate each turn.
instance, on a snaking secondary road) is in Figs. 10 and 11 illustrate the handling
a situation similar to that encountered on a response of two vehicles (one with and
slalom course. The way the ESP works can be one without ESP) under these conditions
쐌 on a snow-covered road (μHF = 0.45),
10 Curves for dynamic response parameters for rapid 쐌 without the driver braking, and
steering and countersteering inputs with increasing
steering-wheel angles 쐌 at a constant velocity of 72 km/h.
1+2
tinually in order to maintain a constant road
Steering-
0
2
æ UAF0065-1E
1 2 3 4 5 6
Fig. 10 -10°
0 Time s 14
1 Vehicle without ESP
2 Vehicle with ESP
Electronic stability program Maneuvers 385
11 Vehicle tracking for rapid steering and countersteering inputs with increasing steering-wheel angles.
6
4 4
3 3
1 1
æ UAF0064-1Y
Fig. 11
Increased braking
force
386 Electronic stability program Maneuvers
Acceleration/deceleration during cornering for steering input starts to rise rapidly, while at
A decreasing-radius curve becomes progres- the same time the side-slip angle increases dra-
sively tighter as one proceeds. If a vehicle matically. This is the upper limit at which the
maintains a constant velocity through such driver can still manage to keep the car inside
a curve (as frequently encountered on free- the skid pad. A vehicle without ESP enters its
way/highway exit ramps) the outward, or cen- unstable range at roughly 98 km/h. The rear
trifugal force, will increase at the same time end breaks away and the driver must counter-
(Fig. 12). This also applies when the driver steer and leave the skid pad.
accelerates too soon while exiting a curve.
In terms of the physics of vehicle operation, Vehicle with ESP
it produces the same effects as the situation de- Up to a speed of roughly 95 km/h, vehicles
scribed above (Fig. 13). Excessive braking in with and without ESP display identical re-
such a curve is yet another potential source of sponse patterns. Because this speed coincides
radial and tangential forces capable of induc- with the vehicle’s stability limit, the ESP refuses
ing instability during cornering. to implement continued driver demand for
A vehicle’s handling response during further acceleration to beyond this point. ESP
simultaneous acceleration and cornering uses engine intervention to limit the drive
is determined by testing on the skid pad torque. Active engine and braking intervention
(semi-steady-state circulation). In this test the work against the tendency of the vehicle to un-
driver gradually accelerates dersteer. This results in minor deviations from
쐌 on a high-traction surface (μHF = 1.0) and the initially projected course, which the driver
쐌 attempts to stay on a skid pad with a can then correct with appropriate steering ac-
100 meter radius while circulating at pro- tion. At this point, the driver has assumed an
gressively faster rates; this continues until active role as an element within the control
the vehicle reaches its cornering limits. loop. Subsequent fluctuations in steering-
wheel and side-slip angle will now be a func-
Vehicle without ESP tion of the driver’s reactions, as will the final
During testing on the skid pad at approxi- speed of between 95 and 98 km/h as stipulated
mately 95 km/h the vehicle responds to the im- for the test. The vital factor is that ESP consis-
pending approach of its physical operating tently maintains these fluctuations within the
limits by starting to understeer. The demand stable range.
12 Vehicle tracking when cornering while braking with a constant steering-wheel angle
Fig. 12
æ UAF0066-1Y
Increased braking
force
Decreased braking
force
Electronic stability program Maneuvers 387
æ UAF0067-1Y
Fig. 13
Increased braking
force
æ UAF0089Y
388 Electronic stability program Closed-loop control system and controlled variables
Control variance
æ UAF0083E
The ESP controller generates the specified 쐌 yaw velocity (measured parameter),
yaw moment by relaying corresponding 쐌 steering-wheel angle (measured para-
slip-modulation commands to the selected meter),
wheels. 쐌 lateral acceleration (measured parameter),
The subordinate-level ABS and TCS con- 쐌 vehicle’s linear velocity (estimated para-
trollers trigger the actuators governing the meter), and
brake hydraulic system and the engine- 쐌 longitudinal tire forces and slip rates
management system using the data generated (estimated parameters)
in the ESP controller.
the monitor determines the following:
Design 쐌 lateral forces acting on the wheel,
Fig. 3 is a simplified block diagram showing 쐌 slip angle,
the design structure of the ESP controller. 쐌 side-slip angle, and
It portrays the signal paths for input and out- 쐌 vehicle lateral speed.
put parameters. Based on the
3 Simplified block diagram showing ESP controller with input and output variables
Vehicle
ESP controller
Monitor defines
estimated parameters
ABS controller
æ UAF0084E
TCS controller
EDTC engine drag torque controller
Electronic stability program Closed-loop control system and controlled variables 391
curve, and the specified yaw velocity is ex- Level 2 ABS controller
ceeded (the vehicle evinces a tendency to Task
rotate too quickly around its vertical axis), The hierarchically subordinated ABS con-
ESP responds by braking the left front wheel troller goes into operation whenever the
to generate a defined brake slip which shifts desired slip rate is exceeded during braking,
the yaw moment toward greater counter- and it becomes necessary for ABS to inter-
clockwise rotation thus suppressing the vene. During both ABS and “active” braking,
vehicle’s tendency to break away. the closed-loop control of wheel-slip rates
If a vehicle breaks into understeer while as applied for various dynamic-intervention
coasting into a right-handed curve, and the functions must be as precise as possible.
yaw velocity is below the specified yaw rate The system needs precise data on slip as a
(the vehicle evinces a tendency to rotate too precondition for dialing in the specified slip
slowly around its vertical axis), ESP responds rates. It must be pointed out that the system
by braking the right rear wheel to generate does not measure the vehicle’s longitudinal
a defined brake slip which shifts the yaw speed directly. Instead, this parameter is de-
moment toward greater clockwise rotation rived from the rotation rates of the wheels.
thus suppressing the vehicle’s tendency to
push over the front axle. Design and method of operation
By briefly “underbraking” one wheel, the ABS
ESP controller functions during ABS and controller performs an indirect measurement
TCS operation of vehicle speed. It interrupts the slip control
The entire spectrum of monitored and to lower the current braking torque by a
estimated data is relayed to the subordinate defined increment. The torque is then main-
controllers for continuous processing. This tained at this level for a given period.
guarantees maximum exploitation of the Assuming that the wheel has stabilized and
traction available between tire and road sur- is turning freely with no slip at the end of
face for the basic ABS and TCS functions this period, it can serve as a suitable source
under all operating conditions. for determining (no-slip) wheel speed.
During active ABS operation (with wheels The calculated velocity at the center of
tending to lock) the ESP controller provides gravity can be used to determine the effective
the subordinate ABS controller with the (free-rolling) wheel speeds at all four wheels.
following data: These data, in turn, form the foundation for
쐌 lateral vehicle velocity, calculating the actual slip rates at the remain-
쐌 yaw velocity, ing three – controlled – wheels.
쐌 steering-wheel angle, and
쐌 wheel speeds as the foundation for Level 2 engine drag-torque controller
providing the desired ABS slip. (EDTC)
Task
When TCS is active (wheels threatening to Following downshifts and when the accelera-
break into uncontrolled spin when moving tor is suddenly released, inertia in the engine’s
off or during rolling acceleration) the ESP moving parts always exerts a degree of brak-
controller transmits the following offset ing force at the drive wheels. Once this force
values to the subordinate TCS controller: and the corresponding reactive torque rise
쐌 change in the specified value for the beyond a certain level, the tires will lose their
drive-slip, ability to transfer the resulting loads to the
쐌 change in the slip tolerance range, and road. Engine drag-torque control intervenes
쐌 change in a value to influence the torque under these conditions (by “gently” accelerat-
reduction. ing the engine).
Electronic stability program Closed-loop control system and controlled variables 393
1 Block diagram
ESP
Deceleration
ACC HBA management/
CAN CDP standstill
HHC management
HDC
CDD Braking force
HFC
HRB
BDW Braking-force
distribution
ABS Coordination
TCS of wheel
VDC braking torque
Hydraulic model
æ UFB0776E
Engine-speed sensor
Engine torque
Transmission
information
Safety logic
Lateral-acceleration
æ UFB0777E
sensor
Tilt sensor
396 Automatic brake functions Standard function
vehicle:
tioning valves, but at
1l Unladen vehicle 4
1b Fully laden
the cost of complex me- 1l
vehicle chanics and hydraulics.
3
2 Fixed braking-force
distribution
2
3 Braking-force
distribution with
æ UFB0710-1E
proportioning valve
4 Straight line for
retardation of 0.83g
(g: gravitational Braking force, front wheels
acceleration)
Automatic brake functions Standard function 397
3 1
4
Braking force, rear wheels
Fig. 2
1 Ideal braking-force
distribution
2 Design braking-force
distribution
æ UFB0711E
3 Electronic braking-
Braking force, front wheels force distribution
4 Gain in rear-wheel
braking force
398 Automatic brake functions Additional functions
Good driver
Average
driver
Delay
act
1 3 5
iva
ted
2 4 R
Activation dea
ctiv
• Stop on an incline (> approx. 2%) ate
d
• Press brake pedal
• Engage 1st gear
Deactivation
æ UFB0713E
Deactivation
• Switch
• High speed (> 60 km/h)
Automatic brake functions Additional functions 401
on
Braking
deceleration
Emergency braking range
without HFC
Brake pressure
Current
deceleration
er
ow
Brake pressure
ce p
tan ing
Pressure in wheel-
sis rak
brake cylinders
as ith b
æ UFB0778E
æ UFB0779E
w
Time 0
Pedal force
402 Automatic brake functions Additional functions
r
we
ce po
tan ing
sis ak
as th br
æ UFB0780E
wi
0
Pedal force
Electronic Control Unit Directional stability 403
왘 Directional stability
Satisfactory handling is defined according to face, the side-slip angle becomes excessive
whether a vehicle maintains a path that accu- (curve 3). Although with a controlled yaw ve-
rately reflects the steering angle while at the locity the vehicle will rotate just as far around
same time remaining stable. To meet this sta- its vertical axis as in curve 2, the larger side-
bility criterion, the vehicle must remain consis- slip angle is now a potential source of instabil-
tently secure and sure-footed, without “plow- ity. For this reason the electronic stability pro-
ing” or breaking away. gram controls the yaw velocity and limits the
Dynamic lateral response is a critical factor side-slip angle β (curve 4).
in the overall equation. The response pattern
is defined based on the vehicle’s lateral mo- 2 Dynamic lateral response
tion (characterized by the side-slip angle) and
its tendency to rotate around its vertical axis
3
(yaw velocity) (Fig. 1). β 4
Vehicle
longitudinal axis
Vehicle horizontal axis
Lateral acceleration
Linear acceleration
æ UFA0013-1E
Rolling
Steering movement
404 Hydraulic modulator Development history
Hydraulic modulator
The hydraulic modulator forms the hy- Development history
draulic connection between the master cylin-
der and the wheel-brake cylinders and is The transition from 3/3 to 2/2 solenoid valve
therefore the central component of elec- was a milestone in the development of ABS.
tronic brake systems. It converts the control With 3/3 valves, which were used in genera-
commands of the electronic control unit and tion 2, the control functions for building up,
uses solenoid valves to control the pressures maintaining and reducing pressure could be
in the wheel brakes. carried out using just one valve. The valves
had three hydraulic connections to carry out
A distinction is made between systems that these functions. The disadvantages of this
modulate the brake pressure applied by the valve design were extremely expensive electri-
driver (Antilock Braking System, (ABS)) and cal control and great mechanical complexity.
systems that can build-up pressure automati- Control with the 2/2 valves of the current
cally (Traction Control System (TCS) and generations offers a less expensive solution.
Electronic Stability Program (ESP)). The following section describes how these
All systems are only available as dual-circuit valves work.
versions for legal reasons. Generation 8, which was introduced onto
the market in 2001, is designed as a fully
modular system. The hydraulic system can
therefore be tailored to meet the require-
ments of the respective vehicle manufacturer
such as with regard to value added functions,
comfort and convenience, vehicle segment
(up to lightweight commercial vehicles), etc.
Generation 8 is immersion-proof which
means that the hydraulic modulator can
withstand brief immersion in water.
6 5 4 3 2 1
Fig. 1
1 Electronic control
unit
2 Coil grid
7
3 Coils/solenoid
group
4 Solenoid valves
5 Hydraulic block 8 9
æ UFB0750-1Y
6 DC motor
7 Plunger pump
8 Low-pressure
reservoir
9 Pressure sensor
ABS hydraulic modulator Moreover, the system features one pump ele-
With a 3-channel ABS system, this block fea- ment (return pump) and one low-pressure
tures one inlet valve and one outlet valve for reservoir for each brake circuit. Both pump
each front wheel and one inlet valve and one elements are operated by a shared DC motor.
outlet valve for the rear axle – a total of six
valves. This system can only be used in vehi-
cles featuring a dual brake-circuit configura-
tion. The two wheels at the rear axle are not
controlled individually, rather both wheels
are controlled according to the select-low
principle. This means that the wheel with the
HZ
IV IV
PE
M
AC
Fig. 2
HZ Master cylinder
RZ Wheel-brake
OV OV cylinder
IV Inlet valve
OV Outlet valve
PE Return pump
M Pump motor
RZ RZ RZ RZ AC Low-pressure
æ UFB0749-1E
reservoir
V Front
HL VR VL HR
H Rear
R Right
L Left
406 Hydraulic modulator Design
HZ
HSV SV
P
U
Fig. 3 PE
HZ Master cylinder IV IV M
RZ Wheel-brake
AC
cylinder
EV Inlet valve
AV Outlet valve
USV Switchover valve
OV OV
SV High-pressure
switching valve
PE Return pump
M Pump motor
AC Low-pressure
RZ RZ RZ RZ
æ UFB0752-1E
reservoir
V Front
H Rear HL VR VL HR
R Right
L Left
ABS versions 407
왘 ABS versions
Evolution of the ABS system have enabled the weight and dimensions of
Technological advances in the areas of ABS systems to be more than halved since
쐌 solenoid-valve design and manufacturing, the first-generation ABS2 in 1978. As a result,
쐌 assembly and component integration, modern systems can now be accommodated
쐌 electronic circuitry (discrete components even in vehicles with the tightest space re-
replaced by hybrid and integrated circuits strictions. Those advances have also lowered
with microcontrollers), the cost of ABS systems to the extent that it
쐌 testing methods and equipment (separate has now become standard equipment on all
testing of electronic and hydraulic systems types of vehicle.
before combination in the hydraulic modula-
tor), and
쐌 sensor and relay technology
Hydraulic-modulator development
ABS 2
ABS 5.0
ABS 5.3/5.7
Weight
6,200 g ABS 8
3,800 g 2,600 g
< 2,000 g
Development of electronics
ABS 2 ABS 5.0 ABS 5.3 ABS 5.3/5.7 ABS 8
Fig. 1
Historical development
of ABS showing techno-
æ UFB0700E
logical advances:
1989 1993 1995 2001 Decreasing weight
accompanied by
increasing processing
power.
408 Hydraulic modulator Pressure modulation
V Front
HL VR
H Rear fied by the driver. The motor is actuated
R Right based on demand i.e. the motor is actuated
L Left according to the rotational speed. The ABS
Hydraulic modulator Pressure modulation 409
Pressure modulation with ESP hydraulic switching valve that is closed at zero current.
modulators These two valves are required for active/par-
Pressure is modulated with ESP control using tially-active brake intervention (Fig. 2).
ESP hydraulics in the same way as described
for ABS. Unlike with ABS, however, the Pressure generation with ESP
wheel-brake cylinder and master cylinder are The pressure generation chain consists of two
also connected via a switchover valve that is self-priming pumps and a motor. Plunger
open at zero current and a high-pressure pumps are used, as for ABS, but these pumps
can generate pressure without requiring the
2 Pressure modulation in ESP hydraulic modulator primary pressure applied when the driver
presses the brake pedal. These pumps are
a driven by a DC motor based on demand. The
motor drives an eccentric bearing located on
HSV SV the shaft of the motor.
P
U
V Front
H Rear
HL VR R Right
L Left
410 Hydraulic modulator Pressure modulation
a b
1 1
2 2
Fig. 1
3 3 a ABS2
4b
b ABS5
4a 4b 1 Damping chamber
2 Constrictor
æ UFB0545-2Y
3 Return pump
5 5 4a 3/3 solenoid valve
4b 2/2 solenoid valves
5 Accumulator
chamber
412 Sensotronic brake control Purpose and function
1 2 3 4 1 1
Fig. 1
1 Active wheel speed
Motr
C
onic
sensor with direction
A
N
sensing
2 Engine management SB
C
ECU
3 SBC ECU
4 Yaw rate and lateral
acceleration sensor
5 Hydraulic modulator
CA
N
and ESP)
6 Actuator unit with
pedal travel sensor
7 Steering angle
5 1 6 7
sensor
By using a high-pressure accumulator, SBC optimum friction value is fully utilized. This
is capable of extremely rapid dynamic pres- results in a significant reduction of total
sure increases and thus offers the potential braking distance for hesitant drivers. The
for achieving short braking distances and highly dynamic braking force build-up of
excellent vehicle handling stability. Brake SBC exceeds that of conventional systems in
pressure modulation and active braking are this regard.
silent and produce no brake pedal feedback.
Consequently, SBC also satisfies demands Soft stop assist
for greater levels of comfort. SBC provides comfortable braking that stops
Braking characteristics can be adapted to the car with no jerking by automatically
the driving conditions (e.g. sharper response reducing the pressure just before the car
at high speeds or with more dynamic dri- comes to a complete stop. If more decelera-
ving styles). “Duller” pedal characteristics tion is desired, this function is not activated
allow the reduction of the braking effect, and SBC minimizes the braking distance.
which is necessitated by physics, to be
signaled to the driver before fading due Traffic jam assist
to overheating occurs. When traffic jam assist is activated, SBC
builds up a higher drag torque, which means
Additional SBC functions that the driver does not have to constantly
The auxiliary functions provided by SBC alternate between the accelerator and brake.
make a significant extra contribution to The vehicle is automatically braked and, if
safety and convenience. necessary, brought to a complete stop and
kept at a complete stop. This function can be
Hill hold control activated at speeds of 50 - 60 km/h.
After hill hold control is activated by a sig-
nificant increase in brake pressure while the Brake wiping
vehicle is stationary, the vehicle remains “Brake wiping” is an operation whereby the
braked without the need to keep the pedal film of water is regularly removed from the
down. The hill hold control is automatically brake disks in wet weather. It results in
released as soon as the driver has built up shorter stopping distances in wet conditions.
sufficient engine torque by depressing the You can take the information for activating
accelerator. This allows the driver to start the this function from the windshield wiper
car on a hill, for example, without activating signal, for example.
the parking brake system. Likewise, in other
situations in which the vehicle would roll
out of position if not braked, the driver does 2 Evolution of brake systems
which monitors the plausibility of every sys- Braking in the event of system failure
tem state at all times. In this way, the driver For safety reasons, the SBC system is de-
can be notified of any failures before critical signed so that in the event of any serious
states occur. If components fail, the system errors (such as failure of the power supply),
automatically provides the optimal remain- the system is switched to a state in which the
ing partial function to the driver. An exten- vehicle can be braked even without active
sive fault memory allows prompt diagnostics brake force support. When de-energized, the
and repair in the event of a fault. isolating valves establish a direct connection
An intelligent interface with CAN bus es- to the actuator (Fig. 3) and thus allow a direct
tablishes the connection to the discrete ECU. hydraulic connection from the actuator unit
The following functions are integrated there: to the wheel brake cylinders.
쐌 ESP (electronic stability program), To maintain optimum function even if
쐌 TCS (traction control system), the system fails, the plunger pistons in the
쐌 ABS (antilock braking system), illustration serve as a medium separator be-
쐌 Driver brake request calculation and tween the active circuit of the SBC and the
쐌 SBC auxiliary functions (assist functions). conventional front axle brake circuit. These
prevent any gas that might escape from the
high-pressure accumulator from reaching
the brake circuit of the front wheels, which
would diminish the instantaneous braking
power in the event of a system failure.
Brakes
LF RF LR RR
416 Overview of common-rail systems Areas of application
2
5
3
4
Fig. 1
1 Fuel return line
2 High-pressure fuel 7
6
line to injector
3 Injector
4 Fuel rail
5 Rail-pressure sensor
æ UMK1991Y
6 High-pressure fuel 8
line to rail
7 Fuel return line
8 High-pressure pump
Engine
1
2
3
æ NMK1871E
Signals
Fig. 2
High-pressure section Diesel fuel
1 High-pressure pump
2 Fuel rail
3 Injectors
418 Overview of common-rail systems Design, operating concept
19 Pressure-relief valve 2 3
10 Metering unit
11 Pressure-control
valve
Overview of common-rail systems Operating concept 419
Control on the high-pressure side was The injector opening times and system
adopted on the first common-rail systems. pressure determine the quantity of fuel
The pressure-control valve is mounted prefer- delivered. At a constant pressure, the fuel
ably on the fuel rail. In some applications, quantity delivered is proportional to the
however, it is mounted directly on the high- switching time of the solenoid valve. This is,
pressure pump. therefore, independent of engine or pump
speed (time-based fuel injection).
Fuel-delivery control on the suction side
Another way of controlling rail pressure is Potential hydraulic power
to control fuel delivery on the suction side Separating the functions of pressure genera-
(Fig. 3b). The metering unit (10) flanged on tion and fuel injection opens up further de-
the high-pressure pump makes sure that the grees of freedom in the combustion process
pump delivers exactly the right quantity of compared with conventional fuel-injection
fuel to the fuel rail in order to maintain the systems; the injection pressure is more or less
injection pressure required by the system. freely selectable within the program map.
In a fault situation, the pressure-relief valve The maximum injection pressure at present
(9) prevents rail pressure from exceeding a is 1,600 bar; in future this will rise to
maximum. 1,800 bar.
Fuel-delivery control on the suction side The common-rail system allows a further
reduces the quantity of fuel under high reduction in exhaust-gas emissions by intro-
pressure and lowers the power input of the ducing pre-injection events or multiple injec-
pump. This has a positive impact on fuel con- tion events and also attenuating combustion
sumption. At the same time, the temperature noise significantly. Multiple injection events
of the fuel flowing back to the fuel tank is re- of up to five per injection cycle can be gener-
duced in contrast to the control method on ated by triggering the highly rapid-action
the high-pressure side. switching valve several times. The nozzle-
needle closing action is hydraulically assisted
Two-actuator system to ensure that the end of injection is rapid.
The two-actuator system (Fig. 3c) combines
pressure control on the suction side via the
metering unit and control on the high-pres-
sure side via the pressure-control valve, thus
marrying the advantages of high-pressure-
side control and suction-side fuel-delivery
control (see the section on “Common-rail
system for passenger cars”).
Fuel injection
The injectors spray fuel directly into the en-
gine’s combustion chambers. They are sup-
plied by short high-pressure fuel lines con-
nected to the fuel rail. The engine control
unit controls the switching valve integrated in
the injector to open and close the injector
nozzle.
420 Overview of common-rail systems Operating concept
Nm kW
Driving pleasure
Almost all diesel engines on the market are 360 100
Power P
160 50
40
æ SMK2023E
Fig. 1
6 1 High-pressure pump
1 5 8 (CP3) with fitted
geared presupply
pump and metering
unit
2 Fuel filter with water
separator and heater
(optional)
2 3 Fuel tank
4 Pre-filter
3 5 Fuel rail
7
æ SMK2017Y
6 Rail-pressure sensor
7 Solenoid-valve
4 injector
8 Pressure-relief valve
2 Example of a second-generation common-rail system with two-actuator system for a V8 engine Fig. 2
5 1 High-pressure pump
(CP3) with fitted
8 geared presupply
1 6 pump and metering
9 5 unit
2 Fuel filter with water
separator and heater
(optional)
3 Fuel tank
4 Pre-filter
2 5 Fuel rail
6 Rail-pressure sensor
3 7 Solenoid-valve
7
æ SMK2018Y
injector
8 Pressure-control valve
4 9 Function module
(distributor)
3 Example of a third-generation common-rail system with two-actuator system for a 4-cylinder engine
Fig. 3
1 8 5 6 1 High-pressure pump
(CP1H) with
metering unit
2 Fuel filter with water
separator and heater
(optional)
3 Fuel tank
2 4 Pre-filter
5 Fuel rail
3
7 6 Rail-pressure sensor
æ SMK2019Y
7 Piezo-inline injector
9 8 Pressure-control
4 valve
9 Electric fuel pump
424 Overview of common-rail systems Common-rail system for passenger cars
System diagram for passenger cars Data exchange between the various sections
Fig. 4 shows all the components in a takes place via the CAN bus in the “Inter-
common-rail system for a fully equipped, faces” (B) section:
4-cylinder, passenger-car diesel engine. 쐌 Starter motor
Depending on the type of vehicle and its 쐌 Alternator
application, some of the components may 쐌 Electronic immobilizer
not be fitted. 쐌 Transmission control
쐌 Traction Control System (TSC)
The sensors and setpoint generators (A) 쐌 Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
are not depicted in their real installation
position to simplify presentation. Exceptions The instrument cluster (13) and the air-con-
are the exhaust-gas treatment sensors (F) and ditioning system (14) are also connectable to
the rail-pressure sensor as their installation the CAN bus.
positions are required to understand the sys-
tem. Two possible combined systems are described
(a or b) for exhaust-gas treatment.
Fig. 4
Engine, engine management, and high-pressure C Fuel-supply system (low-pressure stage)
fuel-injection components 19 Fuel filter with overflow valve
17 High-pressure pump 20 Fuel tank with pre-filter and Electric Fuel Pump,
18 Metering unit EFP (presupply pump)
25 Engine ECU 21 Fuel-level sensor
26 Fuel rail
27 Rail-pressure sensor D Additive system
28 Pressure-control valve (DRV 2) 22 Additive metering unit
29 Injector 23 Additive control unit
30 Glow plug 24 Additive tank
31 Diesel engine (DI)
M Torque E Air supply
32 Exhaust-gas recirculation cooler
A Sensors and setpoint generators 33 Boost-pressure actuator
1 Pedal-travel sensor 34 Turbocharger (in this case with Variable Turbine
2 Clutch switch Geometry (VTG))
3 Brake contacts (2) 35 Control flap
4 Operator unit for vehicle-speed controller (cruise control) 36 Exhaust-gas recirculation actuator
5 Glow-plug and starter switch (“ignition switch”) 37 Vacuum pump
6 Road-speed sensor
7 Crankshaft-speed sensor (inductive) F Exhaust-gas treatment
8 Camshaft-speed sensor (inductive or Hall sensor) 38 Broadband lambda oxygen sensor, type LSU
9 Engine-temperature sensor (in coolant circuit) 39 Exhaust-gas temperature sensor
10 Intake-air temperature sensor 40 Oxidation-type catalytic converter
11 Boost-pressure sensor 41 Particulate filter
12 Hot-film air-mass meter (intake air) 42 Differential-pressure sensor
43 NOx accumulator-type catalytic converter
B Interfaces 44 Broadband lambda oxygen sensor, optional NOx sensor
13 Instrument cluster with displays for fuel consumption,
engine speed, etc.
14 Air-conditioner compressor with operator unit
15 Diagnosis interface
16 Glow control unit
CAN Controller Area Network
(on-board serial data bus)
Overview of common-rail systems Common-rail system for passenger cars 425
B 19 C D
CAN
13
17 22
20
18
21
14
15
27
26 28
16
23 24
A
29
1 30
25
2
32
31
3
M
E
4
35
5
36 37
34
6 33
7 F
a
38 39 39
8
40 41
9
42
10 b
39 38 44 39
11 43 41
æ SMK1819-1Y
12 42
426 Overview of diesel fuel-injection systems
Diesel engines are used in a wide variety of Basically, the fuel-injection system is required
design for many different purposes (Fig. 1 and to inject a precisely metered amount of fuel at
Table 1), for example high pressure into the combustion chamber
쐌 To drive mobile power generators in such a way that it mixes effectively with the
(up to approx. 10 kW/cylinder) air in the cylinder as demanded by the type
쐌 As fast-running engines for cars of engine (direct or indirect-injection) and its
and light-duty trucks present operating status. The power output
(up to approx. 50 kW/cylinder) and speed of a diesel engine is controlled by
쐌 As engines for construction-industry means of the injected fuel quantity as it has no
and agricultural machinery air intake throttle.
(up to approx. 50 kW/cylinder)
쐌 As engines for heavy trucks, Mechanical control of diesel fuel-injection
omnibuses and tractor vehicles systems is being increasingly replaced by
(up to approx. 80 kW/cylinder) Electronic Diesel Control (EDC) systems.
쐌 To drive fixed installations such All new diesel-injection systems for cars
as emergency power generators and commercial vehicles are electronically
(up to approx. 160 kW/cylinder) controlled.
쐌 As engines for railway locomotives
and ships (up to 1,000 kW/cylinder)
PF PF PF PF PF PF
Fig. 1
M, MW,
VE VE VE VE VE VE
A, P, H,
ZWM,
CW In-line fuel-injection VR VR VR VR VR
pumps of increas-
ing size
PF Discrete fuel- UIS UIS UIS UIS UIS
injection pumps
VE Axial-piston pumps UPS UPS UPS UPS
VR Radial-piston PF(R) PF(R)
æ UMK1563-4Y
pumps
UIS Unit injector system CR CR CR CR CR CR
UPS Unit pump system
CR Common-rail
system
Overview of common-rail systems Common-rail system for commercial vehicles 427
7 8 9
5 Fig. 1
11 Fuel tank
12 Pre-filter
4 3
6 13 Fuel filter
14 Gear presupply
pump
15 High-pressure pump
(CP3.4)
1 16 Metering unit
æ SMK2025Y
10 17 Rail-pressure sensor
18 Fuel rail
2 19 Pressure-relief valve
10 Injector
6 7 8 9 Fig. 2
5 3 11 Fuel tank
12 Pre-filter
4 13 Fuel filter
14 Gear presupply
pump
15 High-pressure pump
(CPN2.2)
1 16 Metering unit
æ SMK2026Y
10 17 Rail-pressure sensor
18 Fuel rail
2 19 Pressure-relief valve
10 Injector
428 Overview of common-rail systems Common-rail system for commercial vehicles
System diagram for commercial vehicles Program (ESP), oil-grade sensor, trip
Fig. 3 shows all the components in a com- recorder, Active Cruise Control (ACC), brake
mon-rail system for a 6-cylinder commercial- coordinator – up to 30 ECUs). The alternator
vehicle diesel engine. Depending on the type (18) and the air-conditioning system (17) are
of vehicle and its application, some of the also connectable to the CAN bus.
components may not be fitted. Three systems are described for exhaust-
Only the sensors and setpoint generators gas treatment: a purely DPF system (a)
are depicted at their real position to simplify mainly for the U.S. market, a purely SCR
presentation, as their installation positions system (b) mainly for the EU market, and
are required to understand the system. a combined system (c).
Data exchange to the various sections takes
place via the CAN bus in the “Interfaces” (B)
section (e.g. transmission control, Traction
Control System (TCS), Electronic Stability
B 23 24 C
CAN
17 22 27 25
28 26
18 G
19
20 31
30
29
21
A 32
1 33
34
37
3
36 35
38
4
39 M
D
5
40
6
7 41
42
8
45 E
43
9
a 44 46
10
48 50
11
49
52 or
12 51 43 54
43
b 44 53
13
14 48 50
49 45 52 or
15 54 or
51 43
43 47
æ SMK1820-1Y
16 c 44 46 53
4 High-pressure components of common-rail system Overview
1 2 3
Fig. 1
1 Hot-film air-mass
meter
2 Engine ECU
3 High-pressure pump
4 High-pressure
accumulator
(fuel rail)
5 Injector
6 Crankshaft-speed
æ UMK1566-1Y
sensor
7 Engine-temperature
sensor
8 Fuel filter 4 5 6 7 8 9
9 Pedal-travel sensor
왘 *SLHUSPULZZYLX\PYLTLU[Z
Cleanliness quality
왘 7YPUJPWSLVM[OLWHY[PJSLHUHS`ZPZZ`Z[LT:,4
;OLZOHYWYPZLPU[OLWLYMVYTHUJLVMUL^
Evolution of particulate-analysis process
HZZLTISPLZLN [OLJVTTVUYHPSZ`Z[LTMVY Particulate Microparticles
OPNOWYLZZ\YLKPLZLSM\LSPUQLJ[PVUYLX\PYLZL_
up to < 1μm
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[VSLYHUJLZHUKMP[Z7HY[PJSLYLZPK\LMYVT[OL Light Electron
WYVK\J[PVUWYVJLZZTH`SLHK[VPUJYLHZLK microscope microscope
EDX detector
:,4WYV]PKLZ[OLJSLHUSPULZZWYVJLZZ^P[O Characteristic X-ray is converted into
HUHUHS`ZPZZ`Z[LT[OH[WYVK\JLZPTWVY[HU[ "energy-dispersive" spectrum.
Identification of chemical elements
PUMVYTH[PVUVU[OL[`WLVMYLZPK\HSZVPSPUN
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[LJOUPX\LZ
432 High-pressure components of common-rail system Injector
a b c
1
Fig. 1
a Resting position
b Injector opens
c Injector closes 2 11
11 Fuel-return 3
12 Solenoid coil 12
4
13 Overstroke spring
14 Solenoid armature 13
5
15 Valve ball
6
16 Valve-control
14
chamber
17 Nozzle spring
7 15
18 Pressure shoulder
of nozzle needle
19 Chamber volume
8
10 Injection orifice
11 Solenoid-valve
spring 9
12 Outlet restrictor 16
13 High-pressure
æ UMK1855-1Y
connection 10
14 Inlet restrictor
15 Valve plunger
(control plunger)
16 Nozzle needle
High-pressure components of common-rail system Injector 433
This indirect method is used to trigger the Program maps without fuel-quantity flat curve
nozzle needle by means of a hydraulic servo The increasing stringency of emission-control
system because the forces required to open the legislation has lead to the use of the two sys-
nozzle needle rapidly cannot be generated tem functions: injector delivery compensation
directly by the solenoid valve. The “control (IMA) and zero delivery calibration (NMK), as
volume” required in addition to the injected well as to short intervals in injection between
fuel quantity reaches the fuel-return line via pre-injection, main injection, and secondary
the restrictors in the control chamber. injection events. With injectors that have no
In addition to the control volume, there are flat-curve section, IMA allows a precise ad-
also leakage volumes through the nozzle-nee- justment of the pre-injection fuel quantity
dle and valve-plunger guides. The control and when new. NMK corrects fuel-quantity drifts
leakage volumes are returned to the fuel tank over time in the low-pressure section. The key
via the fuel-return line and a collective line condition for deploying these two system
that comprises an overflow valve, high-pres- functions is a constant, linear rise in quantity,
sure pump, and pressure-control valve. i.e. there is no flat curve in the fuel-quantity
map (Fig. 2c). If the valve plunger/nozzle nee-
Program-map variants dle unit is operated in nominal mode without
Program maps with fuel-quantity flat curve lift-stop at the same time, this represents a
With injectors, a distinction is made in the fully ballistic operating mode of the valve
program map between ballistic and non- plunger and there is no kink in the fuel-quan-
ballistic modes. The valve plunger/nozzle tity map.
needle unit reaches the hydraulic stop if the
triggering period in vehicle operation is of Injector variants
sufficient length (Fig. 2a). The section until A distinction is made between two different
the nozzle needle reaches its maximum stroke solenoid-valve concepts with solenoid-valve
is termed ballistic mode. The ballistic and injectors:
nonballistic sections in the fuel-quantity 쐌 Injectors with one-part armature
map, where the injected fuel quantity is ap- (1-spring system)
plied for the triggering period (Fig. 2b), is 쐌 Injectors with two-part armature
separated by a kink in the program map. (2-spring system)
High-pressure components of common-rail system Injector 435
The short intervals between injection events on closing can end faster by decoupling the
are ensured when the armature can return to armature masses and adapting the setting
its resting position very rapidly on closing. parameters. This helps to achieve shorter
This is best achieved by a two-part armature intervals between two injection events with
with an overstroke stop. During the closing the two-part armature concept.
process, the armature plate moves down by
positive locking. The bottoming-out of the
armature plate is limited by an overstroke
stop. As a result, the armature reaches its
resting position faster. Armature rebound
a
Valve plunger/nozzle needle unit
at hydraulic stop
Nonballistic section
Needle lift
Ballistic section
Time t
b
Rail pressure
quantity
Flat curve
Nonballistic
Einspritzmenge
section
Injected-fuel
Ballistic
section
c
Rail pressure
quantity
Einspritzmenge
Injected-fuel
Triggering period
436 High-pressure components of common-rail system Injector
Pickup-current phase
During the pickup-current phase, battery
voltage is applied to the solenoid valve and
assists in opening it quickly. Current control
limits pickup current to approx. 20 A.
a b c d e
Solenoid-valve
current IM
Solenoid-valve
needle lift hM
Fig. 3
a Opening phase
b Pickup-current
phase Injected fuel
quantity Q
æ SAE0743-1E
c Transition to holding-
current phase
d Holding-current
phase Time t
e Switchoff
High-pressure components of common-rail system Injector 437
4 Common-rail system: Block diagram of the triggering phases for a cylinder group
2 I 4
a Opening phase
3 3 I
6
1
5
I 7 7 6
I
b Pickup-current phase
c Transition to I
holding-current phase
I I
I
d Holding-current phase
I Fig. 4
e Switchoff 11 Battery
12 Current control
I I 13 Solenoid windings
of the high-pressure
solenoid valves
14 Booster switch
15 Booster-voltage
capacitor
f Recharging the DC/DC converter:
16 Free-wheeling
step-up chopper recharging the energy Energy transfer
accumulator (9) (from 9 to 5) diodes for energy
recovery and high-
9 speed quenching
10 17 Cylinder selector
1
æ SMK1757-1E
switch
5 18 DC/DC switch
8
19 DC/DC coil
10 DC/DC diode
I Current flow
438 High-pressure components of common-rail system Injector
Operating concept
Function of the 3/2-way servo valve in the
CR injector
The nozzle needle on piezo-inline injector
4 is controlled indirectly by a servo valve.
The required injected fuel quantity is then
controlled by the valve triggering period.
In its non-triggered state, the actuator is
Fig. 5 5 in the starting position and the servo valve
1 Fuel return
2 High-pressure
is closed (Fig. 6a), i.e. the high-pressure
connection section is separated from the low-pressure
3 Piezo actuator 6 section.
module
4 Hydraulic coupler
(translator)
æ UMK1974-1Y
5 Servo valve
(control valve)
6 Nozzle module with 7
nozzle needle
7 Injection orifice
High-pressure components of common-rail system Injector 439
The nozzle is kept closed by the rail pressure bration (NMK). The pre-injection quantity
exerted in the control chamber (3). When the can then be selected at will, and IMA can
piezo actuator is triggered, the servo valve minimize the quantity spread in the program
opens and closes the bypass passage (Fig. 6b). map using full ballistic mode (see Fig. 7).
The flow-rate ratio between the outlet restric-
tor (2) and the inlet restrictor (4) lowers pres-
sure in the control chamber and the nozzle
(5) opens. The control volume flows via the 7 Injection-quantity program map of the
servo valve to the low-pressure circuit of the piezo-inline injector
overall system.
To start the closing process, the actuator mm 3
Lift 5
is discharged and the servo valve releases
the bypass passage. The control chamber is 100
then refilled by reversing the inlet and outlet a
restrictors, and pressure in the control cham- b
80 c
ber is raised. As soon as the required pressure 0 d
Injected-fuel quantity
a b c
Fig. 6
1 a Start position
b Nozzle needle opens
(bypass closed,
normal function
2 with outlet and
inlet restrictors)
3 c Nozzle needle
closes (bypass
4 6 open, function with
two inlet restrictors)
1 Servo valve
(control valve)
2 Outlet restrictor
æ UMK1985E
5
3 Control chamber
4 Inlet restrictor
Rail pressure Leakage-oil pressure Control-chamber pressure 5 Nozzle needle
6 Bypass
440 High-pressure components of common-rail system Injector
1
2
Coupler pressure
pSystem
Recharging
pK < pSystem
Volume change
in coupler
Coupler pressure
rail with valve 10 bar
2 Actuator
1 bar Time t
3 Hydraulic coupler
(translator)
High-pressure components of common-rail system Injector 441
Current
Valve lift
Coupler pressure
c
Injection rate
Needle lift
Fig. 9
a Current and voltage
curves for triggering
0.5 the injector
æ UMK1987E
In 1880 Pierre Curie and his brother Jacques The change in length ∆x results from the
discovered a phenomenon that is still very lit- following when a voltage U is applied:
tle known today, but is present in the everyday U / δ = ∆x (using quartz as an example:
lives of millions of people: the piezoelectric deformation of about 10–9 cm at U = 10 V)
effect. For example, it keeps the pointers of
a crystal clock operating in time. The piezoelectric effect is not only used in
quartz clocks and piezo-inline injectors, it has
Certain crystals (e.g. quartz and turmaline) are many other industrial applications, either as a
piezoelectric: Electric charges are induced on direct or inverse effect:
the crystal surface by exerting a compression Piezoelectric sensors are used for knock
or elongation force along certain crystal axes. control in gasoline engines. For example, they
This electrical polarization arises by shifting detect high-frequency engine vibrations as a
positive and negative ions in the crystal rela- feature of combustion knock. Converting me-
tive to each other by exerting force (see Fig., chanical vibration to electric voltage is also
b). The shifted centers of charge gravity within used in the crystal audio pickup of a record
the crystal compensate automatically, but an player or crystal microphones. The piezoelec-
electric field forms between the end faces of tric igniter (e.g. in a firelighter) causes me-
the crystal. Compressing and elongating the chanical pressure to produce the voltage to
crystal create inverse field directions. generate a spark.
On the other hand, if an electrical voltage On the other hand, if an alternating voltage
is applied to the end faces of the crystal, the is applied to a piezoelectrical crystal, it vi-
effect reverses (inverse piezoelectric effect): brates mechanically at the same frequency
The positive ions in the electric field migrate as the alternating voltage. Oscillating crystals
toward the negative electrode, and negative are used as stabilizers in electrical oscillating
ions toward the positive electrode. The crystal circuits or as piezoelectric acoustic sources
Principle of the then contracts or expands depending on the to generate ultrasound.
piezoelectric effect direction of the electric field strength (see When used in clocks, the oscillating quartz
(represented as a Fig., c). is excited by an alternating voltage whose
unit cell) frequency is the same as the quartz’s natural
The following applies to piezoelectric field frequency. This is how an extremely time-con-
a Quartz crystal SiO2
strength Ep: stant resonant frequency is generated. In a
Ep = δ ∆x/x calibrated quartz, it deviates by only approx.
b Piezoelectric effect:
∆x/x: relative compression or elongation 1/1,000 second per year.
When the crystal
is compressed, δ: piezoelectric coefficient, numeric value
negative O2– ions 109 V/cm through 1011 V/cm
shift upward,
positive Si4+ ions
shift downward:
a b c +
Electric charges
Si4+
are induced at the
+
crystal surface. ¯ ¯ + ¯ ¯ +
O 2¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
c Inverse piezoelectric
effect:
By applying an + + + + + +
æ SAN0170Y
electrical voltage, + + ¯ + + ¯
O2– ions shift ¯
upward, Si4+ ions ¯
shift downward:
The crystal contracts.
Where does the word “electronics” come from? 443
This term actually goes back to the ancient Even the first “Electronic Engineer” already
Greeks. For them, the word “electron” meant existed in the 19th century. Fleming was listed
amber. Its force of attraction on woollen in the 1888 edition of “Who’s Who”, pub-
threads or similar was known to Thales von lished during the reign of Queen Victoria. The
Milet over 2,500 years ago. official title was “Kelly’s Handbook of Titled,
Landed and Official Classes”. The Electronic
Electrons, and therefore electronics as such, Engineer can be found under the title “Royal
are extremely fast due to their very small mass Warrant Holders”, that is the list of persons
and electric charge. The term “electronics” who had been awarded a Royal Warrant.
comes directly from the word “electron”. What was this Electronic Engineer’s job?
The mass of an electron has as little effect He was responsible for the correct functioning
on a gram of any given substance as a 5 gram and cleanliness of the gas lamps at court.
weight has on the total mass of our earth. And why did he have such a splendid title?
Because he knew that “electrons” in ancient
The word “electronics” was born in the Greece stood for glitter, shine, and sparkle.
20th century. There is no evidence available
as to when the word was used for the first Source:
time. It could be Sir John Ambrose Fleming, “Basic Electronic Terms” (“Grundbegriffe der Elek-
one of the inventors of the electron tube in tronik”) – Bosch publication (reprint from the “Bosch
about 1902. Zünder” (Bosch Company Newspaper)), 1988.
æ LAE0047Y
4 5
Fig. 1
1 Drive shaft
2 Eccenter
æ UMK1573-1Y
2 High-pressure pump (CP1), variant with mounted pressure-control valve (3D view)
1 2 3
Fig. 2
11 Flange
12 Pump housing
13 Engine cylinder head
14 Inlet connection
15 High-pressure inlet
16 Return connection
æ UMK2022Y
17 Pressure-control
valve
18 Barrel bolt
19 Shaft seal 10 9 8
10 Eccentric shaft
High-pressure components of common-rail system High-pressure pumps 447
8 Fig. 3
9
11 Flange
10
7 12 Eccentric shaft
13 Bushing
11
14 Drive roller
12
6 15 Pump housing
16 Plate
13 17 Spring
18 Engine cylinder
head
19 Return-flow
14 connection
15 10 Overflow valve
11 Inlet connection
æ UMK2015Y
12 Filter
13 Metering unit
1 2 3 4 5 14 Cage
15 Pump plunger
448 High-pressure components of common-rail system High-pressure pumps
5 High-pressure pump CP3 with metering unit and mounted gear presupply pump
æ UMK2014Y
High-pressure components of common-rail system High-pressure pumps 449
In-line piston pump (CP2) Lube oil is supplied either directly via the
Design mounting flange of the CP2 or a side-
The oil-lubricated, quantity-controlled high- mounted inlet.
pressure pump (CP2) is only used on com-
mercial vehicles. This is a 2-plunger pump The drive gear ratio is 1:2. The CP2 is there-
with an in-line design, i.e. the two pump fore mountable together with conventional
plungers are arranged adjacently (Fig. 6). in-line fuel-injection pumps.
A gear pump with a high gear ratio is lo-
cated on the camshaft extension. Its function Operating concept
is to draw fuel from the fuel tank and route it Fuel enters the pump element and the com-
to the fine filter. From there, the fuel passes pressed fuel is conveyed to the fuel rail via a
through another line to the metering unit lo- combined inlet/outlet valve on the CP2.
cated on the upper section of the high-pres-
sure pump. The metering unit controls the
fuel quantity delivered for compression de-
pendent on actual demand in the same way as
other common-rail high-pressure pumps of
the recent generation.
1
7
2
8 Fig. 6
11 Zero delivery
9 restrictor
12 Metering unit
3 13 Internal gear
14 Pinion
10 15 Gear presupply
4 pump
11 16 High-pressure
connection
17 Two-part inlet/outlet
valve
5 18 C-coated plunger
19 Plunger return
æ UMK2013Y
12 spring
10 Oil inlet
11 C-coated roller bolt
12 Concave cam
4 High-pressure components of common-rail system Fuel rail (high-pressure accumulator)
4
5
1
Fig. 1
1 Fuel rail
2 Pressure-control
2
valve
3 Return line from
fuel rail to fuel tank
æ SMK1996Y
3 6
4 Inlet from high-
pressure pump
5 Rail-pressure sensor
6 Fuel line to injector
High-pressure components of common-rail system High-pressure sensors 451
1
Gasoline rail-pressure sensor
As its name implies, this sensor measures the
pressure in the fuel rail of the DI Motronic
2
with gasoline direct injection. Pressure is a
function of load and engine speed and is 3
5...12 MPa (50...120 bar), and is used as an
actual (measured) value in the closed-loop Fig. 1
rail-pressure control. The rpm and load- 4 1 Electrical
dependent setpoint value is stored in a map connection (socket)
5 2 Evaluation circuit
and is adjusted at the rail by a pressure
3 Steel diaphragm
æ UMK1576Y
control valve.
with deformation
resistors
Brake-fluid pressure sensor p 4 Pressure connection
Installed in the hydraulic modulator of 5 Mounting thread
such driving-safety systems as ESP, this
high-pressure sensor is used to measure 2 High-pressure sensor (curve, example)
the brake-fluid pressure which is usually
25 MPa (250 bar). Maximum pressure pmax V
can climb to as much as 35 MPa (350 bar).
Pressure measurement and monitoring is 4.5
triggered by the ECU which also evaluates
Output voltage
section
4 Valve holder
1 2 3 4 5 Spring
6 Diaphragm disc
454 Electronic diesel control System overview
Pedal-travel sensor
Injectors
Air-mass sensor ADC
Rail-pressure sensor
Boost-pressure sensor Function
Temperature sensors processor
(air and coolant) Intake-duct switchoff
Lambda oxygen Boost-pressure actuator
sensor Exhaust-gas recirculation
Wheel-speed sensors RAM actuator
(crankshaft, Throttle-valve actuator
camshaft) Flash
EPROM A/C compressor
Brake switch
Clutch switch EEPROM Auxiliary heating
Ignition switch Radiator fan
Mon- Rail-pressure control valve
æ UMK1988E
Glow-plug control
unit itoring Electronic shutoff valve
CAN module (EAB)
Fault diagnosis Diagnosis lamp
Conventional mechanical governing of engine home mode in the idle-speed range). EDC,
speed uses a number of adjusting mechanisms therefore incorporates a number of control
to adapt to different engine operating condi- loops.
tions and ensures a high mixture formation
quality. Nevertheless, it is restricted to a sim- Electronic diesel control allows data exchange
ple engine-based control loop and there are a with other electronic systems, such as the
number of important influencing variables Traction Control System (TCS), Electronic
that it cannot take account of or cannot re- Transmission Control (ETC), or Electronic
spond quickly enough to. Stability Program (ESP). As a result, the en-
As demands have increased, what was orig- gine management system can be integrated in
inally a straightforward system using electric the vehicle’s overall control system network,
actuator shafts has developed into the pre- thereby enabling functions such as reduction
sent-day EDC, a complex electronic control of engine torque when the automatic trans-
system capable of processing large amounts mission changes gear, regulation of engine
of data in real time. It can form part of an torque to compensate for wheel spin, dis-
overall electronic vehicle control system abling of fuel injection by the engine immo-
(“drive-by-wire”). And a result of the increas- bilizer, etc.
ing integration of electronic components, the The EDC system is fully integrated in the
control-system circuitry can be accommo- vehicle’s diagnostic system. It meets all OBD
dated in a very small space. (On-Board Diagnosis) and EOBD (European
OBD) requirements.
Operating concept
Electronic Diesel Control (EDC) is capable of System modules
meeting the requirements listed above as a re- Electronic Diesel Control (EDC) is divided
sult of microcontroller performance that has into three system modules (Fig. 1):
risen considerably in the last few years.
In contrast with diesel-engine vehicles with 1. Sensors and setpoint generators detect
conventional mechanically controlled fuel- operating conditions (e.g. engine speed)
injection pumps, the driver of a vehicle and setpoint values (e.g. switch position).
equipped with EDC has no direct control They convert physical variables into electrical
over the injected fuel quantity via the acceler- signals.
ator pedal and cable. The injected fuel quan-
tity is actually determined by a number of 2. The electronic control unit processes data
different influencing variables. They include: from the sensors and setpoint generators
쐌 The vehicle response desired by the driver based on specific open- and closed-loop con-
(accelerator-pedal position) trol algorithms. It controls the actuators by
쐌 The engine operating status means of electrical output signals. In addi-
쐌 The engine temperature tion, the control unit acts as an interface to
쐌 Interventions by other systems (e.g. TCS) other systems and to the vehicle diagnostic
쐌 The effect on exhaust-gas emission levels, system.
etc.
3. Actuators convert electrical output signals
The control unit calculates the injected fuel from the control unit into mechanical para-
quantity on the basis of all these influencing meters (e.g. the solenoid valve for the fuel-
variables. Start of delivery can also be varied. injection system).
This demands a comprehensive monitoring
concept that detects inconsistencies and initi-
ates appropriate actions in accordance with
the effects (e.g. torque limitation or limp-
456 Electronic diesel control Common-rail system for passenger cars
ECU Injectors
Pedal-travel sensor EDC 16 C / EDC 7 (max. 8 per ECU)
with low-idle switch
and kickdown switch Signal inputs
Sensor evaluation * *
Engine speed Atmospheric-pressure
(crankshaft) sensor
Functions:
Engine speed and - Idle-speed control
cylinder detection - Intermediate-speed
(camshaft)
regulation
- Smooth-running
Rail pressure control
Rail-pressure control valve
- Active-surge damper High-pressure pump
- External torque
Charge-air pressure intervention Exhaust-gas recirculation
- Vehicle immobilizer actuator
- Fuel-delivery control
and limitation Boost-pressure actuator*
Charge-air temperature
- Vehicle-speed
controller (FGR)* Throttle-valve actuator
Engine temperature - Vehicle-speed
(coolant) limitation*
- Cylinder shutoff Auxiliary heating*
ECU Injectors
Pedal-travel sensor EDC 16 / EDC 7 (max. 8 per ECU)
with low-idle switch
and kickdown switch Signal inputs * *
Engine speed Sensor evaluation
(crankshaft)
I–actual
PT1
I–setpoint
PT1 ¯
l
DT1
CAN
Control and
Fuel-injection control triggering of the
remaining actuators
Sensors and
Driver commands setpoint generators
¯ Driver command ¯ Pedal-travel sensor
¯ Cruise control ¯ Wheel-speed sensors
¯ Engine brake, etc. ¯ Switch, etc.
Engine Cylinder-charge
control system
¯ Supercharging
¯ Exhaust-gas recirculation
Air
Actuators
¯ Electropneum. converter
¯ Continuous-operation
Fuel braking system
¯ Radiator fan
¯ Glow-plug control, etc.
Fuel-injection components
¯ In-line fuel-injection pumps
¯ Distributor injection pumps
¯ Unit Injector / Unit Pump
æ SMK1793-1E
¯ Common-rail high-pressure
pump and injectors
¯ Nozzle holders and nozzles
460 Electronic diesel control Fuel-injection control
Fuel-injection control In order that the engine can run with optimal
combustion under all operating conditions,
An overview of the various control functions the ECU calculates exactly the right injected
which are possible with the EDC control fuel quantity for all conditions. Here, a num-
units is given in Table 1. Fig. 1 opposite shows ber of parameters must be taken into ac-
the sequence of fuel-injection calculations count. On a number of solenoid-valve-con-
with all functions, a number of which are trolled distributor pumps, the sol-enoid
special options. These can be activated in the valves for injected fuel quantity and start of
ECU by the workshop when retrofit equip- injection are triggered by a separate pump
ment is installed. ECU (PSG).
Fuel-injection system In-line injection Helix-controlled Solenoid-valve- Unit Injector Common Rail
pumps distributor controlled System and System
injection pumps distributor Unit Pump
injection pumps System
PE VE-EDC VE-M, VR-M UIS, UPS CR
Function
Injected-fuel-quantity limitation 쐌 쐌 쐌 쐌 쐌
External torque intervention 쐌3 쐌 쐌 쐌 쐌
Vehicle-speed limitation 쐌3 쐌 쐌 쐌 쐌
Vehicle-speed control
(Cruise Control) 쐌 쐌 쐌 쐌 쐌
Altitude compensation 쐌 쐌 쐌 쐌 쐌
Boost-pressure control 쐌 쐌 쐌 쐌 쐌
Idle-speed control 쐌 쐌 쐌 쐌 쐌
Intermediate-speed control 쐌3 쐌 쐌 쐌 쐌
Active surge damping 쐌2 쐌 쐌 쐌 쐌
BIP control – – 쐌 쐌 –
Intake-tract switch-off – – 쐌 쐌2 쐌
Electronic immobilizer 쐌2 쐌 쐌 쐌 쐌
Controlled pilot injection – – 쐌 쐌2 쐌
Glow control 쐌2 쐌 쐌 쐌2 쐌
A/C switch-off 쐌2 쐌 쐌 쐌 쐌
Auxiliary coolant heating 쐌2 쐌 쐌 – 쐌
Cylinder-balance control 쐌2 쐌 쐌 쐌 쐌
Control of injected fuel
quantity compensation 쐌2 – 쐌 쐌 쐌
Inputs
Vehicle-speed controller
Accelerator-pedal sensor
(Cruise Control),
(driver input)
vehicle-speed limiter
Inputs from
other systems
(e.g. ABS, TCS, ESP)
CAN
Calculations
Selection of the required
External torque intervention
injected fuel quantity
+/-
Idle-speed controller,
or controller for injected-fuel- Injected-fuel-quantity limit
quantity compensation
Triggering
1,000 a
Engine speed n
Actual speed:
Cyl. 1 Cyl. 2 Cyl. 3 Cyl. 4
800 rpm 800 790 820 790
b
mm3
a
Injected fuel quantity
25 Injected
1+2 fuel = + +
Fig. 2 b quantity
20
a Without active-surge 1
æ NMK1557-1E
damper 2
æ NMK1792E
b With active-surge 12
damper
0 1 2s
1 Filter function Time t
2 Active correction
Electronic diesel control Fuel-injection control 465
Engine-brake function
When a truck’s engine brake is applied, the
injected fuel quantity is either reduced to
zero, or the idle fuel quantity is injected. For
this purpose, the ECU detects the position of
the engine-brake switch.
466 Electronic diesel control Fuel-injection control
Functional description
왘 EMI characteristic curve without IMA
Injector delivery compensation (IMA) is a soft-
ware function to make fuel quantity metering 1,600 bar 1,200 bar
Injected-fuel
correcting injected fuel quantity to the setpoint injectors as a function
quantity
value over the entire program map individually of rail pressure.
æ SMK1999E
300 bar IMA reduces curve
for every injector in a CR system. This re-
duces system tolerances and exhaust-gas spread.
EMI Injected-fuel-
emission spread. The compensation values Injection time
quantity indicator
required for IMA represent the difference from
the setpoint value of each factory test point,
and are inscribed on each injector in encoded 왘 Considering the matrix in the injection
calculation
form.
The entire engine environment is corrected Setpoint quantity Q Δ Q Triggering-period
+
calculation
by means of a correction program map that
uses compensation values to calculate a cor- Rail pressure p
Injected-fuel
quantity
Code
readout at the vehicle manufac-
by camera
turer’s plant
468 Electronic diesel control Lambda closed-loop control
1 System overview of lambda closed-loop control for passenger-car diesel engines (example)
2
λ control
4
6
3
Fig. 1 8
1 Diesel engine
2 Diesel injection
7
component
(here, common-
rail injector)
3 Control flap
4 Hot-film air-mass
1
meter
5 Exhaust-gas
turbocharger
(here, VTG version)
6 Engine ECU for
æ UMA0031Y
EDC
7 Broadband lambda
oxygen sensor
8 EGR valve
Electronic diesel control Lambda closed-loop control 469
Engine ECU
3 Full-load smoke limitation using the lambda closed-loop control: Principle of operation
Engine ECU
Calculation of the
Hot-film preliminary quantity
air-mass meter
Engine-speed sensor
+
+
λactual Lambda controller
w Reference variable a z1 z2 b z1 z2
x Controlled variable w y x w
y xA
(closed loop) Con- Actuator Closed Control Open
unit Actuator loop
troller loop
xA Controlled variable
(open loop)
y Manipulated c Closed- z
variable w w* loop y* y x
A controller D Holding Closed
Scanner
z1, z2 Disturbance values D (e.g. μC) A unit loop
æ UAN0168E
T x*
T Sampling time D Scanner Measur-
A ing unit
* Digital signal
values T
A Analog
D Digital
Electronic diesel control Torque-controlled EDC systems 473
Fig. 1
0 a Year of manufacture
Torque control 1968
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 rpm
When accelerating, the driver uses the accel- Engine speed b Year of manufacture
erator pedal (sensor) to directly demand a 1998
474 Electronic diesel control Torque-controlled EDC systems
Propulsion torque:
Driver input: Selection of the
- Accelerator-pedal desired propulsion
sensor
torque
- Vehicle-speed control
(cruise control)
- Vehicle-speed limitation
Sensor
Input from the vehicle- Coordination of the
signals
dynamics systems: propulsion torque
- TCS
- ESP Data
exchange
Further external torque demands
Torque limitation
Start quantity
Engine efficiency
Start Drive
Fuel- mode
Fuel-quantity limit
quantity
input
Smooth-running control
Actuator triggering
Inputs: Input:
- Boost pressure - Start of delivery
- EGR rate - Timing device
- ... - Rail pressure
External - ... (depending on system)
inputs
Internal
sequences Intake-air system Injection system
- Turbocharger - Fuel-injection
Data trans- pump
æ NMK1763E
1 Possible components involved in the exchange of data with the Electronic Diesel Control (EDC)
3 4 5
1 2
6
Fig. 1
1 ESP ECU
(with ABS and TCS) 7
2 ECU for transmis- 8
sion-shift control 9
3 Engine ECU (EDC)
4 A/C ECU
5 Glow control unit
6 Instrument cluster 10
with onboard
computer
æ UAE0777Y
7 Immobilizer ECU
8 Starter motor
9 Alternator
10 A/C compressor
Electronic diesel control Data exchange with other systems 477
CAN
æ UAE0283-2E
Active steering
The development of vehicle steering sys- Purpose
tems is characterized by the consistent
introduction of hydraulic servo assist and The newly developed active steering can
the replacement of ball-and-nut-type steer- affect the steering forces and the steering
ing in the car by the easier and more inex- angle set by the driver. It fulfills the wish for
pensive rack-and-pinion steering. Recently, a direct steering ratio to improve handling at
electromechanical power steering has been low speeds. It also meets requirements for
displacing hydraulic power steering in small ensuring comfort, drivability and straight-
and lightweight cars. By law, however, pure running stability at high speeds. Active steer-
“steer-by-wire” technology is not yet per- ing is an initial step towards a “steer-by-
mitted in motor vehicles. European Union wire” function. Although it does not let the
safety regulations still require a mechanical car drive itself, it provides correction func-
connection between the steering wheel and tions and added comfort and convenience.
the wheels of the vehicle.
Design
All of these developments have the goal of
making vehicle handling as easy as possible The primary difference between active steer-
and to limit steering forces to a logical ing and a “steer-by-wire” system is the fact
amount. The best possible feedback about that the steering train, and thus the driver’s
the contact of the tires to the road is to be mechanical control of the steered front
ensured. This has a decisive impact on the wheels, is maintained during active steering.
driver’s ability to manage his or her task in
the control loop between driver, vehicle and
environment.
iv
iv max indirect
Fig. 1
Changing the ratio
iv mechanical
between the steering
wheel angle and the
iv min direct
median angle of the front
æ SFL0033E
Mechanical system smaller than that set by the driver (Fig. 1).
The steering train consists, as usual, of the When the electric motor is inactive, the
steering wheel, steering column, steering steering wheel controls the vehicle’s wheels
gear and tie rods. The special feature of the directly, as with conventional steering
new active steering is a differential gearbox systems.
(Fig. 2). For this purpose, a planetary gear
(6) is integrated with two input shafts and Hydraulic system
one output shaft in the steering gear. One The principle of differential steering usually
input shaft is connected to the steering requires a hydraulic servo assist to limit the
wheel, and the other drives an electric motor forces applied by hand to a logical amount.
(4) via a worm gear pair (3) as a reduction This is accomplished using an “open center”
stage. The connected ECU processes the steering valve specially adapted to the high
necessary sensor signals, controls the electric performance requirements. The vector su-
motor and monitors the entire steering perimposition of the positioning rates of the
system. drivers and engine can, in certain cases,
cause significantly higher rack-and-pinion
The electric motor and differential gearbox speeds than those of conventional steering
allow steering intervention at the front axle systems. The geometric flow of the vane-
to take place independently of the driver. type power steering pump with flow rate
At low speeds, the effective steering angle controller is designed for the theoretical
at the wheels is greater than the angle set maximum positioning rate. Regulation at
on the steering wheel, as the system adds a the output side provides a highly dynamic
part that is proportional to the steering and quiet energy supply for the active
angle. At high speeds, it subtracts a corre- steering system.
sponding amount so that the wheel angle is
1 2
Other vehicle sensors
(e.g. ESP): Fig. 2
• Steering wheel angle 1 Servotronic II valve
• Wheel speeds 2 Electromagnetic
• Reference speed block
3 4 3 Worm
4 Electric motor
5 Steering rack
1 6 Planetary gear
7 7 Worm gear
6 2
7 Fig. 3
1 Electronic
4 3 control unit
6 2 Pinion angle sensor
5 3 Substructure
æ SFL0034Y
æ SFL0035E
Braking forces
Lateral forces
æ SFL0036E
Fig. 4
Example: braking on
non-uniform road surface
Active steering Method of operation, safety concept, benefits of active steering for the driver 481
æ UKT0065-1Y
Dampers integrated in the gearing mecha-
nism provide good damping characteristics
at the end positions. 1 5 2 3
Fig. 2
be effective when the window is moving
upwards within a range of 200 to 4 mm 2
1 Reduction gear
(worm gear pair) from the upper edge of the window
2 Flat motor aperture.
immediately before the window enters the the use of special control systems that
door seal, allowing the motor to run to its end may be electronic or electromechanical in
position and permitting complete closure of design.
the window. The window position is moni-
tored over its entire range of movement. Open-loop control
With electromechanical control (Fig. 4),
Electronic control (Fig. 3) may be concen- mechanical interlocks on limit switches a)
trated in a central control unit, or the con- and b) ensure that the roof can either slide
trol elements may be dispersed among the or tilt open from the closed position, de-
individual power window motors in order to pending on the polarity applied to Terminals
reduce the complexity of the wiring. Future 1 and 2. Once the sunroof has been tilted or
decentralized electronics will be networked opened, a polarity changeover will initiate
via bus interfaces (LIN bus/CAN bus). The the lowering or closing process. An elec-
advantages offered are fault diagnosis for the tronic control unit featuring integral force
electronics and further reduction of the limitation allows the sliding/tilting sunroof
amount of wiring. to be incorporated in a central locking sys-
tem. The electronic control system includes
Power sunroofs a microcomputer responsible for evaluating
incoming signals and monitoring sliding
Application sunroof position. The closed and end posi-
Power sunroofs can combine tilting and tions for the sliding action of the sunroof
sliding sunroof functions. This requires are monitored with the aid of microswitches
or Hall-effect sensors. Possible auxiliary
3 Power window control unit featuring electronic force functions include:
limitation device
쐌 Preset position control
쐌 Closing via rain sensor
3 쐌 Motor speed control
1 2
M 5 쐌 Electronic motor protection
Fig. 3
æ UKT0060-2Y
1 Microcomputer
Drive systems
CAN
system fails.
484 Drive and adjustment systems Seat and steering column adjustment
Seat and steering column The optional programmable electric seat ad-
justment (“memory seat”) can recall several
adjustment preset seat positions. Potentiometers or Hall-
Application effect sensors provide seat position feedback.
Electric power seats (Fig. 1) are still primar- On two-door vehicles, a feature designed to
ily installed in passenger cars in the mid- slide the front seat to its extreme forward
price and high-price ranges. The primary position can be incorporated to help rear
function of these systems is to enhance com- passengers enter the vehicle.
fort, but multiple adjustment options com- Electrically adjustable steering columns
bined with space restrictions and difficult are also on the increase as another means of
access to the controls limit the practicality of enhancing driver comfort. The adjustment
manually operated mechanisms. Up to seven mechanism, consisting of a single electric
motors control the following functions: motor and self-inhibiting gear set for each
쐌 Seat cushion height adjustment, front/rear adjustment plane, forms an integral part of
쐌 Fore/aft seat adjustment the steering column. The gear set for fore/aft
쐌 Seat cushion depth adjustment adjustment must be capable of absorbing all
쐌 Backrest tilt adjustment impact forces (crash forces) that might be
쐌 Lumbar support adjustment, height/ applied to the steering column. The adjust-
curvature ment can be triggered in either of two ways,
쐌 Shoulder support tilt angle (top third of by the manual position switch or by the pro-
backrest) grammable seat adjustment. The column
쐌 Head restraint height adjustment can also be tilted upward when the ignition
is switched off to help the driver enter or
Adjustment systems exit the vehicle.
A common seat bottom frame includes four
motors, which drive the height adjustment
gearing or the combined fore/aft and height
adjustment gearing. The unit for adjusting the
seat height is not included on simpler seat de- 1 Electromechanical seat adjustment (example)
26 6
air’s humidity to the desired level.
mL
Automatic climate control is particularly
24 4 useful for vehicles in which both air condi-
ti tioner and heater are installed, because the
22 2 constant monitoring and adjustment re-
quired to maintain a temperate climate pre-
æ UKH0369-1E
The task of automatic climate control sys- water-side or air-side adjustments (Fig. 3).
tems incorporating a preselection feature is The fresh air (a) taken in by the fan (Item 1)
to automatically maintain the correct tem- is, depending on the temperature, either
perature, air flow, and air distribution in the cooled by the evaporator (2) or heated by
passenger compartment. These parameters the heater core (4) and then, depending on
are mutually interdependent, and changes to the flap position, guided into the desired
one will affect the others. areas of the interior (b, c, f).
By means of various temperature sensors
Method of operation (3, 5, 7) the ECU (8) collects all important
The compressor, powered by the motor influencing and disturbance values and the
(Fig. 2, Item 1) compresses and heats the temperature selected by the occupants on
gaseous coolant. It then cools in the con- the setpoint controller (6) and uses all of
denser (3) and becomes a liquid. The gener- this information to continuously calculate
ated heat dissipates into the environment. the setpoint value. This setpoint value is
An expansion valve (14) injects the cooled compared to the actual temperature, and the
refrigerant into the evaporator (11), where it calculated difference generates reference
evaporates, and the fresh air inflow removes variables in the ECU for regulating the heat-
the required evaporation heat. The moisture ing (4, 11), cooling (2, 10) and air flow (1).
is taken out of the cooled air as condensed Another function controls the position of
water, dehumidifying the air. the air distribution flaps (b, c, d, e, f) de-
At the center of the system is a tempera- pending on the program the occupants have
ture control circuit for interior temperature. selected. Meanwhile, all control circuits con-
The setpoint temperature (as described in tinue to respond to manual inputs.
“Electronic heater control”) determined by Infinitely variable or stepped blower con-
the control unit is achieved by means of trol is used to adjust the air flow to the speci-
14 13
Fig. 2
1 12
11 Compressor
12 Solenoid clutch
(for switching the
compressor on/off) 2 9
13 Condenser
14 Auxiliary fan 11
15 High-pressure 3
switch
16 Fluid reservoir with 10
desiccant insert
17 Low-pressure switch
18 Thermostatic switch
or on/off control (for
8
compressor on/off) 7
5
19 Temperature sensor
4
10 Condensate drip
æ UKH0371-1E
fied level. Generally, the control system does The defroster mode (“DEF” setting) is a spe-
not process the actual value in this operation. cial case. In order to clear the windows as
rapidly as possible, the temperature control
This type of arrangement is inadequate for must revert to maximum heat and maxi-
dealing with increases in flow rate caused by mum blower speed, while the air flow is di-
aerodynamic pressure at high driving rected through the upper defroster outlets.
speeds. Here, a special control function can On systems with program switches and fully
compensate by responding to increasing ve- automatic units, this operating mode is se-
hicle speeds, initially by reducing the blower lected with a single button; at temperatures
speed to zero, and then, if the flow continues above 0°C, the refrigeration unit is also acti-
to rise, by using a restriction flap to throttle vated to extract humidity from the air. To
the flow of incoming air. Air distribution to prevent unheated air from causing drafts,
the three levels – defroster (b), upper com- the blower is switched off electronically after
partment (c), and footwell (f) – is controlled cold starts in winter, except when “DEF” and
manually, with preselection, or with a fully the cooling function are in operation.
automatic program. Most popular are units
featuring program control buttons, in which The variations described above are used in
each button provides a specific air distribu- both passenger cars and trucks. Buses re-
tion pattern for the three levels. quire more complicated layouts. The passen-
ger compartment can
3 Air conditioner with electronic water-side control (schematic) be divided into several
control zones, in which
the temperature is con-
trolled by electronically
regulating the speed of
the zone’s individual
a b c
water pump.
d
Fig. 3
11 Fan
2 e 12 Evaporator
1
13 Evaporator
6 temperature sensor
5 7 14 Heater core
15 Air exit temperature
3 4 sensor
16 Setpoint controller
17 Interior sensor
(ventilated)
9 18 ECU
8
19 Water drainage
10 10 Compressor
11 Solenoid valve
a Fresh air
æ UKH0370-2Y
11 b Defroster
f c Ventilation
d Recirculated air
e Bypass
f Footwell
488 Vehicle security systems Acoustic signaling devices
Central locking system multiple functions, i.e. they are also used
for the power window drive units and door
Application mirror adjustment. Electromechanical and
The central locking and unlocking of the pneumatic central locking systems are actu-
vehicle doors, trunk and fuel filler flap are ated via electrical contact switches in the ac-
an integral part of the convenience system in tuators or locking cylinders in the driver’s
motor vehicles. Electric or pneumatic actua- door, passenger’s door, trunk lid, and oper-
tors operate the mechanisms in the individ- ating switches in the vehicle interior.
ual locking devices. Infrared and radio remote control systems
enhance operating convenience.
Locking systems In newer comfort and convenience sys-
In pneumatic systems, a central electric tems, the central locking system is locked on
dual-pressure pump (vacuum/gauge pres- starting off (vehicle speed signal) to prevent
sure) and dimensionally stable lines leading the vehicle from being opened from the out-
to the diaphragms of the individual actua- side. The system is unlocked in the event of
tors provide the opening and closing move- an accident (crash sensor).
ment of the locking system. A distinction is made between opening,
The electromechanical central locking sys- closing and locking. In connection with the
tem (Fig. 1) features an electric servomotor opening and closing functions, manual op-
to drive the locking function at each point in eration from the inside (e.g. occupants) is
the system. This electric motor with a reduc- possible at any time. When the system is
tion gear drive unit actuates a mechanical
connection (rod, lever) responsible for the 1 Central locking system with electric motor
2 1 2
Open-loop control
All central locking systems feature a control
unit for signal processing. The control unit
is integrated in the housing in pneumatic
dual-pressure pump systems. In electro- 3
Fig. 1
mechanical systems, it is located centrally, or
æ UKT0062-2Y
1 Central switch
to minimize wiring, decentrally in the door 4 4 4 4 2 Contacts in door
modules in connection with multiplex sys- M
-
M
-
M
-
M
-
lock mechanisms
tems. The lines associated with decentral or 3 Control unit
distributed door multiplex systems have 4 Servomotors
1 xx
xxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxx xx
xxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxx
xxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxx
x
x
xxx x
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxx
xxx
xx
x
xx xx
xxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxx
xx
xxxx
4
xxxxxxxxxxxx
3 h
xx Fig. 2
xxxxxxxx
1 Wiring connection
2 Flexible end position
æ UKT0063-1Y
coupling
2 5
3 Gearing
4 Electric motor
5 Adjusting lever
h Stroke
490 Vehicle security systems Central locking systems, locking systems
locked, the locking mechanism is blocked as Depending on their location in the vehicle,
theft deterrence and can only be operated a further distinction is made between the
with the vehicle key from the outside or with following assemblies (with differing scope
the remote control. of functions):
쐌 Side door assembly
Locking systems 쐌 Trunk assembly
쐌 Hood assembly
Application
The function of locking systems is to ensure The most important component of the
and maintain access authorization at all locking system is the door lock mechanism
times. Although lock mechanisms in motor (Fig. 2). Its primary functions include:
vehicles are subject to substantial wear and 쐌 Transmitting the structural forces be-
tear as a result of prolonged cold, wet and tween the door and the vehicle body
dirty conditions over several years, their 쐌 Reliably opening and closing the locking
main design feature must be to reliably mechanism
protect the vehicle and its occupants while 쐌 Evaluating the mechanical or electrical
ensuring smooth and efficient operation. commands
쐌 Storing the logic statuses (mechanical
Structure computer).
The structure of a locking system is made up
of the following components (Fig. 1): Method of operation
쐌 Locking bars on the body pillars Accordingly, the lock mechanism is made
쐌 Side doors, door lock mechanisms, and up of assemblies that perform the following
the associated mechanical and electrical functions:
parts The locking mechanism is responsible for
쐌 Electrical components that make up the transmitting forces to initiate the opening
access authorization facility and radio and closing functions. It consists of a catch,
remote control (frequently assigned to pawl and latch.
locking systems).
Side door
Lock Locking
barrel element
(key) (knob) 4 1
Exterior Interior
operating operating
Fig. 1 element element
쐍 Mechanical (handle) 2
connection
Door lock Electronics
–– Electrical signals
(option)
Actuators
Fig. 2
1 Backplate
Mechanical
logic unit
with locking
æ UKT0069-1Y
æ UKT0068-1E
mechanism
2 Catch
Lock Data Power
3 Electrical interface stirrup bus supply 3
4 Bowden cable (B-pillar)
to inner handle
Vehicle security systems Locking systems 491
The corresponding door lock striker is of the outer door handle, the inner opener
mounted on the body pillar. During the and the locking element. For instance, with
closing procedure, the door lock striker en- the door locked, the outer door handle can
gages in the latch. This centers the door, be freely pulled with no response, and it is
while the catch holds it in the closed posi- consequently not possible to open the door
tion (main catch). In turn, the pawl then from the outside.
positively locks the catch in position. In addition, the inner opener (opening
This lock status is initially canceled to ini- from inside) and the locking element (un-
tiate the opening procedure. For this pur- locking from inside) are inoperative in con-
pose, the actuating forces applied at the in- nection with a theft deterrence system.
ner or outer door handles are transmitted to The rear door locks cannot be opened
the pawl. The pawl now releases the catch to from the inside when the childproof lock is
allow the door to be opened. The door lock engaged. However, the occupants are able to
striker is fixed in position while the catch unlock the door from the inside to allow a
swivels into the open position. person providing assistance to open the
door from the outside. (Note the difference
Mechanical locking system compared to the theft deterrence system!)
Logic statuses of the lock mechanism The following status matrix (Table 1) illus-
The logic unit of the lock mechanism per- trates the basic functions of one rear door
mits the mechanical decoupling or isolation variant.
Table 1
1 Basic function of a rear door variant (“single-stroke ejection” type)
Childproof lock
æ UKT0070-1Y
OFF ON
Open – – – Open
– Unlock Unlock – Unlock
(single-stroke ejector)
– Lock Lock – –
– Activate theft – – –
deterrent
DS
Theft deterrent
activated
Status
VR
locked
ER
unlocked
OPENED
492 Vehicle security systems Locking systems
Fig. 3
1 Pawl
Based on the “overtake principle”, the ac-
2 Catch in lock 2 3 tuator begins the opening procedure in the
3 Door lock striker on locking mechanism before the lock logic has
B-pillar or C-pillar been completely released. This function is
Vehicle security systems Locking systems 493
æ UKT0072-1Y
Fig. 4
1 Electric motor
The advantages of an electrical locking 2 Pawl
3 4
system are considerable: 3 Catch
쐌 Reduced size and weight of the lock 4 Door lock striker
쐌 Symmetrical design
쐌 Only one lock variant per vehicle (variant 5 Electromechanical door lock (schematic)
5 Fig. 5
æ UKT0073-1Y
1 Locking mechanism
2 Electronics
3 Electric motor
4 Gearing
5 Electrical interface
494 Vehicle security systems Biometric systems
ual, the biometric system can always identify use as a vehicle immobilizer, it has not yet
a particular driver reliably and apply the been definitively demonstrated that the same
correct personal settings. degree of security is attainable as with the
If a previously unknown driver places present transponder-based immobilizers.
his/her finger on the sensor to store his/her For vehicle access applications, the sensors
personal settings, the biometric system auto- for identifying the fingerprint pattern would
matically performs an enrollment sequence have to be integrated in the vehicle’s outer
and then memorizes the current settings. skin. The technical challenge is then to de-
Once a driver is known to the biometric sign a sufficiently resilient sensor system that
system, only the current settings are stored. is adequately protected against external con-
The advantage for the user lies in the sim- ditions so that effective usability is guaran-
plified human-machine interface. Users no teed at all times – including in winter.
longer have to agree on the allocation of
memory buttons, nor do they have to re-
member which button is theirs. In addition,
the maximum number of users is not lim-
ited to the number of memory buttons 1 Fingerprint sensor based on the direct optical
scanning (DiOSTM) method (example)
available. Ultimately, the number of users is
limited by the biometric system’s memory
capacity for user identities and personal a
settings.
Personalization can be extended beyond 1 2
seat adjustment, mirror adjustment and
steering column adjustment functions.
Theoretically, all configurable vehicle sys-
tems can be connected to the biometric per- 3
sonalization system. It could be conceivable b
2
to personalize air conditioning and auto-
matic transmission settings (sports/econ-
omy). For the radio, a set of personal fa-
vorite stations and preferred volume and 4
æ UAE0921-1Y
1 Mutual interference between two systems as transmitted through the shared vehicle electrical system (A) and
wiring harnesses (B and C)
A B C
2
I 1
3
5 Fig. 1
II 4
System I:
6
1 Control unit
2 Actuator
3 Sensor
UAE0240-1Y
System II:
4 Control unit
5 Actuator
6 Sensor
498 Electromagnetic compatibility | EMC between different systems in the vehicle
C1,2
u1 Voltage source
Zi Internal resistor
Z i,1 Z i,2 Z a,2 Z a,1
RE Input resistance
2
CE Input capacitance u1
C1,2 Capacitance
RE CE
UAE0683-1Y
between two u1 u2
conductor paths us,1
us Radio interference
voltage Zk
UAE0684-1Y
conductors u1
M1,2 Inductive coupling
us Radio interference u2
voltage
Electromagnetic compatibility | EMC between different systems in the vehicle 499
Pulsation in the vehicle electrical system within a vehicle while designing all the
One strategy for dealing with interference susceptible devices (e.g. control units)
pulses in the vehicle electrical system to comply with and exceed – by a certain
entails limiting the amplitude of the inter- safety margin – Class III. If suppressing
ference emanating from the radio-inter- interference at the source proves to be
ference sources. On the other hand, the cheaper or to involve less technical com-
susceptible devices (affected electronic plexity than reducing sensitivity at the re-
components) are designed for insensitivity ceptors, the logical response might be to
to pulses of specific shapes and ampli- shift the definitions to Classes I/II. If the
tudes. The initial step was to list and clas- scenario is inverted, with the shielding
sify the pulses encountered within vehicu- of potential susceptible devices as the
lar electrical systems (Table 1). Special- cheaper and simpler solution, then a
purpose pulse generators can be used move to Classes III/IV is warranted.
to generate the test patterns defined in Because numerous wires are combined
Table 1 as a basis for assessing resistance within a single wiring harness, each indi-
to these interference waves in susceptible vidual conductor is potentially susceptible
devices. Both the test pulses and the test to inductive and capacitive interference.
technology are codified in standards Although reduced in intensity, the resulting
(DIN 40 839, Section 1; ISO 7637, Section 1) voltage pulses in adjacent supply lines can
including definitions of the measurement then appear as spurious signals at the in-
technology for evaluating emissions of put ports and control outputs in neighbor-
pulse-pattern interference. Classifications ing systems. The test technology for simu-
based on pulse amplitude levels facilitate lating crosstalk interference within wiring
effective definition of radio-interference harnesses (as defined in DIN 40 839,
sources and the susceptible devices (inter- Section 3 and ISO 7637, Section 3) uses
ference receptors) within each vehicle. a standardized substitute wiring layout
It would thus be possible to specify Class II (capacitive clip) with a defined wiring
for all of the radio-interference sources capacitance. Test pulses are fed into this
Test pulses as defined in DIN 40 839, Section 1 Max. pulse amplitude classes
Pulse pattern This is Internal Pulse I II III IY
caused by resistance duration
1 Shutdown 10 Ω 2 ms –25 V –50 V –75 V –100 V
of inductive
consumers
2 Shutdown 10 Ω 50 µs +25 V +50 V +75 V +100 V
of motorized
consumers
3a Steep over- 50 Ω 0.1 µs –40 V –75 V –110 V –150 V
voltages
3 +25 V +50 V +75 V +100 V
b
Table 1
4 Voltage 10 mΩ to 20 s 12 V 12 V 12 V 12 V 1) “Load dump”, i.e.
curve dur- –3 V –5 V –6 V –7 V
when the alternator
ing starting
is feeding high
operation
current to the
5 Alternator 1Ω to 400 ms +35 V +50 V +80 V +120 V battery and the
load dump 1) connection to the
battery is suddenly
interrupted.
500 Electromagnetic compatibility | EMC between different systems in the vehicle
layout and through the specimen’s wiring Effects on mobile radio reception
harness to produce overcoupling in the of high-frequency signal feedback
signal and control lines. The effects of in the vehicle electrical system
low-frequency oscillations within vehicu- Along with the pulses and other interfer-
lar electrical systems can be simulated by ence signals described above, high-fre-
producing the desired signals with a signal quency signals constitute yet another
generator and projecting these into the source of undesired interference within
wiring harness through a current clamp. the vehicle electrical system. These signals
This process reflects the procedure de- can stem from periodic switching opera-
scribed above by serving as the basis for tions, as found in high-intensity ignition
the correct balance between the amplitude systems, at the commutators in DC motors
of radiated interference pulses and the re- and from the CPU clock signals that are
sistance to interference of the potentially generated in microprocessor-equipped
susceptible devices (receptors). control units. The interference these sig-
5 Voltage amplitude
dB
a b
Fig. 5 Tr
a As a function
T
of time
b As a function Ti fg1
of frequency A0 H
dB
20
Dek
T Period duration
fg2
Tr Rise time
Ti Pulse duration dB
Amplitude
Amplitude
f0 = T–1 Fundamental
40
Dek
wave
UAE0685-1E
fg Fundamental
frequencies f0 fmin1 fmin2
fmin Periodic minima Time Frequency
H Envelope curve
6 Interference-signal spectrum
dB dB
a b
Radio-interference voltage level
Fig. 6
UAE0241-1E
a Wide-band
interference MHz MHz
b Narrow-band Frequency Frequency
interference
Electromagnetic compatibility | EMC between different systems in the vehicle 501
nals can induce in mobile communications In the case of radio interference this
receiver equipment may impair reception equipment is in the form of a selective
or even render it impossible. laboratory receiver or spectral analysis
unit. Similar to a radio tuner therefore, the
Spectrum tester thus measures the signal amplitude
Pulsation within on-board electrical sys- only within a specific narrow frequency
tems is usually based on the analysis of band (receiver bandwidth). The test pro-
current and voltage progressions as func- gresses through the entire relevant fre-
tion of time (Fig. 5a). Amplitudes at specific quency range using a procedure analogous
frequencies are generally viewed as the to the station search function in standard
prime criterion for evaluating interference radios: while maintaining the initial band-
signals affecting radio reception (Fig. 5b). width, the laboratory receiver proceeds
Under standard conditions, the interfer- through a range of frequencies, either at
ence signals encountered in the automotive graduated intervals or in a continuous
environment are rarely isolated sinusoidal progression.
waves with single amplitudes recurring at Interference signals recurring at fre-
consistent frequencies. Much more com- quencies lower than the test bandwidth
mon are superimpositions consisting of produce the continuous signal pattern
numerous oscillation components with indicative of wide-band interference.
a variety of amplitudes and frequencies. If the frequency is higher than the test
The “spectrum” for an interference signal bandwidth, the test monitor will also pick
is a portrayal of amplitude versus fre- up gaps in the spectrum, and the result
quency designed to facilitate evaluation of will be the line spectrum that indicates
interference potential in individual wave- narrow-band interference.
bands (Figs. 6a and 6b). Table 4 (refer to Electric motors are a typical source of
section "Interference-suppression catego- wide-band interference. Commutation
ries") lists the most significant wavebands frequencies in electric motors are located
for automotive applications. around just a few 100 Hz, with the exact
Interference test technology divides figure depending on the motor’s number
interference signals into wide-band and of poles and its speed. At a test bandwidth
narrow-band interference: a spectrum with of 120 kHz (bandwidth corresponding to an
a continuous, progressive curve (Fig. 6a) is FM radio tuner receiver bandwidth) this
indicative of wide-band interference, and produces a continuous spectrum. At the
identifies the corresponding radio-inter- same test bandwidth, a 2 MHz cycle fre-
ference source as a wide-band interferer. quency (of the kind that might be encoun-
A contrasting pattern composed of isolated tered in a microprocessor-equipped con-
spikes forming a so-called line spectrum trol unit) will generate a completely differ-
indicates narrow-band interference stem- ent spectrum, this time with the spiked line
ming from narrow-band emitters (Fig. 6b). spectrum typical of narrow-band interfer-
Initially, the classifications in either cat- ence (interference signal recurs at fre-
egory are arbitrary: among the factors that quency greater than test bandwidth).
determine whether interference is emanat- While all electric motors – fans, wind-
ing from a “wide-band” or “narrow-band” shield wipers, servo units and fuel-supply
radio-interference source are the recep- pump, etc. – join the alternator as typical
tion properties of the potentially suscepti- emitters of wide-band interference, yet an-
ble devices as reflected in the characteris- other potential emitter is the high-tension
tics of the test equipment employed to ignition circuit. In addition, low-frequency
monitor the emissions. clock signals stemming from devices such
as switching elements can produce wide-
502 Electromagnetic compatibility | EMC between different systems in the vehicle
UAE0686-1Y
(metal sheet, of the interference signals picked-up by
shielding for
the receiver are the vehicle-body structure
simulated vehicle
and the type and location of the antenna. B B
electrical system)
2 Interference-suppression levels: permissible radio-interference voltage limits for individual frequency ranges in
dBµV for wide-band (B) and narrow-band (S) interference as defined in CISPR 25 (DIN/VDE 0879-2)
Interference- Interference-suppression levels
suppression 0.15 to 0.53 to 5.9 to 30 to 70 to
levels 0.3 MHz (LW) 2.0 MHz (MW) 6.2 MHz (SW) 54 MHz 108 MHz (VHF)
B S B S B S B S B S
1 100 90 82 66 64 57 64 52 48 42
2 90 80 74 58 58 51 58 46 42 36
3 80 70 66 50 52 45 52 40 36 30
4 70 60 58 42 46 39 46 34 30 24
Table 2 5 60 50 50 34 40 33 40 28 24 18
3 Permissible radio interference-field strength in dBµV/m for interference-suppression levels in individual frequency ranges
according to DIN/VDE 0879, Section 2, or CISPR 25 for wide-band interferers, measured with quasi-peak detector (B), and
narrow-band interference, measured with peak detector (S).
Interfer- Interference-field strength level
ence- 0.15 to 0.53 to 5.9 to 30 to 68 to 76 to 142 to 380 to 820 to
sup- 0.3 MHz 2.0 MHz 6.2 MHz 54 MHz 87 MHz 108 MHz 175 MHz 512 MHz 960 MHz
pression (LW) (MW) (SW) (VHF)
level B S B S B S B S B S B S B S B S B S
1 83 61 70 50 47 46 47 46 36 36 36 42 36 36 43 43 49 49
2 73 51 62 42 41 40 41 40 30 30 30 36 30 30 37 37 43 43
3 63 41 54 34 35 34 35 34 24 24 24 30 24 24 31 31 37 37
4 53 31 46 26 29 28 29 28 18 18 18 24 18 18 25 25 31 31
Table 3 5 43 21 38 18 23 22 23 22 12 12 12 18 12 12 19 19 25 25
Electromagnetic compatibility | EMC between different systems in the vehicle 503
laboratory setups and standardized test units are usually switched on along with
setups in shielded chambers. Interference the ignition). Also of significance is the fact
is monitored with a laboratory receiver. that the radio receiver cannot distinguish
Line lengths and other geometric dimen- these spurious signals from useful signals,
sions are specified. The power supply making reception of weak transmissions
must be provided by a precisely defined impossible. This situation is reflected in
vehicle electrical system. Voltage sources the definition of interference-suppression
are also precisely defined, with laboratory categories. In a given interference-sup-
specimens being powered from simulated pression category, narrow-band interfer-
vehicle electrical systems (Fig. 7). ences are assigned lower permissible in-
terference levels than wide-band interfer-
Interference-suppression categories ences.
Similar to pulsation in the vehicle electri-
cal system, narrow- and wide-band inter- Because individual vehicle configuration
ference factors are classified by interfer- also has a substantial effect on the quality
ence-suppression category in order to of broadcast reception, the interference-
facilitate selection and design for specific suppression data derived from laboratory
applications. Within this classification testing must be confirmed in a practical
system, demands on sporadically active automotive environment. The test involves
radio-interference sources are less strin- measuring antenna voltage at the end of
gent than the requirements placed on the antenna cable to which the radio re-
components in continuous operation, ceiver will subsequently be connected.
such as the alternator. The permissible CISPR 25 also prescribes limits for radio
CISPR 25 (DIN/VDE 0879-2) radio interfer- interference voltage as determined using
ence levels are listed in Table 2. Table 3 in- this procedure (Table 4). It contains volt-
dicates the permissible interference-field age levels defined to reflect the unfavor-
strengths for radiation measurements with able reception conditions as encountered
antennas. in motor vehicles, where the strengths of
useful signals not only fail to exceed just
Narrow-band interference of the kind a few mV, but also suffer from substantial
generated by CPU clock signals in control fluctuation owing to vehicle motion and
units poses an especially acute problem the multiple reception paths generated
for radio reception. These interference by signal reflections. Table 4
signals are always present (the control QP-B Quasi-peak
detector relays
aural impression
4 Limits defined for permissible radio interference voltage at vehicle antenna in dBµV produced by
Frequency range Frequency Continuous wide-band Sporadic wide-band Narrow-band interference
interference interference interference B Wide-band
20
30 75 400 1,000 immediately surrounding a high-intensity
Frequency MHZ emissions source, radiation penetrates
through gaps and apertures in the vehicle
Electromagnetic compatibility | EMC between the vehicle and its surroundings 505
body and interferes with on-board electri- The anechoic chamber is used for investi-
cal systems. The intensity of this effect (in- gating the overall performance of vehicle
cident radiation) varies according to com- electrical systems under real-world oper-
ponent locations, body configuration and ating conditions. The Bosch anechoic
the wiring harness. chamber (Fig. 2) is equipped with devices
capable of generating high-frequency
Vehicle measurements fields within a frequency range extending
At one time the procedure for verifying that from 10 kHz to 18 GHz, with a maximum
various electronic systems would continue field strength of Emax = 200 V/m. Since
to provide satisfactory performance under these field strengths represent a health
exposure to high-intensity fields involved hazard, the test vehicle is operated via
driving the motor vehicle to a number of remote control from within a shielded
different broadcast transmitter locations. control room, while testing is monitored
Now, special test chambers are available by video cameras. The chamber is screened
for this purpose. with metallic sheeting, and non-conduc-
These chambers must be surrounded tive materials (wood and plastic) line the
(shielded) with a metallic casing to prevent interior, as metallic substances could
the electromagnetic field generated during foster spurious readings. To prevent reflec-
testing from radiating to the outside. In ad- tions and inhibit the formation of standing
dition, the chambers must be equipped with waves, walls and ceiling are covered by pyr-
absorption materials to inhibit formation amid-shaped absorption elements made of
of standing waves (nodes and antinodes), graphite-filled polyurethane foam.
which would lead to major variations in Vehicle testing proceeds on a chassis
field strength between the various measur- dynamometer (rolling road) capable of
ing points. accommodating simulated speeds of up to
2 Measuring resistance to incident radiation of vehicle electrical systems in the EMC anechoic chamber
UAE0689Y
506 Electromagnetic compatibility | EMC between the vehicle and its surroundings
200 km/h. A fan is also present to direct up a different procedure is used for this
to 40,000 m3/h (corresponding to a wind range. The alternate procedure relies on
speed of 80 km/h) of air over the vehicle. antennas to project electromagnetic fields
Among the advantages that distinguish into standardized bench setups.
indoor testing from the old open-air tests The specifics of the methods outlined
near transmitters is that the former method below are defined in DIN 40 839, Section 4,
allows latitude for considerable variations and ISO 11 452, Sections 1 – 7 (which also
in both frequency and field strength. This contains additional process descriptions
facilitates evaluation of vehicular resis- detailing less widespread methods).
tance to incident radiation under a wide All these methods furnish a precise pic-
range of conditions, and not at just a few ture of a system’s resistance to incident
available points. The ability to gradually radiation. This can then be used to imple-
increase field strengths right up to each ment improvements while the develop-
electronic device’s operational limits fur- ment phase is still in progress. Thanks to
nishes information on safety margins. this inestimable advantage it is now im-
Specifics defining the test procedures possible to imagine development projects
used in determining radiation resistance without these laboratory measurements
in the overall vehicle are described in as flanking measures.
DIN 40 839, Section 4. ISO 11452, Sec- It must be taken into consideration that
tions 1 – 4 contain similar descriptions as the design of the electrical system in itself
elements within a more extensive compila- is not the only important factor. Because
tion of special-purpose test procedures. installation conditions in the vehicle and
the routing of the wiring harness can also
Laboratory measurements exercise a decisive influence on ultimate
Although the data garnered from assess- levels of interference resistance, all earlier
ments of incident radiation on the vehicle results still need to be confirmed on a pro-
as a whole are invaluable, the disadvan- duction vehicle in the anechoic chamber.
tage of this type of testing is that it can
only be performed at an advanced stage Stripline method (Figs. 3 and 4)
in the vehicle and electronic system design The designation, “stripline”, refers to a
process. Only very limited latitude is avail- conductor in the form of a strip. This con-
able for responding to indications of inad- ductor has a length of 4.1 m and a width of
equate resistance to incident radiation un- 0.74 m. It is arranged with a clearance of
covered at this stage. 0.15 m above the conductive sheet (coun-
This explains the necessity to determine ter-electrode). A high-frequency alterna-
at an early stage how an electronic system tor serves as the source of a transverse
will operate during subsequent use in its magnetic wave generated between the
automotive environment: prompt informa- stripline and the counter-electrode, con-
tion allows effective recourse to remedial tinuing until it reaches the terminal resis-
action when needed. Various test proce- tor. The stripline dimensions have been
dures have emerged for obtaining the re- selected to minimize the likelihood of re-
quired information. flections occurring during wave propaga-
In the first of the three tests described tion, thus ensuring constant field-strength
below, interference waves propagating amplitudes relative to frequency.
through a conductor are coupled into the
wiring harness of the system under inves- A typical system setup might include a
tigation. As the suitability of these test ar- control unit, wiring harness and peri-
rangements for evaluating the frequency pheral devices (sensors and actuators).
range beyond > 400 MHz is restricted, These are set up at a height half way be-
Electromagnetic compatibility | EMC between the vehicle and its surroundings 507
tween the base plate and the stripline, Bulk current injection method (Fig. 5)
with the wiring harness in alignment with Bulk current injection (BCI) is an immunity
the waves’ direction of propagation. test commonly used in the automotive
and aircraft industry. As with the stripline
The field strength between the planes at method, the system being tested is ar-
a given frequency is then increased until ranged above a conductive sheet (counter-
the system malfunctions or until a maxi- electrode). A current clamp attached to the
mum specified level is reached. If the in- wiring harness injects transformer current
crements are small enough, repeating this into its individual wires. The vectorial sum
process at progressively altered frequen- of these currents corresponds to the total
cies will produce a detailed diagram por- current radiated by the clamp. While test-
traying resistance to incident radiation as ing using the stripline method proceeds
a function of frequency (Fig. 4). through a range of increasing field
strengths, BCI relies on progressively
3 Stripline method higher current flows as it continues until
the system malfunctions or until current
3 reaches the specified terminal value.
1
TEM cell (Fig. 6)
As with the stripline method, a transverse
G
electromagnetic field (TEM) is generated
Fig. 3
here between a strip conductor and a 1 High-frequency
5
counter-electrode. The TEM counter-elec- alternator
7 6 trode, however, is an enclosed housing 2 Resistor
instead of a metal plate. This leads to an- 3 Stripline
Fig. 4
Determined using
-1 1 2
V·m G stripline, BCI or
TEM cell method
Resistance to incident radiation
Fig. 5
7
1 High-frequency
4
alternator
2 Resistor
6 5 3 Counter-electrode
(conductive sheet
or cell)
4 System under test
UAE0249-1E
UAE0247-1Y
5 Wiring harness
3
MHz 6 Peripherals
Frequency (sensors, actuators)
7 Current clamp
508 Electromagnetic compatibility | Guarantee of immunity and interference suppression
3
6 5
Fig. 6 1
1 High-frequency
G
alternator
2 Resistor
3 Stripline
5
4 Counter-electrode
2 2
(conductive sheet
UAE0248-1Y
or cell)
5 System under test
6 Peripherals 4 4
(sensors, actuators)
Electromagnetic compatibility | Guarantee of immunity and interference suppression 509
Fault diagnostics
The rise in the sheer amount of electronics Monitoring during
in the automobile, the use of software to con-
trol the vehicle, and the increased complexity
vehicle operation
of modern fuel-injection systems place (on-board diagnosis)
high demands on the diagnostic concept, Overview
monitoring during vehicle operation ECU-integrated diagnostics belong to the ba-
(on-board diagnosis), and workshop diag- sic scope of electronic engine-management
nostics (Fig. 1). The workshop diagnostics systems. Besides a self-test of the control unit,
is based on a guided troubleshooting proce- input and output signals, and control-unit
dure that links the many possibilities of on- intercommunication are monitored.
board and offboard test procedures and test On-board diagnosis of an electronic system
equipment. As emission-control legislation is the capability of a control unit to interpret
becomes more and more stringent and con- and perform self-monitoring using “software
tinuous monitoring is now called for, law- intelligence”, i.e. detect, store, and diagnosti-
makers have now acknowledged on-board cally interpret errors and faults. On-board
diagnosis as an aid to monitoring exhaust- diagnosis runs without the use of any addi-
gas emissions, and have produced manufac- tional equipment.
turer-independent standardization. This Monitoring algorithms check input and
additional system is termed the on-board output signals during vehicle operation, and
diagnostic system. check the entire system and all its functions
for malfunctions and disturbances. Any er-
rors or faults detected are stored in the con-
trol-unit fault memory. Stored fault informa-
tion can be read out via a serial interface.
1 Diagnostic system
Diagnostic
tester
Offboard
tester
Te
tl
s
ine
s
æ UWT0104E
d d
ar ar
fbo bo
Of On Control units
Malfunction Indicator Lamp (MIL) These serial interfaces operate at a bit rate
The Malfunction Indicator Lamp (MIL) (baud rate) of 5 to 10 k baud. They are de-
alerts the driver that a component has mal- signed as a single-wire interface with a com-
functioned. When a malfunction is detected, mon wire for both transmission and recep-
CARB and EPA stipulate that the MIL must tion, or as a two-wire interface with a sepa-
light up no later than after two driving cycles rate data line (K-line) and initiate line
of its occurrence. Within the scope of EOBD, (L-line). Several electronic control units (such
the MIL must light up no later than in the as Motronic, ESP, or EDC, and transmission-
third driving cycle with a detected malfunc- shift control, etc.) can be combined on one
tion. diagnosis connector.
If the malfunction disappears (e.g. loose Communication between the tester and
contact), the malfunction remains entered in ECU is set up in three phases:
the fault memory for 40 trips (warmup cy- 쐌 Initiate the ECU.
cles). The MIL goes out after three fault-free 쐌 Detect and generate baud rate.
driving cycles. 쐌 Read key bytes which identify the transmis-
sion protocol.
Service 1 (Mode 1)
MIL Read out current system actual values
ISO 15031 (e.g. engine speed and temperature).
SAE…
Sensors Service 2 (Mode 2)
Read out environment conditions (freeze frame) prevailing
Actuators Diagnostic when the fault occurred.
Systems manager
Service 3 (Mode 3)
Communication Generic
scan tool Read out fault memory The exhaust-gas-related and
confirmed fault codes are read out.
Service 4 (Mode 4)
Erase the fault code in the fault memory and reset the
æ UWT0105E
accompanying information.
OBD socket Repair
Onboard Offboard Service 5 (Mode 5)
Display measured values and thresholds of the λ oxygen
sensors.
MF DF
æ UAE0919E
MF DF
MF DF
518 Fault diagnostics On-board diagnosis system for passenger cars and light-duty trucks
Engine cooling system diagnosis Sensors monitor the following faults (Fig. 5):
The cooling system comprises a thermostat 쐌 Electrical faults, i.e. short-circuits and line
and a coolant-termperature sensor. If the breaks (signal-range check).
thermostat is defective, for instance, the en- 쐌 Range faults (out-of-range check), i.e. un-
gine temperature can only rise slowly and, dercutting or exceeding voltage limits de-
consequently, the exhaust emission rates may fined by the physical measurement range of
increase. The diagnostic function for the ther- a sensor.
mostat uses the coolant-termperature sensor 쐌 Plausibility faults (rationality check); these
to check that a nominal temperature has been are faults that are inherent in the compo-
reached. A temperature model is also used for nents themselves (e.g. drift), or which may
monitoring. be caused by shunts, for instance. Monitor-
The coolant-termperature sensor is moni- ing is carried out by a plausibility check on
tored to ensure that a minimum temperature the sensor signals, either by using a model,
has been reached in addition to monitoring or directly using other sensors.
for electrical faults by means of a dynamic
plausibility function. Dynamic plausibility is Actuators must be monitored for electrical
performed as the engine cools down. These faults and – if technically possible – also for
functions can monitor the sensor for “stick- function. Functional monitoring means that,
ing” in both low and high temperature when a control command (setpoint value) is
ranges. given, it is monitored by observing or mea-
suring (e.g. by a position sensor) the system
Air-conditioner diagnosis reaction (actual value) in a suitable way by
The engine can be operated at a different using information from the system.
operating point in order to cover the air- Besides all output stages, the following
conditioner’s electrical load requirements. actuators are monitored:
The required diagnosis must therefore 쐌 throttle valve
monitor all electronic components in the 쐌 exhaust-gas recirculation valve
air conditioner that may cause an increase 쐌 variable turbine geometry of the
in emissions if they malfunction. exhaust-gas turbocharger
쐌 swirl flap
Particulate-filter diagnosis 쐌 glow plugs
The particulate filter is currently monitored
for filter breakage, removal, or blockage.
A differential-pressure sensor is used to
measure differential pressure (exhaust-gas
backpressure downstream and upstream
of the filter) at a specific volumetric flow. Fig. 5
The measured value can be used to decide 1 Upper threshold
for signal-range
whether the filter is defective.
check
2 Upper threshold
Comprehensive components for out-of-range
On-board diagnosis legislation requires that 5 Sensor monitoring
check
all sensors (e.g. air-mass meter, wheel-speed V
1
3 Lower threshold
sensors, temperature sensors) and actuators 2 for out-of-range
(e.g. throttle valve, high-pressure pump, glow check
5 4 Lower threshold
æ UWT0107E
for signal-range
an impact on emissions, or are used to moni- check
3
tor other components or systems (and conse- 4 5 Plausibility range
quently, may block other diagnoses). rationality check
520 Fault diagnostics On-board diagnosis system for heavy-duty trucks
On-board diagnosis system EOBD for trucks and buses > 3.5 t
European OBD legislation provides for
for heavy-duty trucks a two-stage introduction. Stage 1 (2005)
In Europe and the U.S.A., there exist draft requires monitoring:
laws that have not yet been adopted; they are 쐌 of the fuel-injection system for closed
based closely on legislation for passenger cars. electrical circuit and total failure.
쐌 of emission-related engine components
Legislation or systems for compliance with OBD
In the EU, there are plans to introduce new emission limits (Table 1).
type approvals in October 2005 (coinciding 쐌 of the exhaust-gas treatment system for
with Euro 4 emission-control legislation). major functional faults (e.g. damaged
With effect from October 2006 an OBD sys- catalytic converter, urea deficit in the
tem will become obligatory for every com- SCR system).
mercial vehicle. In the U.S.A., the draft of the
Californian CARB provides for the introduc- Stage 2 (2008) requires:
tion of an OBD system for Model Year (MY) 쐌 Monitoring of the exhaust-gas treatment
2007. It is probable that EPA (U.S. Federal) system for emission limits.
will also follow with a draft in 2004 for subse- 쐌 The OBD emission limits must be adapted
quent introduction in MY 2007. Besides that, to the prevailing state of the art (availabil-
there are initiatives to promote worldwide ity of exhaust-gas sensors).
harmonization (World Wide Harmonized
(WWH) OBD). However, this is not expected Protocols for scan-tool communication
until 2012. Japan is planning to introduce an over CAN have been approved using either
OBD system in 2005. ISO 15 765 or SAE J1939.
1 OBD emission limits for heavy-duty trucks (draft) The main changes compared with present
passenger-car legislation are as follows:
CARB 2007 2010
– Functional check – Relative limit 쐌 Erasing the OBD fault memory by scan
no limits – 1.5 times the value tool is no longer possible. This is only pos-
of each exhaust-gas
category
sible by self-healing (e.g. after repair).
– Exception: 쐌 SAE J1939 has also been approved as an al-
catalytic converter, ternative to CAN diagnostic communica-
factor 1.75
tion to ISO 15 765 (as for passenger cars).
EPA – to be defined – to be defined
EU 2005 2008
– Absolute limit – Absolute limit
NOX: 7.0 g/kWh NOX: 7.0 g/kWh
PM: 0.1 g/kWh PM: 0.1 g/kWh
– Functional check – Subject to review
for exhaust-gas by EU Commission
treatment system
Table 1
Global service 521
왘 Global service
“Once you have driven an automobile, you creased rapidly. In the 1920s Robert Bosch
will soon realize that there is something started to systematically create a nationwide
unbelievably tiresome about horses (. . .). customer-service organization. In 1926 all the
But you do require a conscientious me- repair centers were uniformly named “Bosch
chanic for the automobile (. . .)”. Service” and the name was registered as a
Robert Bosch wrote these words to his trademark.
friend Paul Reusch in 1906. In those days, it Today’s Bosch Service agencies retain the
was indeed the case that breakdowns could same name. They are equipped with the latest
be repaired on the road or at home by an em- electronic equipment in order to meet the de-
ployed chauffeur or mechanic. However, with mands of 21st-century automotive technology
the growing number of motorists driving their and the quality expectations of the customers.
own cars after the First World War, the need
for workshops offering repair services in-
æ UWT0079Y
2 A Bosch car service workshop in the 21st century carried out with the very latest electronic testing equipment
æ UWT0080Y
522
Index
3/2 PWM valve with high flow rate 307 transmission media 115
3/2 PWM valve with rising characteristic 307 transmission of control commands 104
3/2 PWM valve 306 transmission speed sensor 251
3/2 switching valve 305 transmission technology 91
3/2-way servo valve 438 transmission 82
throttle-valve sensor 171 transmission-oriented method 48
time control 116 transmitter 496
time division multiple access 49 transmitter initiative 78
time frame 29 transport layer 74
time synchronization 133 transversal differential lock controller 372 f.
time-controlled protocol 111 transverse effect 210
timer control 53 f. transverse electromagnetic field 507
time-triggered architecture 111 travel measuring force sensors 220
Time-Triggered Protocol 111 travel positions 168
timing of data transfer 94 travel-measuring systems 207
timing 132 f. triangulation 193
tiptronic shifting strategies 337 triggering phases 437
tolerance diagram 238 triggering sequence 436, 441
tolerance graph 155 triggering the interrupt 28
tolerance ranges 85 trimming 146
tolerance requirements 154 TSC controller 393
tools 32 TTA 111
tooth interrupt 27 TTA network 112
tooth space 200 TTA protocol stack 117
topology 61, 71, 92, 101, 114, 125 TTP/C 111
torque 473 TTP/C Controller 112
torque control 473 TTP/C node 113
torque converter lockup clutch 305, 336 TTP/C protocol 117
torque difference 361 tuning-fork 259
torque measurement 220, turbulent flow 225
torque motor 293 turn signaling 64 f.
torque sensor 215, 220, 223, 282 two-channel topologies 125
torque-controlled diesel injection 475 two-step curves 152
torque-controlled EDC systems 473 two-step lambda oxygen sensors 284
torsion angle 221 two-value capacitor motor 300
torsion-measuring sensors 221 two-wire current interface 250
total error 154 two-wire line 72
tow-actuator system 419 typical control cycles 362
traction control system 370, 374 typical control situations 373
traffic jam assist 413
trailer control unit 68 UART interface transmission frame 51
trailer segment 135 UART interface 51
transceiver 81 ultrasound 193
transfer function 209 ultrasound sensors 192
transformer pick-off 221 understeering 383
transmission acknowledgement 120 uninterrupted duty 301
transmission agent 72, 102, 126 universal motors 300
transmission control 249, 268 unsegmented messages 142
transmission functions 302 unsuccessful communication 141
538 Index