Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Forest Products
Forest Products
A
intervention. See box 3.1 for definitions of several commer-
wood, the global wood market is undergoing cial wood products.
rapid changes, putting considerable and increas- Even though managing forests has become more com-
ing pressure on the world’s remaining natural forests. plex over the past decades because of a wider range of man-
Without significant investment in promoting sustainable agement objectives than just wood production (for exam-
forest management (SFM) efforts and in plantation man- ple, biodiversity conservation, carbon sequestration,
agement, it must be expected that, especially in many recreation, and tourism), the core problems and challenges
World Bank client countries, increasing demand for wood often remain similar. The exploitation of wood for subsis-
will lead to further degradation and fragmentation of tence use and commercialization at nonsustainable levels
forests and permanent deforestation. To successfully leads to forest degradation and destruction, which fre-
change this situation, international wood demand must be quently constitutes the first step toward conversion of
met through sustainable wood production from natural forests to other land uses and, thus, permanent deforesta-
forests and plantation management. To facilitate such a tion dynamics (see figure 3.1).
process, markets must increasingly adopt mechanisms that This sequence of events has become a major concern to
not only ensure sustainable forestry and conservation, but resource managers in recent years because the constantly
also provide satisfactory livelihood opportunities for for- growing demand for wood, particularly by emerging
est-dependent communities, and promote sustainable eco- economies like Brazil, China, India, and South Africa, is
nomic development for all nations, including countries strongly affecting forests and forest-dependent people in
with low forest cover. Therefore, the sustainable production producer countries. For example, in China total forest-
of wood to meet increasing demand will continue to play a product imports rose from 40 million cubic meters (m3) to
predominant role in the discussion of how to achieve almost 150 million m3 between 1997 and 2005. It is
global targets for forest management. expected that demand, both domestic and from outside the
Economic processes have always relied on wood, and country, will continue to rise, and forest-product imports to
access to and exploitation of it have shaped economic struc- China are likely to double within the next 10 years.1 This
tures. The exploitation of wood for subsistence uses for development has strong impacts on markets in other coun-
energy or construction material, or for commercial use in tries in which forest management standards often are not
local, regional, and global markets, were among the first yet as stringent as generally required by consumer coun-
objectives of managing forest resources through human tries.2 Many of these countries are World Bank client coun-
93
Box 3.1 Technical Definitions
Wood includes roundwood, wood fuel, industrial and veneer logs (production of sawnwood or railway
roundwood, sawnwood, veneer sheets, and plywood. sleepers and veneer sheets, respectively); pulpwood,
Roundwood is wood obtained from removal, har- round and split (pulp, particleboard, or fiberboard);
vesting, and felling from forests and trees outside for- and other industrial roundwood (for tanning, distilla-
est. It includes roundwood generally classified as wood tion, poles, and so forth).
fuel (fuelwood and charcoal) and industrial round- Sawnwood is wood that has been produced from
wood (sawlogs and veneer logs; pulpwood, round and domestic and imported roundwood, either by sawing
split; and other industrial roundwood). lengthways or by a profile-chipping process.
Wood fuel is roundwood used for fuel consumption Veneer sheets are thin sheets of wood of uniform
such as cooking, heating, or power production. thickness, peeled, sliced, or sawn.
Industrial roundwood is roundwood used for indus- Plywood is a panel consisting of an assembly of
trial production of other goods and services except as a veneer sheets bonded together with the direction of the
source of energy. It includes several products: sawlogs grain in alternate plies, generally at right angles.
tries, and supporting these countries in meeting interna- as biodiversity conservation, carbon sequestration, and
tional standards for responsible forest management and poverty alleviation are equally threatened. The increase in
good governance constitutes one of the biggest challenges demand for wood and the resulting policy uncertainties and
for World Bank operations in the forestry sector. For exam- other sensitivities, paired with an increase in market prices,
ple, forests in eastern Siberia in the Russian Federation are triggers another important factor contributing to these neg-
the primary suppliers of wood to meet China’s rapidly ative trends: illegal logging (see note 5.5, Addressing Illegal
growing demand. Because many of the traditional supply Logging, for further discussion), which is a serious threat to
markets are starting to experience resource shortages, the sustainable management of forest resources and, hence, to
growing demand for wood currently focuses on the sustainable development in general. Between 1997 and
exploitation of the last remaining natural reserves, for 2002, estimates of illegally harvested timber in Southeast
example, in the Congo Basin and the Amazon. It is therefore Asia alone amounted to more than 80 million m3. Based on
very likely that roundwood production in tropical countries the factors presented in box 3.2, the global demand for
will still increase in regions with natural forests. wood is expected to continue to grow in the years to come.
If demand for wood cannot be met through sustainable While there has been little or no recent change in Europe
supplies, forest degradation and deforestation will continue and North America, deforestation is of great concern in
or even accelerate; thus, other management objectives, such many other parts of the world, especially in many African
countries. According to the Food and Agriculture Organiza-
Figure 3.1 Pathways of Deforestation and Land Cover tion (FAO) of the United Nations, the annual global defor-
Conversion estation rate is presently estimated to be about 0.2 percent
(FAO 2006). In the period 1990–2000, this translated into a
net loss of 95 million hectares (ha) of forests—an area larger
than the República Bolivariana de Venezuela. The loss of
161 million ha of natural forests to deforestation was some-
Primary Secondary Agricultural Degraded what offset by 15 million ha of afforestation (the deliberate
forest forest land land creation of forests where none existed), 36 million ha of nat-
ural expansion of forests, and 15 million ha of reforestation.
These trends are critical because they lead to a decreasing
supply of wood from natural forests, especially considering
that productivity rates of natural forests are declining, too,
because of overexploitation and insufficient management
Subsistence use of wood (wood fuel, construction Pulp and paper and industrial wood products
material) ■ population increase
effects related to climate change dynamics) emerging-market economies (for example, Brazil,
China, India, and South Africa)
Domestic wood use (charcoal, especially in Africa, but ■ decrease of production forest area (natural forests),
also South Asia and Eastern Europe) resulting in traditional net exporters turning into
■ population increase net importers of timber and timber products (for
■ continued urbanization example, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand)
■ macroeconomic reforms, for example, tariff ■ population increase
interventions. Without further investments in improving pulpwood production is partly due both to their greater
the productivity of natural forests and establishing planta- economic competitiveness and to environmental concern
tion forestry to meet future demands, it can be expected that over declining natural forest cover.
supplies are only available for a limited number of years. Another significant contributor to the increase in round-
Table 3.1 presents such estimations for selected countries. wood consumption emerges from local and regional use of
The projected impact of the increase in the global wood fuels, that is, fuelwood and charcoal. This aspect
demand for wood—especially from emerging economies3 deserves particular attention because of its strong poverty
as major new processing and consumption markets—is, link in many World Bank client countries (see table 3.2).
however, only one factor causing forest degradation and At the global level, the number of people living on less
deforestation. At present, the conversion of forest land to than $1/day is about the same as the number of those lack-
other land uses, such as agriculture and urbanization, is by ing access to commercial energy: 2 billion people (FAO
far the biggest factor for the continued degradation, frag- COFO 2005). According to the World Bank (2004), about
mentation, and destruction of natural forest area in World 575 million people depend on wood fuels as a source of
Bank client countries and has a strong impact on the reduc- energy in Sub-Saharan Africa. The use of wood fuels is pre-
tion in wood supply (illustrated in figure 3.1). While such
dynamics are generally discussed with regard to their
impacts on global forest market developments, their Table 3.1 Estimated Number of Years Left of
impacts on local and regional markets are equally impor- Economically Accessible Timber, by
tant, with strong negative effects on local livelihoods and Country
provision of local and global environmental services. Country of origin Years
The global demand for wood fibers has complemented
Russia (far eastern region) > 20
the increase in the demand for roundwood and timber Papua New Guinea 13–16
products, with industry alone expected to need 1.9 billion Myanmar 10–15
m3 per year by 2015. Fast-growing plantations will be relied Indonesia 10
Cambodia 4–9
upon as a key element in meeting future demand for fiber.
This shift of focus from natural forests to plantations for Source: Forest Trends 2006.
The Global Forest and Trade Network (GFTN), an This project, financed by the International Devel-
initiative of the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), has opment Association with cofinancing from the
supported the development of community-based Global Environment Facility, the Netherlands, Fin-
forest management in Latin America (see also note land, and the European Commission, was
1.2, Community-Based Forest Management). Ini- approved in 2004, and emphasizes the participa-
tiatives have included capacity building for chain- tion of smallholders in the establishment of plan-
of-custody tracking in the lowland tropical hard- tations, aiming to ensure the sustainable manage-
wood forests of Peru, and the Nicaraguan Forest ment of plantation forests and the conservation of
Finance Fund, a novel financial mechanism aimed biodiversity in special-use forests. To this end, the
at creating incentives for producers and processors project’s scope includes the following aspects: (i)
dedicated to responsible forest management and improvement of the environment for sustainable
trade. In Bolivia, the GFTN has been involved in forestry development and biodiversity conserva-
developing a strategy for increasing the demand tion; (ii) provision of attractive incentive packages
for responsibly produced wood products, primar- to mainly poor farming households to plant trees
ily from indigenous communities, via responsible on a sustainable basis to generate additional
purchase policies and related market links to man- income and employment; (iii) making small, com-
ufacturers and other members of the GFTN (for petitive grants available for effectively managing
example, retailers in consumer countries). priority special-use forests of international impor-
tance; (iv) establishment of a credit line for partic-
Source: Authors’ compilation using Sander 2007. ipating farmers; (v) enhancement of capacity and
capability at regional, provincial, and district lev-
els; and (vi) establishment of support services to
Encourage expansion of wood supply by private and monitor and evaluate impact and outcomes.
community forest owners. Global fiber supply is shifting Implementation of the project started in 2005.
toward the southern hemisphere and China. Possibilities
Source: World Bank 2004b.
need to be explored for World Bank forestry projects and
investment policies to support International Finance Cor-
poration (IFC) private sector forest plantation investment
in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, China, Ecuador, India, Indone- ficult challenge to forestry in most World Bank client coun-
sia, Mozambique, South Africa, Tanzania, Thailand, tries. Achieving sustainable management of natural forests
Uruguay, and Vietnam (see also chapter 2, Engaging the Pri- requires significant reinvestment of revenues received from
vate Sector in Forest Sector Development). Developing the extraction of wood. Meaningful stakeholder consulta-
innovative approaches that facilitate certification of small- tions also need to be maintained to ensure that socially
holder forest management, and improving access to high- endorsed goals and objectives are achieved (see also chapter
price markets for certified small-scale producers, are 10, Consultation and Communications in Forest Activities,
regarded as important components. and chapter 12, Applying OP 4.10 on Indigenous Peoples).
Facilitating sustainable management of natural Enhance technical capacity for natural forest man-
forests. Improving and extending responsible forest man- agement and plantation development. The technical
agement according to the principles and criteria demanded capacity in many World Bank client countries is not suffi-
by the World Bank’s Operational Policy on Forests (OP cient to meet internationally acceptable standards for SFM.
4.36) is the principal entry point and vehicle by which the This is often evident even in the lack of timely collection
World Bank can improve forestry outcomes.To meet future and management of relevant and accurate data needed for
wood demand, the productivity of natural forests that serve forest management, such as forest area, forest types,
production purposes must be improved. Securing appropri- resource stock inventories, growth and yield tables, biodi-
ate structure, balance, and composition of the flows of versity mapping, and so forth. Research on lesser-known
resources into and out of the forestry sector is the most dif- species to increase management efficiency and productivity
onservation has often been treated as a separate equate to safeguard biodiversity for two reasons. First, the
104
■ The concept is designed to integrate production and pro- a forest may contain or maintain were identified (see box
tection. Therefore, it does not preclude productive use of 3.5) and the identification and protection of HCVFs
some or even all of the HCVF identified. Management became a requirement for FSC certification. It quickly
prescriptions are developed based on the best way to pro- became apparent that the concept could be useful not only
tect the values identified. within forest certification, but also in a wider land-use con-
■ The methodology is not prescriptive, but provides a text and it is now used for a range of situations.
framework for systematic identification of values and The HCV approach is applicable to a wide range of nat-
planning for their protection. The HCV approach uses ural resource management scenarios. It is used both within
and builds on the findings of whatever conservation or the certification context and more widely, to guide both
land-use planning activities are already in place rather SFM within production forests, and land-use planning for
than replacing them. This makes it both more cost effi- responsible production of natural resources. HCV is rou-
cient and less threatening. tinely applied for developing management prescriptions to
■ The HCV framework places equal emphasis on environ- support conservation goals in production forests under the
mental and social values and requires a consultative FSC and Malaysian Timber Certification Council certifica-
approach to identify critical values and areas and to reach tion schemes. Outside of certification, it is mainly being
management decisions. used for land-use planning purposes, including identifica-
■ The concept is widely accepted and already integrated tion of set-aside areas for total protection and plantation
into the land-use planning frameworks of several nations design.
or regions and within sustainable natural resource man- For SFM in natural forests, the HCV approach has
agement standards and certification schemes. proved to be a robust tool for undertaking forest land-use
planning that integrates conservation and production
The HCVF concept was initially developed for use in for- requirements. The output generally indicates areas needing
est certification by the FSC in 1999.4 Six generic HCVs that total protection, areas needing specific management, and
High Conservation Value areas are critical areas in a or endangered ecosystems.” For example, patches of a
landscape that need to be appropriately managed to regionally rare type of freshwater swamp in an Aus-
maintain or enhance HCVs. There are six main types tralian coastal district.
of HCV areas:
HCV4: “Areas that provide basic ecosystem services in
HCV1: “Areas containing globally, regionally, or critical situations (for example, watershed protection,
nationally significant concentrations of biodiversity erosion control).” For example, forest on steep slopes
values (e.g., endemism, endangered species, refugia).” with avalanche risk above a town in the European Alps.
For example, the presence of several globally threat-
ened bird species within a Kenyan montane forest. HCV5: “Areas fundamental to meeting basic needs of
local communities (for example, subsistence,
HCV2: “Globally, regionally, or nationally significant health).” For example, key hunting or foraging areas
large landscape-level areas where viable populations for communities living at subsistence level in a Cam-
of most if not all naturally occurring species exist in bodian lowland forest mosaic.
natural patterns of distribution and abundance.” For
example, a large tract of Mesoamerican flooded grass- HCV6: “Areas critical to local communities’ tradi-
lands and gallery forests with healthy populations of tional cultural identity (areas of cultural, ecological,
Hyacinth Macaw, Jaguar, Maned Wolf, and Giant Otter, economic, or religious significance identified in
as well as most smaller species. cooperation with such local communities).” For
example, sacred burial grounds within a forest man-
HCV3: “Areas that are in or contain rare, threatened, agement area in Canada.
HCV Resource Network Charter (2006, pp. 2–3), adapted from the FSC.
Global toolkit
National interpretation
• Available data
• Existing
classifications • What are existing threats to these values?
• Expert opinion and
Revision
Manage • What forest area is needed to maintain
individual expertise this value?
• Working group • How should this forest area be managed?
with balanced
representation
process draws on sources of data that are already available national mapping processes give further useful details on
(box 3.10), which may take many forms. habitats, soil type, and current or planned land use.
Obtaining reliable maps is an important component Existing data and maps can be combined with specifically
of the process. The maps may include data on recent for- commissioned surveys to build a picture of the location
est cover, hydrology, elevation, and slope, but many of the values.
Box 3.6 Identifying HCVFs in State Forests and Taking It to Scale: The Case of China
The WWF and IKEA Co-operation on Forest Projects five-year provincial forestry development plan, and in
selected two local forestry bureaus in northeast China Heilongjiang province, the HCVF concept will be inte-
as pilot sites for implementing SFM techniques. grated into the provincial standard for identifying
HCVFs were identified and assessed in the 420,000 forests that provide key ecological benefits. Alongside
hectares of forests managed by these two bureaus. The this HCVF work, the projects also led to the identifica-
detailed work mapped out HCVFs as areas that should tion of potential HCVFs at the landscape and regional
be set aside as nature reserves, areas where logging levels within northeast China and Inner Mongolia. In
should be banned, and areas with important stands of 2006, China’s State Forestry Administration incorpo-
Korean pine. It also led to these two forestry bureaus rated the HCVF concept into the national guidelines
achieving the first FSC certification of state-owned on SFM planning. Thus, areas identified as HCVFs will
forests in China. After their participation in this work, be designated priority areas for sustainable manage-
the two involved provincial governments firmly ment or protection. These guidelines are to be distrib-
embraced the HCVF concept. The Jilin Forestry uted to all provinces in China for implementation by
Department introduced HCVF identification into its local government or forest management units.
Source: WWF 2007.
In support of meeting the Global Forest Target of PNG’s ecological diversity posed a challenge to cre-
improving the management of 300 million hectares of ating a national-level HCVF interpretation. At the
production forests through forest certification by 2010 time of preparing the technical progress report, large-
[http://www.worldwildlife.org/alliance/targets.cfm], scale industrial field testing had yet to be conducted,
WWF has developed a first draft of an HCVF toolkit but testing had been conducted in smaller operations,
for Papua New Guinea (PNG). By facilitating the iden- and additional field trials were to be used to test
tification of HCVFs, companies will be able to manage whether monsoon forests, considered “fragile forests,”
these according to FSC principles while maintaining should be excluded from logging and conversion
their high conservation attributes, and pursue certifi- activities altogether.
cation under this system. Other outputs of the project included the creation
The process of developing the HCVF national of coarse-scale HCVF maps and an effort to lobby the
toolkit brought together government, NGOs, private government to recognize HCVFs in provincial and
industry, and land owners to develop consensus on the national forest plans. At the time of drafting the tech-
meaning of HCVF in PNG. After a first draft was cir- nical progress report, it was indicated that the com-
culated to stakeholders, comments were incorporated pleted PNG HCVF national toolkit was to be adopted
and a final version was made available online in Febru- by the PNG FSC National Standards for compliance
ary 2006 (see http://www.wwfpacific.org.fj/publica with the FSC’s Principle 9.
tions/png/HCVF_Toolkit_First_Ed.pdf).
Source: PNG FSC 2006.
Managing the HCVs. The aim of HCV management is to agreed standard and monitored for any negative effects),
ensure that the HCVFs identified are maintained or and areas that do not require specific precautions.
enhanced. The activities to achieve this aim can start with This begins with knowing the area of forest that is
delineating areas that need total protection, areas requiring required to maintain each relevant value. For example, to
special management (for example, production activities that maintain or enhance an HCV1 area (containing a specified
are consistent with conservation aims, managed to an set of rare, threatened, or endemic species; see box 3.5), the
area of forest required to support viable populations of those
species needs to be defined. Thus, some knowledge of the
Box 3.8 Mainstreaming HCVF Work in Bulgaria biology of the species in question is required to define areas
that are critical habitats or resources for breeding and forag-
ing, areas that permit movement of individuals between these
The government of Bulgaria formally endorsed the resources, or areas that protect these resources. A similar
national HCVF toolkit and adopted it as a process needs to be applied to each HCV in turn, with equal
methodology for biodiversity inventories. The consideration given to social, cultural, and ecological values.
toolkit will be included in the national standards In addition, management of HCVs requires understand-
for forest management planning in Bulgaria. This ing the present and future threats to the values, including
will ensure that more valuable forests will benefit
those posed by any planned activities. Threats may be from
from its stipulations and will be managed recog-
proposed management activities, such as logging operations
nizing the HCVs. The toolkit is also being used by
the United Nations Development Fund and a or plantation establishment, or from external activities, such
number of NGOs in Bulgaria for their biodiver- as hunting of wildlife, encroachment for agriculture,
sity-related work and by the 10 nature parks in the planned conversion of land, or illegal logging. Examples of
country. the type of methodologies for threat assessment that can be
used in HCV management include the 5-S Framework for
Source: WWF 2007. Conservation Project Management and the Participatory
Conservation Planning tools developed by The Nature Con-
servancy.
An important element of the HCV process is the The objective of national interpretation is to define
national-level interpretation. Although it is possible to HCVs and establish guidelines on management for
use the generic guidelines of the Global HCVF Toolkit, specific cases. This includes deciding the relevant forest
it is much more convenient for forest managers if the values, such as forest types, species assemblages, and
global HCV definitions are adapted for use in their the like, and specifying parameters to measure them. It
particular country, region, or forest type. This step can also involves, for each forest value and parameter,
be done by a specific HCV working group, drawing on defining thresholds for deciding when to designate a
existing groups working on related issues or groups HCV (that is, a value that is significant at the global,
working on defining or mapping forest values. This regional, or national level). Thresholds can include
working group can interpret the HCV definitions to actual locations, levels, numbers, or types.
develop a national standard. Two types of processes A national interpretation serves two purposes:
can be used for creating national or regional standards:
■ It facilitates on-the-ground application of the HCV
■ A multi-stakeholder process that is consensus based. concept by producing HCVs that are clearly
Though more time intensive, this provides a defini- defined, detailed, and straightforward in a manner
tive interpretation with wide-ranging support as the that can be understood by nonspecialists and
national or regional standard for HCV. unambiguously assessed at forest levels. This
■ A technical adaptation process involving a technical ensures greater consistency in the way it is used.
working group or team. This is often a practical way ■ The process itself is useful because it brings together
forward for projects in countries with no national a range of interests and stakeholders and con-
standard. However, it must be made explicit that the tributes to the development of a shared understand-
objective is not national standard setting and that ing of the best way to protect environmental and
the outcome is not a definitive one. social values.
■ Forest inventories
orest certification has become of increasing conse- chasing decisions. Certification was conceived in the early
113
the origin of products from a certified forest. This chain-of- according to a standard that at a minimum meets, and fre-
custody certification is therefore an indispensable tool to quently exceeds, a country’s legal requirements for forest
link supplies from certified forests to consumer demand for management. Certification could therefore be used to sup-
certified products. It should be noted, however, that the plement or in some instances even replace governmental
scope of chain-of-custody certification is limited to the surveillance mechanisms in the sector and thus contribute
processes for control of certified and uncertified material to more efficient use of scarce public resources.
flows and does not include the social or environmental
quality of timber processing.1 Providing a role model. To achieve certification under
The World Bank introduced certification as an important internationally acceptable standards, companies must have
element of its safeguard policy on forests (World Bank adequate management systems in place. In comparison with
2004), making use of the control and surveillance mecha- competing businesses, these companies often demonstrate
nisms provided by certification systems to supplement the better economic performance and can serve as a benchmark
World Bank’s own monitoring efforts. Certification under a for SFM.
system acceptable to the World Bank is required for enabling
investments into commercial forest harvesting operations at Market access. Maintaining or expanding access to export
an industrial scale. Alternatively, operations can adhere to a markets is critical to the economic viability of the forest sec-
time-bound action plan accepted by the World Bank that is tor in many countries. Particularly for timber from devel-
adequate to achieve certification under such a system within oping countries, market access can be hampered by con-
a defined time frame. The World Bank’s policy more clearly sumer concerns about the negative impacts of forest
defines the forest management standards a certification sys- harvesting. It is increasingly important for companies to be
tem should require (paragraph 10, OP 4.36) and the neces- able to demonstrate the sustainability of their products and
sary minimum thresholds for the rules governing the opera- to be able to trace the source materials through the supply
tions of certification systems (paragraph 11, OP 4.36) for chain (chain of custody). Many certification systems can
them to be acceptable to the World Bank. help provide this assurance.
Beyond this more narrowly focused perspective of certi-
fication as a safeguard tool are a number of reasons to use
LESSONS LEARNED AND RECOMMENDATIONS
this instrument and related processes and institutions more
FOR PRACTITIONERS
proactively, including the following:
Barriers to certification
Conflict mitigation and stakeholder dialogue. Given
the great potential of forests to deliver multiple products In the past, a number of barriers particularly prevalent in
and services, interests diverge widely and conflicts over the developing countries became apparent, considerably ham-
use of forest resources are extensive in many forest regions. pering the development of certification schemes and their
If properly designed, certification systems provide mecha- widespread application. The gap between then-current for-
nisms for the involvement of stakeholders at the national est management practices and the performance level
level in the process of setting standards for forest manage- required by many standards resulted in high compliance
ment. In addition, local communities and other stakehold- costs and deterred many companies from pursuing certifi-
ers are normally consulted during the certification audit cation. Furthermore, the kinds of institutions required for
and their concerns and opinions are considered in the certi- developing and conducting the processes for reliable certifi-
fication decision. In the course of such processes, the avail- cation are often not available or lack the capacity to perform
able information is improved not only about forest man- the complex tasks involved. Experience has also shown that
agement practices but also about the varying and conflicting it is considerably more difficult for small-scale operations to
interests of stakeholders. This increases transparency con- achieve certification and access markets for certified prod-
siderably and may contribute to better understanding ucts because of economies of scale that substantially
between the different actors in the sector, and thus bears the decrease per-unit costs of certification for bigger enter-
potential to mitigate conflicts. prises. So far, only a limited number of timber processing
companies in many developing countries have chain-of-
Supplementing government forest surveillance. The custody certification, a situation that adds to the difficulties
certification process consists of an assessment of operations for primary producers to access certified supply chains.
orest plantations can be highly effective for the pro- OPERATIONAL ASPECTS
117
Reforms) provide the framework for participatory develop- production, optimal stocking, and lower land and labor val-
ment of national strategies and, where available, project ues in developing countries. Industrial plantations also ben-
preparation should draw on their work. Because forestry is efit from site preparation techniques, the use of improved
a long-term endeavor, a correct focus and vision for the seeds, pest management, and higher levels of stocking over
intervention is critical at the onset—it is a template for the natural forests. Natural forests may not need these initial
future. investments. If natural forests are managed as going con-
cerns, they can be and often are economically viable.
Species selection. Productive plantations are usually
established for one of two purposes, sawtimber or pulp, and Use of native species. Because many species of trees grow
to a lesser extent for NTFPs, such as rubber, or in multiple- much faster outside their native ranges, they provide
use agroforesty and silvopastoral systems. Plantations estab- improved opportunities for increased financial returns. This
lished for pulp usually emphasize high volumes of fast- has given rise to an extensive use of eucalypts (from Aus-
growing trees with good pulping characteristics, particularly tralia) and southern yellow pines and Monterrey pine (from
high specific gravity and long fibers (hardwoods) or tra- the United States) in industrial plantations and develop-
cheid (softwoods). Such plantations in developing countries ment programs. In the developing world, about 44 million
are frequently established using exotic pines from the Amer- ha of plantations are found in Asia, the bulk of which are
icas, eucalypts from Australia, or acacias. Trees selected for located in China; 11 million in South America, mostly in
sawtimber plantations must produce wood appropriate for Argentina, Brazil, and Chile; and another 10 million in
the intended end use, which can be highly variable and Africa, in Côte d’Ivoire, Nigeria, Rwanda, and others.
includes wood for structural framing and construction, fur- Smaller areas of exotic plantations are common throughout
niture, veneers, or crates and pallets, among others. the rest of the developing world. While the use of exotics is
In all cases, species needs to be carefully selected to popular from an economic perspective, concerns about
ensure that the desired end products (or services) are even- their environmental impacts have been growing. A recent
tually obtained. At the same time, market demands and CIFOR study concluded that there are situations where
trends should be taken into account to ensure that the trees plantations have affected critical habitats, but it also con-
will be marketable at maturity. Planting programs that fail cluded that such claims may be exaggerated (World Bank
to take market factors into account can, and have, resulted 2003; Cossalter and Pye-Smith 2003). Still, the widespread
in large areas of plantations with limited or negligible finan- use of exotics has led to an increasingly polarized debate
cial viability and consequent loss of investors in the sector. concerning their use and potential impact on the environ-
For many countries, this poses a paradox because they are ment. For World Bank projects, this means potential repu-
unable to attract or develop wood industries until an ade- tational risks, and the need for good public outreach and
quate resource base is developed or assured. In such cases, consensus building during project preparation and imple-
planting programs with productive aims should carefully mentation, as well as safeguards monitoring.
analyze projections of needs at local, national, and interna- While World Bank–financed projects should endeavor to
tional levels during formulation to ensure their program use native species whenever possible, in reality, client coun-
gets off to the right start. tries and producers are more likely to favor the use of
exotics over native species because financial returns on
Management practice. Plantation productivity is nor- investments are frequently much higher. In such cases, find-
mally much greater than that of natural forests. Well- ing a middle ground and ensuring that any impacts from
managed plantations in some developing countries have the use of exotics is mitigated or avoided is essential. To
annual growth rates in excess of 40 m3/ha. The most pro- achieve this, specific measures must usually be employed to
ductive native forests (those of the southeastern United integrate biodiversity conservation into exotic plantations.
States) show internal rates of return (IRRs) of around 4–8 Examples of such techniques include maintaining biological
percent, whereas, P. taeda plantations in Brazil have achieved corridors and integrating native species into plantations;
IRRs of 17 percent, and plantations of Eucalyptus grandis in establishing set asides for wildlife and biodiversity conserva-
Brazil have recorded IRRs of 24 percent (Cubbage et al., tion; favoring smaller patches of plantations rather than
2007). The large differences in returns between plantations large contiguous blocks of monocultures; avoiding invasive
and natural forests are attributable to the application of exotics; and generally following standard best management
management practices, the selection of the best species for practices, which emphasize the control of nonpoint pollu-