BRAKE SYSTEM CLASSIFICATION AND DISC BRAKE

ANALYSIS

Project report submitted by

ANOOP BISEN
ENROLLMENT NO. 0111ME151053

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

Of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
in

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Department of Mechanical Engineering

TECHNOCTATS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,
BHOPAL (M.P.) - 462021, INDIA

Affiliated to
Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya, Bhopal
DEC 2018

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Technocrats Institute of Technology Bhopal,
Bhopal (M.P.) - 462021, INDIA.

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Project titled "BRAKE SYSTEM CLASSIFICATION

AND DISC BRAKE ANALYSIS " has been carried out by ANOOP BISEN, student of
B.E. (Mechanical Engineering) under our supervision. He has completed his
work within the period prescribed under the ordinances governing the course
leading to the B.E. Degree in Mechanical Engineering in Technocrats Institute of
Technology, Bhopal.

Date: 26/11/2018

Place: Bhopal

GUIDE HOD

Mr. Ashish Gurjar Dr. Hitesh Khare

(Assistant Professor) (Professor)
Mechanical Engineering Mechanical Engineering,
Technocrats Institute of Technology, Technocrats Institute of Technology,
Bhopal (M.P.) - 462021, INDIA Bhopal (M.P.) - 462021, INDIA

2
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that Project titled “BRAKE SYSTEM CLASSIFICATION AND

DISC BRAKE ANALYSIS” is being submitted in the partial fulfillment for the award

of the degree of Bachelor of Engineering in Mechanical Engineering. The work

has been carried out in Technocrats Institute of Technology, Bhopal and is

authentic record of my own work carried out under the guidance of Mr. Abhishek

Singh.

Date: 26/11/2018

Place: Bhopal

ANOOP BISEN

0111ME151053

I certify that the declaration made above by candidate is true.

HOD

Dr. Hitesh Khare

(Professor)
Dept. of Mechanical Engg.
T.I.T., Bhopal

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Words are often less to revels one’s deep regards. With an understanding
that work like this can never be the outcome of a single person, I take this
opportunity to express my profound sense of gratitude and respect to all those
who directly or indirectly helped me through the duration of this project work.
I express my deep sense of gratitude to Dr. Hitesh Khare, Prof. &
Head, Department of Mechanical Engineering, T.I.T., Bhopal, for his expert
guidance, keen interest, continued encouragement and support.
My deepest thanks to Mr. Ashish Gurjar, Assistant Professor,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, T.I.T., Bhopal, the Supervisor of the
project for guiding and correcting various documents of mine with attention and
care. They have taken pain to go through the project and make necessary
correction as and when needed. I profoundly thank Mr. Abhishek Singh,
Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, T.I.T., Bhopal,
for providing valuable suggestions and advices on my project work. I am also
thankful to Mr. Avinash Selot, Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, T.I.T., Bhopal to make the sincere corrections in my project,
wherever required.
I would also thank my Institution and my faculty members without whom
this project would have been a distant reality.

TARUN KUMAR GOYAL

B.E. (Mechanical Engineering)
Enrol. No: 0111ME151287

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 ABSTRACT

Humans have always been fascinated by the idea of going faster than before.
With advancements in the IC engine technologies and then Jet Propulsion Engine
the highest speed that vehicles can reach has multiplied manifold. However as the
speeds of vehicles go up the technology required to safely stop these vehicles must
evolve. Braking systems have had tremendous transformations from lever type
brakes on horse carriages to multi layered carbon ceramic disc type brakes to
airbrakes used on land speed record braking cars. While the technology used to
power vehicles to higher than ever speeds is what catches popular imagination the
same has not been the case with evolution of braking systems.. In this report
carbon ceramic matrix disc brake material use for calculating normal force, shear
force and piston force. And also for calculating the brake distance of a disc brake.
The standard disc brake of a two wheeler is modeled using Ansys and have
performed the Thermal analysis and Modal analysis, also calculations has been
performed on the deflection and Heat flux, also analysis of Temperature variation
with the increase in application of force on a disc brake has been performed. This
is important to understand the action of force and frictional force on the disc brake
with new materials and how disc brake performs and how they can be more
efficient, which can help to reduce the accident that happens every day.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

Acknowledgement …………………………………….. 4
Abstract …………………………………………………….. 5
List of Figures…………………………………………….. 8
List of Symbols…………………………………………… 9
List of Abbreviations………………………………….. 10

1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………. 11
1.1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………… 12
1.1.1. Working of a brake…………………………………………………... 14
1.1.2. Classification of brakes……………………………………………. 15
1.1.2.1. Drum brakes………………………….................................. 16

1.1.2.1.1. introduction…………………………………………….. 16
1.1.2.1.2. working…………………………………………………... 17
1.1.2.1.3. Construction……………………………………………. 19
1.1.2.2. Disk brakes………………………………………………….. 20
1.1.2.2.1. Introduction…………………………………………… 20
1.1.2.2.2. Working………………………………………………….. 22
1.1.2.2.3. Construction……………………………………………. 23
1.1.2.2.4. Thermomechanical and structural analysis.. 24
1.1.2.3. Hydraulic brakes…………………………………………… 27
1.1.2.3.1. Introduction…………………………………………….. 27
1.1.2.3.2. Working………………………………………………….. 28
1.1.2.3.3. Construction……………………………………………. 30
1.1.2.4. Air brakes……………………………………………………... 31
1.1.2.4.1. Introduction……………………………………………. 31
1.1.2.4.2. Working………………………………………………….. 33
1.1.2.4.3. Construction……………………………………………. 35
1.1.2.5. Electric brakes……………………………………………… 36

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 1.1.2.5.1. introduction…………………………………………. 36
1.1.2.5.2. working……………………………………………….. 37
1.1.2.5.3. Construction………………………………………... 38
1.1.2.6. vacuum brakes……………………………………………… 39
1.1.2.6.1. introduction…………………………………………….. 39
1.1.2.6.2. working…………………………………………………... 40
1.1.2.6.3. Construction……………………………………………. 42

1.2. Problem statement……………………………………………………… 43

1.3. Objective…………………………………………………………………….. 44
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE…………………………………………………… 46
3. MATERIALS & METHODS USED………………………………………….. 49
3.1 Grey cast iron ………………………………………………………….. 50
3.2 High carbon brake disks…………………………………………… 50
3.3 Stainless steel………………………………………………………….. 50
3.4 Carbon ceramic……………………………………………………….. 50
3.5 Carbon fiber…………………………………………………………….. 51
3.6 Methodology……………………………………………………………. 51

4. RESULT……………………………………………………………………………… 54
5. CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………… 57
6. FUTURE SCOPE………………………………………………………………….. 59
7. REFRENCES……………………………………………………………………...... 62

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 LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

Fig 1: Brake system components 11

Fig 2: insight diagram brake system 12
Fig 3: working of brake 13
Fig 4: brakes classification 14
Fig 5: drum brake 15
Fig 6: mechanical drum brake system 16
Fig 7: hydraulic system brake 17
Fig 8: pneumatic drum brake system 18
Fig 9: construction of drum brake 19
Fig 10: disk brake 19
Fig 11: components of a disk brake 21
Fig 12: constructional details of a drum brake 22
Fig 13: uncoupled thermal analysis 25
Fig 14: stress distribution 25
Fig 15: hydraulic brake working 27
Fig 16: hydraulic braking system 28
Fig 18: air disk brake 30
Fig 19: highly simplified air brake 32
Fig 20: constructional detail air brake 34
Fig 21: electromagetic brake 34
Fig 22: components of electromagnetic brakes 36
Fig 23: stator and rotor 36
Fig 24: vaccum break layout 39
Fig 25: vaccum break cylinder 40
Fig 26: constructional details vaccum breaks 41
Fig 27: automotive break system 45
Fig 28: deformation results composite 48
Fig 29: stress results composite 48
Fig 30: deformation and stress results ceramic 49

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 LIST OF SYMBOLS

SYMBOL TITLE

F Forces
P Pressure
σ True stress, local stress
δ Displacement magnitude
ρ Material density
ν Material volume
A Cross sectional Area
t Thickness

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LIST OF ABBREVIATION

FEM Finite Element Method

FEA Finite Element Analysis
CAD Computer Aided Design
CAM Computer Aided Manufacturing
CAE Computer Aided Engineering
2D Two Dimensional
3D Three Dimensional
FS Factor of Safety
Mpa Mega pascal
Nm Newton meter
kg kilogram

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

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 1.1 INTODUCTION
Of all the systems that make car, the brake system might just be the most important. Its
function determined the safety of the driver, passenger and also pedestrian. In the olden days it was
also one of the simplest. Over the years as improvements have been made, the system that has
evolved isn't so simple anymore. Brake system work as hard or harder than any other part of the car,
however much energy it takes to get the car up a hill, it takes at least as much energy to stop it at the
bottom. In general, there are three main functions of a brake system, to maintain a vehicle’s speed
when driving downhill, to reduce a vehicle’s speed when necessary and to hold a vehicle when in
parking.
When the brakes were applied, the pads or shoes that press against the brake
drum or rotor convert kinetic energy into thermal energy via friction. The cooling
of the brakes dissipates the heat and the vehicle slows down. This is all to do with
The First Law of Thermodynamics, sometimes known as the law of conservation
of energy. This law states that energy cannot be created nor destroyed; it can
only be converted from one form to another. In the case of brakes, it is converted
from kinetic energy to thermal energy.

FIG - 1

In the process of performing this function, the brakes absorb either kinetic
energy of the moving member or the potential energy given up by objects being
lowered by hoists, elevators etc.

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The energy absorbed by brakes is dissipated in the form of heat. This heat is
dissipated in the surrounding atmosphere to stop the vehicle, so the brake
system should have following requirements:

1)The brakes must be strong enough to stop the vehicle with in a minimum
distance in an emergency.

2)The driver must have proper control over the vehicle during braking and
vehicle must not skid.

3)The brakes must have well anti fade characteristics i.e. their effectiveness
should not decrease with constant prolonged application.

4)The brakes should have well anti wear properties.

Fig -2

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 1.1.1 WORKING OF A BRAKE

Today’s vehicle braking systems involve many different components

working together to help you to stop and maneuver your vehicle in a controlled
manner. The key components of your vehicle braking system include a master
cylinder, servo, brake calipers, brake fluid and cylinders, disks, drums, pads and
shoes. All the components are linked by a series of brake hoses and brake
pipes The brake pedal is connected to the master cylinder located within the
engine compartment. The cylinder is filled with brake fluid. When you push
down the brake pedal, hydraulic pressure is created in the master cylinder, brake
fluid is pressurized along a series of brake pipes and hoses to the hydraulically
activated pistons in each wheel's hub assembly that force the friction material on
your pads or shoes on to rotating parts, and that's what stops your car. There are
two types of brake assembly commonly available – disc brakes and drum brakes.
In addition, the majority of modern cars are fitted with ABS as standard.

FIG - 3

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 1.1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF BRAKES

MAIN TYPES OF BRAKES ARE –

1) MECHANICAL BRAKES

2) HYDRAULIC BRAKES

3) AIR BRAKES

4) ELECTRIC BRAKES

5) VACCUM BRAKES

6) PNEUMATIC BRAKES

FIG - 4

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 1.1.2.1 Drum Brakes
1.1.2.1.1. Introduction-
A drum brake is a brake in which the friction is caused by a set of shoes or
pads that press against the inner surface of a rotating drum. The drum is
connected to a rotating wheel.

Fig: 5 Drum Brake

The modern automobile drum brake was invented in 1902 by Louis Renault,
though a less-sophisticated drum brake had been used by Maybach a year earlier.
In the first drum brakes, the shoes were mechanically operated with levers and
rods or cables. From the mid-1930s the shoes were operated with oil pressure in
a small wheel cylinder and pistons, though some vehicles continued with purely-
mechanical systems for decades. Some designs have two-wheel cylinders.

The shoes in drum brakes are subject to wear and the brakes needed to be
adjusted regularly until the 1950s introduction of self-adjusting drum brakes.
Self-adjusting brakes operate by a ratchet mechanism engaged as the hand
brakes is applied. If the travel of the handbrake actuator lever exceeds a certain
amount, the rachet turns an adjuster screw that moves the brake shoes toward
the drum.

Characteristics-

Drum brakes, depending on the way the shoes are hinged, can have a "self-servo"
characteristic. This increase stopping power without any additional effort by the
driver because the rotation of the drum drags the shoes around with it,
increasing the force holding them together. This can be used to make a very
16
powerful brake (as on the rear axles of large commercial vehicles), but it does
reduce the ability of the driver to modulate the brakes sensitively. The disc brake
has no self-servo effect because the pads act perpendicularly to the rotating disc.

Improvements-

Early type brake shoes contained asbestos. When working on brake

systems of older cars, care must be taken not to inhale any dust present in the
brake assembly. Since the introduction of ceramic and Kevlar linings, a majority
of daily-driven older vehicles have been fitted with asbestos-free linings since.
Another type of drum brake is where a friction belt is wrapped around the
outside of the drum and tightened. This type predated the modern drum brake,
and was later often used for the parking brake on the central driveshaft. This
type of band brake is also used in automatic transmissions and aerobic exercise
cycling equipment. In the 1960s and 1970s brake drums on the front wheels of
cars were gradually replaced with disc brakes and now many cars use disc
brakes on all wheels. Due to its inherent disadvantages drum brakes have been
superseded in most modern automobiles and light trucks with at least front
wheel (often now four wheels) disc brakes.

1.1.2.1.2. Working-
There are mainly three types -

1. Mechanical:
2. Hydraulic:
3. Pneumatic assisted

Mechanical:

Fig. -6 Mechanical Drum brake system diagram

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 In the mechanical Drum brake system such as in two-wheeler & auto
rickshaw, the brake shoes are actuated by a cam, which is attached to the brake
linkage & pedal. When you press the brake pedal, the cam turns. Thus, it causes
the brake shoes to expand outwards and rub against the drum. The friction
between the brake linings and the drum causes the drum to stop rotating, thereby
the wheel to stop. When you release the brake pedal, the retracting springs bring
the brake shoes back to their original position. This results in a gap between them
and the drum and to again spin it freely.

2. Hydraulic:

Fig - 7 Hydraulic System Brake Diagram

The hydraulic Drum brake system such as in cars is a bit superior to

mechanical one. In this design, the hydraulic wheel cylinder replaces the cam. In
the hydraulic system, instead of a cam, the wheel cylinder’s pistons push the brake
shoes outwards. The brake shoes fit on the anchor plate or braking plate. It holds
the brakes system parts together and on to the car’s axle. When you press the
brake pedal, the oil in the brake master cylinder multiplies the hydraulic force sent
to the wheel cylinders. Thus, it causes its pistons to push outwards. The pistons, in
turn, cause the brake shoes to expand and rub against the drum. The friction
between the brake linings and the drum causes the drum to stop rotating, thereby
the wheel to stop.

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3) Pneumatic assisted:

Fig - 8 Pneumatic Drum brake System Diagram

The third type – pneumatic assisted Drum-brake system; actuated by air-

pressure, which works on the same principle of that of mechanical Drum brake
system. It is also operated by a bigger size cam or the ‘S’ shaped cam and is
popularly known as the “S-Cam” brake system. However, high-pressure
compressed air actuates a pneumatic piston which turns the cam. Mostly the
medium to heavy commercial vehicles use this type of drum brake system.

1.1.2.1.2.3. Construction:
This system is also known as the ‘Internal Expanding Shoe Type’ brake
system. This type of brake got its name from the drum structure of cylindrical-
shape. Inside this drum, the parts of the conventional drum-brake system are
housed. Hence, the name.

These parts include:

1. A cylindrical drum itself made of cast iron

2. A brake shoe actuating mechanism – either by a cam or a hydraulic wheel
cylinder
3. A pair of brake shoes (one each of Leading & Trailing)
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 4. Shoe adjuster
5. Return springs
6. Anchor Plate/pins

Fig - 9 Construction of a Drum brake and its internal Parts

1.1.2.2. Disk Brakes

1.1.2.2.1. Introduction-

Fig - 10 Disk brake

The disc brake is a wheel brake which slows rotation of the wheel by the
friction caused by pushing brake pads against a brake disc with a set of callipers.
The brake disc (or rotor in American English) is usually made of cast iron, but
may in some cases be made of composites such as reinforced carbon– carbon or
20
ceramic matrix composites. This is connected to the wheel and/or the axle. To
stop the wheel, friction material in the form of brake pads, mounted on a device
called a brake caliper, is forced mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically or
electromagnetically against both sides of the disc. Friction causes the disc and
attached wheel to slow or stop. Brakes convert motion to heat, and if the brakes
get too hot, they become less effective, a phenomenon known as brake fade. Disc-
style brakes development and use began in England in the 1890s. The first
caliper-type automobile disc brake was patented by Frederick William
Lanchester in his Birmingham, UK factory in 1902 and used successfully on
Lanchester cars. Compared to drum brakes, disc brakes offer better stopping
performance, because the disc is more readily cooled. A disc brake consists of a
cast iron disc bolted to the wheel hub and a stationary housing called calliper.
The calliper is connected to some stationary part of the vehicle like the axle
casing or the stub axle as is cast in two parts each part containing a piston. In
between each piston and the disc there is a friction pad held in position by
retaining pins, spring plates etc. passages are drilled in the calliper for the fluid to
enter or leave each housing. The passages are also connected to another one for
bleeding. Each cylinder contains rubber-sealing ring between the cylinder and
piston.

Disc Brake Systems-

Front disc brakes are standard on all modern cars and light trucks, and
disc brakes are often utilized for the rear brakes as well. The main advantages of
disc brakes compared to drum brakes are:
• Increased resistance to brake fade
• Quicker shedding of water from the friction surfaces
• Self-cleaning of dust and debris
• Self-adjusting

A disadvantage of disc brakes is that they require significant force to clamp the
pads against the brake rotor. This increases the effort by the driver to slow and
stop the vehicle. Because of this, disc brake-equipped cars require the use of a
power assist system to decrease driver effort and fatigue.

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The advantages of the disc brake over the drum brake are generally as
follows:

1 Less prone to heat fade because a higher rate of cooling is achieved with the
rubbing surfaces of the disc being exposed to the air stream.

2 Any heat fade that does occur is less pronounced because being virtually non-
self-energizing reduces its sensitivity to changes in friction level.

3 Inefficiency and apparent fade caused by expansion of the drum, and

consequent poor bedding of its shoes, are absent in the case of the disc brake.

1.1.2.2.2. Working:

Fig - 11 Components of a Disk Brake

Modern motor cars are fitted with disc brakes instead of conventional
drum type brakes. Front wheels are generally having disc brakes whereas rear
wheel are provided with drum brakes. A disc brake contains a rotating disc and

22
two friction pads which are actuated by hydraulic braking system as described
earlier. The friction pads stay free on each side of disc when brakes are not
applied. When brakes are applied, they rub in contradiction to the disc to stop the
vehicle.
The working of this brake is the same method as that of hydraulic brakes. But the
way of stopping the vehicle is not the same as that of drum brakes.
In a disc brake, the fluid from the master cylinder is forced into a caliper where it
presses against a piston. The piston in turn crushes two brake pads against the
disc that is being attached to wheel, making it to stop or slow down.

1.1.2.2.3. Construction-

Fig - 12 Constructional details of a disk brake

BRAKE CALIPER. - The caliper is the nonrotating unit in the system and it may
be mounted to the spindle or splash shield to provide support. The brake caliper
assembly includes the caliper housing, the piston(s), the piston seal(s), the dust
boot(s), the brake pads or shoes, and the bleeder screw. The caliper is fitted with
one or more pistons that are hydraulically actuated by the fluid pressure
developed in the system. When the brake pedal is applied, brake fluid flows into
the caliper cylinder. The piston is then forced outward by fluid pressure to apply
the brake pads to the rotor.

The piston seal in the caliper cylinder prevents pressure leakage between the
piston and cylinder. The piston seal also helps pull the piston back into the
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cylinder when the brakes are released. The elastic action of the seal acts as a
spring to retract the piston and maintain a clearance of approximately 0.005 inch
when the brakes are released. The piston boot keeps road dirt and water off the
caliper piston and wall of the cylinder. The boot and seal fit into grooves cut in
the caliper cylinder and piston.

DISC BRAKE PADS. - Disc brake pads consist of steel shoes to which the lining is
riveted or bonded. Brake pad linings are made of either asbestos (asbestos fiber
filled) or semimetallic (metal particle filled) friction material. Many new vehicles,
especially those with front-wheel drive, use semimetallic linings. Semimetallic
linings withstand higher operating temperatures without losing their frictional
properties.
BRAKE DISC - Also called brake rotor, the brake disc uses friction from the brake
pads to slow or stop the vehicle. Made of cast iron, the rotor may be an integral
part of the wheel hub. However, on many front-wheel drive vehicles, the disc and
hub are separate units.

1.1.2.2.4. THERMOMECHANICAL and STRUCTURAL (CAE

AND FEM) ANALYSIS OF A DISC BRAKE

Thermo-elastic instability phenomenon of automotive disc brakes

Introduction-

Not only are brakes in cars expected to work properly with a minimum amount of
service and stop the vehicle in a specified distance but also they are designed to
minimize the customer annoyance problems such as noise and roughness. The
purpose of brake is to reduce the velocity or to maintain it when the vehicle is
driving downhill. Noise occurs at different times in the driving cycle and the pitch
varies from very high to very low frequency. Roughness, however, occurs when
the brake puts out uneven torque for each revolution of the wheel during a stop.
In other words roughness, judder, is a pulsation caused by uneven torque at the
brake pad/rotor interface during a single revolution of the rotor as mentioned
above. This pulsation is sensed by the driver as steering wheel circumferential
vibration, brake pedal pulsation, seat vibration, or in extreme cases whole vehicle
pulsation. The torque variation can be caused by either circumferential thickness
variation or circumferential coefficient of friction variations in the rotor. The

24
thickness variation can be either due to wear or it can be induced by uneven
thermal expansion. Braking performance of a vehicle can be significantly affected
by the temperature rise in the brake components. High temperatures during
braking may cause brake fade, premature wear, brake fluid vaporization, bearing
failure, thermal cracks, and thermally excited vibration. Therefore, it is important
to predict the temperature rise of a given brake system and assess its thermal
performance in the early stage.

Uneven heat distribution, thermo elastic instability, is one of the methods of

inducing this thermal thickness variation, a reason of non uniform brake behavior
and can be a cause of judder (noise and roughness). Thermoelastic instability
occurs when a pressure perturbation in the system causes more energy to be
induced at one point in the rotor. Since more energy enters the rotor at one point,
this spot becomes hotter than the adjacent material noting that these pressure
perturbations are almost always present. Thus this area expands more than the
adjacent material causing a minute thickness variation. As the pad slides over this
area the fact that it is now thicker causes higher pressure at this point and hence
more energy to be input. If the rotor is below the critical sliding speed for TEI, this
'hot spot' dissipates its energy into the surrounding material faster than additional
energy is input to the spot. If the rotor is above critical speed, then the increased
pressure at the hot spot causes energy to be input to the region faster than it is
dissipated to the surrounding material. This results in a positive feedback, and the
hot spot grows exponentially. The hot spot continues to increase in temperature
and thickness until equilibrium is reached between the energy entering the spot
and dissipation to the surrounding media. The thickness variation caused by this
hot spot can contribute to torque pulsations resulting in judder or low frequency
noise problems. As we can see explanations above that there are, arguably, two
primary causes of brake roughness: 1 rotor thickness variation from wear, rust, or
uneven thermal distortion and/or 2 coefficient of friction (mu) variation due to
uneven lining transfer, rust, or variations with temperature. These two causes are
closely coupled and roughness initiated by one may quickly involve the other due
to thermal phenomenon. Eventually, the area with the highest torque receives the
greatest amount of energy input during a given revolution of the rotor, and this
area of the rotor gets hotter than the surrounding areas. Thermal growth causes it
to become thicker than other regions of the rotor and that results in even higher
torque variation. Eventually, this process continues until the brake is released or
equilibrium is reached between the uneven energy into the rotor surface, the

25
conduction within the rotor between the hot and cool regions, and friction
behavior.

Fig – 13 Cosmos/Works-Ansys8.0 Results (Current Analysis)

Uncoupled Thermal Transient Analysis
Units: Kelvin

Project Description:

A static structure and transient thermal analysis of a car disk brake under
contact conditions are performed using Pro/Mechanica; researches done about
Thermoelastic Instability are used as a guide to design a disk brake model with the
friction surfaces. However, boundary conditions integrated from numerical
solutions of the problem are simplified for the software and applied for the static
conditions. A comparison between numerical solutions and Pro/Mechanica
solutions is presented. Further considerations about improving the model and
increasing the accuracy of the solutions are discussed. The necessary assumptions
are made in the analysis, such as neglected wear and solid disk brake model. As a
current study of this problem Ansys Simulations with less assumption and less
program restrictions have been performed for the thermo-mechenical case.
Temperature distribution obtained by the transient thermal analysis is used in the
calculations of the stresses on disc surface.

26
Fig -14 Ansys8.0/Workbench's Result Von-Mises Stress Distribution due to only braking

1.1.2.3. Hydraulic brake

1.1.2.3.1. Introduction-

A hydraulic brake is an arrangement of braking mechanism which

uses brake fluid, typically containing glycol ethers or diethylene glycol, to
transfer pressure from the controlling mechanism to the braking mechanism.
Fred Duesenberg originated hydraulic brakes on his 1914 racing cars
and Duesenberg was the first automotive marque to use the technology on a
passenger car in 1921. This braking system could have earned him a fortune if he
had patented it. In 1917 Malcolm Loughead (who later changed the spelling of his
name to Lockheed) developed a hydraulic brake system."Lockheed" is a common
term for brake fluid in France.
The technology was carried forward in automotive use and eventually led to the
introduction of the self-energizing hydraulic drum brake system (Edward Bishop
Boughton, London England, June 28, 1927) which is still in use today.
A hydraulic braking system transmits brake-pedal force to the wheel brakes
through pressurized fluid, converting the fluid pressure into useful work of
braking at the wheels. A simple, single-line hydraulic layout used to operate a
drum. The brake pedal relays the driver’s foot effort to the master-cylinder
piston, which compresses the brake fluid. This fluid pressure is equally
transmitted throughout the fluid to the front disc-caliper pistons and to the rear
wheel-cylinder pistons. As per the regulations a separate mechanical parking
brake must be incorporated with at least two wheels. This provision also allows
the driver to stop the vehicle in the event of failure of the hydraulic brake system.
In a hydraulic braking system, the braking force is directly proportional to the
ratio of the master-cylinder cross-sectional area to the disc or drum-brake
27
wheel-cylinder cross-sectional areas. Therefore, these cylinder diameters are
appropriately chosen to produce the desired braking effect. The wheel-cylinder
cross-sectional areas of the front and rear disc-and drum-brakes respectively
may be chosen to produce the best front-to-rear braking ratio.
Hydraulic fluid is incompressible provided there is no trapped air in the system.
If air is present in the braking circuit, the foot-brake movement becomes spongy.
In a hydraulic system the internal friction exists only between the cylinder
pistons and seals. The friction is caused by the fluid pressure squeezing the seal
lips against the cylinder walls as the piston moves along its stroke. A hydraulic
braking system is suitable only for intermittent braking applications, and a
separate mechanical linkage must be incorporated for parking brakes.
The hydraulic system offers the following advantages over the mechanical layout,
(a) This provides equal braking effort on all wheels.
(b) This requires relatively less braking effort to deliver the same output.
(c) This is a fully compensated system so that each brake receives its full share of
the pedal effort.
(d) The efficiency of the hydraulic system is greater than that of the mechanical
layout.
(e) This system is suitable for vehicles having independent suspension.
(f) It is easy to alter thrust on shoe because the force exerted on a piston depends
on the piston area. The larger the area, the greater the thrust on the trailing shoe,
so a larger piston can be used.

1.1.2.3.2. Working-

Fig - 15 Hydraulic Brake Working layout

28
 In a hydraulic brake system, when the brake pedal is pressed, a pushrod
exerts force on the piston(s) in the master cylinder, causing fluid from the brake
fluid reservoir to flow into a pressure chamber through a compensating port.
This results in an increase in the pressure of the entire hydraulic system, forcing
fluid through the hydraulic lines toward one or more calipers where it acts upon
one or more caliper pistons sealed by one or more seated O-rings (which prevent
leakage of the fluid).The brake caliper pistons then apply force to the brake pads,
pushing them against the spinning rotor, and the friction between the pads and
the rotor causes a braking torque to be generated, slowing the vehicle. Heat
generated by this friction is either dissipated through vents and channels in the
rotor or is conducted through the pads, which are made of specialized heat-
tolerant materials such as Kevlar or sintered glass. Alternatively, in a drum brake,
the fluid enters a wheel cylinder and presses one or two brake shoes against the
inside of the spinning drum. The brake shoes use a similar heat-tolerant friction
material to the pads used in disc brakes. Subsequent release of the brake
pedal/lever allows the spring(s) in the master cylinder assembly to return the
master piston(s) back into position. This action first relieves the hydraulic
pressure on the caliper, and then applies suction to the brake piston in the
caliper assembly, moving it back into its housing and allowing the brake pads to
release the rotor. The hydraulic braking system is designed as a closed system:
unless there is a leak in the system, none of the brake fluid enters or leaves it, nor
does the fluid get consumed through use. Leakage may happen, however, from
cracks in the O-rings or from a puncture in the brake line. Cracks can form if two
types of brake fluid are mixed or if the brake fluid becomes contaminated with
water, alcohol, antifreeze, or any number of other liquids.

29
 1.1.2.3.3. Construction-

Fig - 16 Hydraulic Braking System

In drum hydraulic braking system, the parts involved are-

§ Brake pedal or brake lever- In hydraulic braking system same as other braking
brake pedal or brake lever is required by the driver to apply braking, this brake
pedal or brake lever is attached with the master cylinder through mechanical rod
or connecting rod.
§ Master cylinder– It is the simple cylinder and piston arrangement ( refer to
article on master cylinder) which converts the mechanical force from the brake
pedal into the hydraulic pressure.
The brake pedal is connected with the master cylinder’s piston in such a fashion
that the movement of pedal causes to and fro motion of the piston inside the
master cylinder.
§ Brake fluid reservoir – it is the simple reservoir tank containing brake fluid
which is connected to the master cylinder with the help of brake hose.
§ Brake lines- They are the hollow high-pressure metal tube that connects the
master cylinder with the drum cylinder inside these brake lines high pressure
brake fluid from the master cylinder flows which is responsible for further brake
actuation.

30
§ Drum cylinder- It is the another cylinder fitted inside the drum of the drum
brakes and is connected with the brake shoes, the high pressure brake fluid from
the brake lines comes to this cylinder.
§ Brake drum (refer to article on drum brake) – It is housing of drum cylinder,
brake shoes and spring, the outer part of the drum rotates with the wheel and
inner part consisting the brake shoe and cylinder remains stationary.

2. Disc Hydraulic Brakes or External Contracting Hydraulic Brakes-

Disc hydraulic parts and drum hydraulic brake parts are almost same that
are
§ Brake pedal or brake lever- In hydraulic braking system same as other braking
brake pedal or brake lever is required by the driver to apply braking, this brake
pedal or brake lever is attached with the master cylinder through mechanical rod
or connecting rod.
§ Master cylinder- It is the simple cylinder and piston arrangement ( refer to
article on master cylinder) which converts the mechanical force from the brake
pedal into the hydraulic pressure.
§ Brake fluid reservoir- it is the simple reservoir tank containing brake fluid
which is connected to the master cylinder with the help of brake hose.
§ Brake lines – Same as drum brake but here they connect the master cylinder
with the disc calliper cylinder.
§ Disc rotor- It is the metallic disc fitted with the wheel hub in such a fashion that
it rotates with the wheel of a vehicle moreover disc rotor is the surface that make
frictional contact with the brake shoe in order to stop or de accelerate the
vehicle.
Disc caliper- It is a small stationary component fitted over a disc just like a
clamp, inside which there is a housing of brake shoes and hydraulic cylinder,
when the brakes are applied the brake shoes inside the caliper contracts and
make frictional contact with the rotating disc in order to provide braking.

1.1.2.4. Air brake

1.1.2.4.1. Introduction-

An air brake or, more formally, a compressed air brake system, is a type of
friction brake for vehicles in which compressed air pressing on a piston is used to
apply the pressure to the brake pad needed to stop the vehicle. Air brakes are
used in large heavy vehicles, particularly those having multiple trailers which
31
must be linked into the brake system, such as trucks, buses, trailers, and semi-
trailers, in addition to their use in railroad trains. George Westinghouse first
developed air brakes for use in railway service. He patented a safer air brake on
March 5, 1872. Westinghouse made numerous alterations to improve his air
pressured brake invention, which led to various forms of the automatic brake. In
the early 20th century, after its advantages were proven in railway use, it was
adopted by manufacturers of trucks and heavy road vehicles.

Fig - 18 Air Disk Brake

Air brake systems are typically used on heavy trucks and buses. The system
consists of service brakes, parking brakes, a control pedal, and an air storage
tank. For the parking brake, there's a disc or drum brake arrangement which is
designed to be held in the 'applied' position by spring pressure. Air pressure
must be produced to release these "spring brake" parking brakes. For the service
brakes (the ones used while driving for slowing or stopping) to be applied, the
brake pedal is pushed, routing the air under pressure (approx 100–120 psi or
690–830 kPa or 6.89–8.27 bar) to the brake chamber, causing the brake to be
engaged. Most types of truck air brakes are drum brakes, though there is an
increasing trend towards the use of disc brakes. The air compressor draws
filtered air from the atmosphere and forces it into high-pressure reservoirs at
around 120 psi (830 kPa; 8.3 bar). Most heavy vehicles have a gauge within the
driver's view, indicating the availability of air pressure for safe vehicle operation,
often including warning tones or lights. A mechanical "wig wag" that
automatically drops down into the driver's field of vision when the pressure
drops below a certain point is also common. Setting of the parking/emergency
brake releases the pressurized air in the lines between the compressed air
storage tank and the brakes, thus allowing the spring actuated parking brake to
32
engage. A sudden loss of air pressure would result in full spring brake pressure
immediately. A compressed air brake system is divided into a supply system and
a control system. The supply system compresses, stores and supplies high-
pressure air to the control system as well as to additional air operated auxiliary
truck systems (gearbox shift control, clutch pedal air assistance servo, etc.).

1.1.2.4.2. Working-
Air brake systems are typically used on heavy trucks and buses. The
system consists of service brakes, parking brakes, a control pedal, and an air
storage tank. For the parking brake, there's a disc or drum brake arrangement
which is designed to be held in the 'applied' position by spring pressure. Air
pressure must be produced to release these "spring brake" parking brakes. For
the service brakes (the ones used while driving for slowing or stopping) to be
applied, the brake pedal is pushed, routing the air under pressure (approx 100–
120 psi or 690–830 kPa or 6.89–8.27 bar) to the brake chamber, causing the
brake to be engaged. Most types of truck air brakes are drum brakes, though
there is an increasing trend towards the use of disc brakes. The air compressor
draws filtered air from the atmosphere and forces it into high-pressure
reservoirs at around 120 psi (830 kPa; 8.3 bars). Most heavy vehicles have a
gauge within the driver's view, indicating the availability of air pressure for safe
vehicle operation, often including warning tones or lights. A mechanical "wig
wag" that automatically drops down into the driver's field of vision when the
pressure drops below a certain point is also common. Setting of the
parking/emergency brake releases the pressurized air in the lines between the
compressed air storage tank and the brakes, thus allowing the spring actuated
parking brake to engage. A sudden loss of air pressure would result in full spring
brake pressure immediately. A compressed air brake system is divided into a
supply system and a control system. The supply system compresses, stores and
supplies high-pressure air to the control system as well as to additional air
operated auxiliary truck systems (gearbox shift control, clutch pedal air
assistance servo, etc.).
Supply system:
The air compressor is driven by the engine either by crankshaft pulley via
a belt or directly from the engine timing gears. It is lubricated and cooled by the
engine lubrication and cooling systems. Compressed air is first routed through a

33
cooling coil and into an air dryer which removes moisture and oil impurities and
also may include a pressure regulator, safety valve and smaller purge reservoir.

Fig:19 Highly simplified air brake diagram

As an alternative to the air dryer, the supply system can be equipped with an
anti-freeze device and oil separator. The compressed air is then stored in a
supply reservoir from which it is then distributed via a four way protection valve
into the primary reservoir (rear brake reservoir) and the secondary reservoir, a
parking brake reservoir and an auxiliary air supply distribution point. The
system also includes various check, pressure limiting, drain and safety valves.
Air brake systems may include a wig wag device which deploys to warn the
driver if the system air pressure drops too low.
Control system:
The control system is further divided into two service brake circuits, the
parking brake circuit, and the trailer brake circuit. The dual service brake circuits
are further split into front and rear wheel circuits which receive compressed air
from their individual reservoirs for added safety in case of an air leak. The
service brakes are applied by means of a brake pedal air valve which regulates
both circuits. The parking brake is the air operated spring brake type where it’s
applied by spring force in the spring brake cylinder and released by compressed
air via hand control valve. The trailer brake consists of a direct two-line system:
the supply line and the separate control or service line. The supply line receives
air from the prime mover park brake air tank via a park brake relay valve and the
control line is regulated via the trailer brake relay valve.

34
1.1.2.4.3. Construction-

The air brake system consists of two-stage air-compressor driven by the

crankshaft or gearbox shaft. It takes air from atmosphere, compresses it and
delivers to the air reservoir through un-loader valve. Where the pressure of the
reservoir reaches the maximum degree, the un- loader valve opens to
the atmosphere. Then the compressed air is directed in to the atmosphere directly.
Each of the four wheels fitted with brake chambers consists of a diaphragm, and
which the air pressure is applied and pushes it. This force operates the cam
actuating lever and applies the brake. Each of the brake chamber is connected to
the brake pedal, and air filter is also fitted between the brake valve and reservoir.

Main parts of an air brake:

Following are the main parts of an air brake:
(i) Air compressor.
(ii) Unloaded valve.
(iii) Reservoir.
(iv) Brake valve.
(v) Brake chamber.
(vi) Quick release valve.
(vii) Relay valve.
(viii) Warning signal.

FIG- 20 Constructional details of air disc brake

35
 1.1.2.5. Electromagnetic brakes

1.1.2.5.1. Introduction-

Fig-21 Electromagnetic Brake

There are many types of electromagnetic brakes (tooth, multiple disc,
hysteresis, magnetic particle). The most widely used version is the single face
design. Electromagnetic brakes operate electrically but transmit torque
mechanically. This is why they used to be referred to as Electro Mechanical
clutches and brakes. Over the years EM became known as electromagnetic verses
electro mechanical referring more about their actuation method verses physical
operation. Since electromagnetic brakes started becoming popular, over seventy
years ago, the variety of applications and brake designs has increased
dramatically but the basic operation of the single face electromagnetic brake still
remains the same. Think of the coil shell as a horseshoe magnet having a north
and south pole. If a piece of iron contacted both poles a magnetic circuit is
created. When power is applied a magnetic field is created this field (flux)
overcomes the air gap between field and the armature. This magnetic attraction
pulls the armature in contact with the brake field face. The friction and the
strength of the magnetic field, is what causes the rotational motion to stop.
Almost all of the torque comes from the magnetic attraction and coefficient of
friction between the steel of the armature and the steel of the rotor or brake field.
But for many industrial clutches or brakes, friction material is used between the
poles. The material is mainly used to help decrease the wear rate. But different
types of material can also be used to change the coefficient of friction for special
36
applications. For example, if the brake was required to have an extended time to
stop or slip time, a low coefficient material can be used. Conversely, if the brake
was required to have a slightly higher torque, a high coefficient friction material
could be used. Copper (sometimes aluminum) magnet wire used to create the
coil which is held in the shell either by a bobbin or by an epoxy / adhesive. For
most industrial brakes, friction material is then placed over the coil and is set
between the inner and outer pole. The friction material is flush with the surface
of the brake because you want to have metal to metal contact between the coil
shell and the armature. (Some people mistakenly look at electromagnetic brakes
and assume that it is already worn down since the friction material is flush but
that is not the case.)

1.1.2.5.2. Working-
In a brake, there are only three main parts; field, armature and hub (which
is the input on a brake). Usually the magnetic field is bolted down to something
solid (or has a torque arm). So when the armature is attracted to the field the
stopping torque is transferred into the field housing, decelerating the load. This
can happen very fast. But brake time to stop can be controlled by the amount of
voltage/current applied to the field.

Fig-22 Components of electromagnetic brake

Once the field starts to degrade flux falls rapidly and the armature separates. A
spring(s) hold the armature away from its’ field face surface at a predetermined
air gap.

37
The strength of any magnetic field could be changed by changing both wire size
and the amount of wire (turns). EM brakes are similar and they use a copper wire
(sometimes aluminum) coil to create a magnetic field.

1.1.2.5.3. Construction-

Fig-23 Stator and Rotor

An electromagnetic brake basically consists of two members:
Ø A stationary magnetic field
Ø A solid rotator disks

A stator consists of pole core, pole shoe, and field winding. The field winding is
wounded on the pole core. Pole core and pole shoes are made of east steel
laminations and fixed to the state of frames by means of screw or bolts. Rotors
are generally composed of mild steel, sometimes also referred to as the
secondary because the eddy currents are induced in it.
Stator and rotor are separated by the short air gap, there being in no contact
between the two for the purpose of to torque transmission. Consequently, there
is no wear as in friction brake.

38
 1.1.2.6. Vacuum brake
1.1.2.6.1. Introduction-
The vacuum brake is a braking system employed on trains and introduced in the
mid-1860s. A variant, the automatic vacuum brake system, became almost
universal in British train equipment and in countries influenced by British
practice. Vacuum brakes also enjoyed a brief period of adoption in the United
States, primarily on narrow-gauge railroads. Its limitations caused it to be
progressively superseded by compressed air systems starting in the United
Kingdom from the 1970s onward. The vacuum brake system is now obsolete; it is
not in large-scale usage anywhere in the world, other than in South Africa, largely
supplanted by air brakes. In the earliest days of railways, trains were slowed or
stopped by the application of manually applied brakes on the locomotive and in
brake vehicles through the train, and later by steam power brakes on
locomotives. This was clearly unsatisfactory, given the slow and unreliable
response times (each brake being separately applied by a member of the train
crew in response to signals from the driver, which they might miss for any
number of reasons, and necessarily in sequence rather than all at once where
there were more brakes than crew members, making emergency braking
extremely hit-and-miss) and extremely limited braking power that could be
exerted (most vehicles in the train being wholly unbraked, and the power of all
but the locomotive's own brakes relying on the strength of a particular
crewmember's arm on a screw handle), but the existing technology did not offer
an improvement. A chain braking system was developed, requiring a chain to be
coupled throughout the train, but it was impossible to arrange equal braking
effort along the entire train. A major advance was the adoption of a vacuum
braking system, in which flexible pipes were connected between all the vehicles
of the train, and brakes on each vehicle could be controlled from the locomotive.
The earliest scheme was a simple vacuum brake, in which vacuum was created
by operation of a valve on the locomotive; the vacuum actuated brake pistons on
each vehicle, and the degree of braking could be increased or decreased by the
driver. Vacuum, rather than compressed air, was preferred because steam
locomotives can be fitted with ejectors; venturi devices that create vacuum
without moving parts. The simple vacuum system had the major defect that in
the event of one of the hoses connecting the vehicles becoming displaced (by the
train accidentally dividing, or by careless coupling of the hoses, or otherwise) the

39
vacuum brake on the entire train was useless. The automatic vacuum brake had
been developed: it was designed to apply fully if the train becomes divided or if a
hose becomes displaced, but opposition on the grounds of cost (particularly by
the LNWR and its chairman Richard Moon) to the fitting of the automatic type of
brake meant that it took a serious accident at Armagh in 1889 before legislation
compelled the automatic system. In this accident at Armagh, a portion of a train
was detached from the locomotive on a steep gradient and ran away, killing 80
people. The train was fitted with the simple vacuum brake, which was useless on
the disconnected portion of the train. It was clear that if the vehicles had been
fitted with an automatic continuous brake, the accident would almost certainly
not have happened, and the public concern at the scale of the accident prompted
legislation mandating the use of a continuous automatic brake on all passenger
trains. In continental Europe, the vacuum brake was sometimes called the Hardy
brake, after John George Hardy of the Vacuum Brake Co, 7 Hohenstaufengasse,
and Vienna.

1.1.2.6.2. Working-

Fig-24 layout details of vacuum brake

In a vacuum brake system, depressing the brake pedal opens a valve between the
power cylinder, which contains a piston, and the intake manifold to which the
power cylinder is connected. When you apply the brakes, air is exhausted from
the cylinder head of the piston. At the same time, atmospheric pressure acts on
the rear side of the piston to exert a powerful pull on the rod attached to the
piston.
40
When the brake valve is closed, the chamber ahead of the piston is shut off from
the intake manifold and is opened to the atmosphere. The pressure is then the
same on both sides of the piston; therefore, no pull is exerted upon the pull rod.
The brakes are released and the piston returned to its original position in the
power cylinder by the brake shoe return springs.
Results in much greater hydraulic pressure than air pressure admitted to the air
cylinder. Valve action varies with the amount of pressure applied to the brake
pedal. When heavy brake pedal pressure is applied by the operator for hard
braking, the hydraulic pressure in the master cylinder (which operates the
valves) causes greater valve movement. As a result, the valve admits more air
pressure into the air-over-hydraulic power

Fig-25 Typical vacuum brake cylinder.

Hydrovac is a trade name for a one-unit vacuum power-braking system. It
combines a hydraulic control valve, a vacuum power cylinder, and a hydraulic
slave cylinder into one assembly. This assembly is connected to both the master
cylinder and the wheel brakes and eliminates the need for mechanical
connections with the brake pedal. Pressure on the brake pedal forces fluid from
the master through the check valve to the slave cylinder and to the wheel
cylinders. Also, the foot pedal pressure, acting through the master cylinder, acts
also against the slave cylinder piston to help the vacuum pistons and pushrods to
press against the brake shoes.

41
1.1.2.6.3. Construction-

Fig-26 Constructional details of vacuum brakes

· The vacuum booster is a metal canister that contains a valve and a

diaphragm.
· A rod going through the center of the canister connects to the master
cylinder's piston on one side and to the pedal linkage on the other.
· Another key part of the power brakes is the check valve.
· The figure above shows a check valve, which is a one-way valve that only
allows air to be sucked out of the vacuum booster. If the engine is turned
off, or if a leak forms in a vacuum hose, the check valve makes sure that air
does not enter the vacuum booster. This is important because the vacuum
booster has to be able to provide enough boost for a driver to make several
stops in the event that the engine stops running.
· The diaphragm is connected to a port which opens and lets atmospheric air
to the other side of the diaphragm.
· The diaphragm is retained in the back position when not in operation by a
spring.

42
 1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
The disc brake is a device for slowing or stopping the rotation of a wheel of
vehicles. To stop the wheel, friction material in the form of brake pads is forced
mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically, or electromagnetically against both sides
of the disc and cause the wheel to slow or may be stop. By the First Law of
Thermodynamics, when brake pedal is pressed, the brakes on vehicle heat up, slowing
it down. But if the brakes were used rapidly, the discs and brake pads will 3 stay hot
and get no chance to cool off. The brake cannot absorb much more heat because the
brake components are already so hot. The braking efficiency is reduced. This
malfunction of the brake system is called brake fade. In every brake pad there is the
friction material which is held together with some sort of resin. Once brake pad starts
to get too hot, the resin holding the pad material together starts to vaporize (forming
gas). That gas can't stay between the pad and the disc, so it forms a thin layer between
the brake pad and rotor trying to escape. The pads lose contact with the disc, thus
reducing the amount of friction. Other than brake fade, disc rotor also undergo
cracking, coning, thermal judder, brake shudder, high disc thickness variation and high
level of lateral run out because of poor design, inappropriate materials and uneven
stress distribution during braking. The usage of the brake may promote wear to disc
and brake pad. Uniform disc and pad wear, brake temperature, and more even friction
coefficient could only be achieved when pressure distributions between the pads and
disc are uniform. In addition, unevenness of the pressure distribution causes uneven
stress distribution that can lead to uneven wear and consequently shortens the life of
disc and pad. The design of the disc is important to determine the rate of cooling and
uniform wear of disc and brake pad and thus affecting braking efficiency. This project
will focus on the simulation analysis of disc on typical disc brake during operation when
forces and moments generate from braking is applied during the static. The stress
distribution of disc from simulation result can be analyzed. Discs are made up mainly
gray cast iron, so discs are damaged in one of three ways: scarring, cracking, warping
or excessive rusting. Service shops will sometimes respond to any disc problem by
changing out the discs entirely. This is done mainly where the cost of a new disc may
actually be lower than the cost of workers to resurface the original disc. Mechanically
this is unnecessary unless the discs have reached manufacturer's minimum
recommended thickness, which would make it unsafe to use them, or vane rusting.
severe (ventilated discs only). Most leading vehicle manufacturers recommend brake

43
disc skimming (US: turning) as a solution for lateral run-out, vibration issues and brake
noises

1.3 OBJECTIVES
1. Investigate the effects of the rotating speed of the disk and the material
properties on thermo elastic behaviors

2. To reduce the solution time for the problem in FEA by utilizing ANSYS's
contemporary advantages in contact and thermo-mechanical problems.

3.To study in detail the classification, working and constructions of brakes.

DISCUSSION:

Selection of brakes on front :-

Heating of the Brake rotor increases its thickness thereby causing no loss in brake
fluid volume. Better stability than Drum Brake. Increase in temperature does not affect
the disc pads. The braking design is simple. Maintenance and repairs of disc brakes is
easy. The major advantage of the disc brake is its ability to operate with little fades at
high temperatures of up to 1073 to 1173 K, while drum brakes are highly temperature
sensitive. A maximum temperature of 673 to 700 K should not be exceeded. Water and
dirt resistant. Better cooling, Friction surfaces are directly exposed to air in disc brake
while in drum the friction surfaces are not directly exposed to air. Total frictional area
of pads in Disc brakes are very less as compared with the conventional drum type
brakes, the approximate ratio being 1:4. This means that in disc brakes, the pressure
intensity must be considerably greater than in the drum type. This implies that frequent
relining would be necessary, due to increased rate of wear.

FEM USING ANSYS-

Ansys is one of the useful software for design analysis in mechanical
engineering. This software is based on the Finite Element Method (FEM) to
simulate the working conditions of your designs and predict their behaviour.
FEM requires the solution of larges systems of equations. Powered by fast
solvers, Ansys makes it possible for designers to quickly check the integrity of
their designs and search for the optimum solution.

44
A product development cycle typically includes the following steps:
• Build your model in the Pro-Engineer system.
• Prototype the design.
• Test the prototype in the field.
• Evaluate the results of the field tests.
• Modify the design based on the field test results.

45
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

46
 A brake is a device for slowing or stopping the motion of a machine or vehicle,
or alternatively a device to restrain it from starting to move again. Brakes of some
description are fitted to most wheeled vehicles, including automobiles of all kinds,
trucks, trains, motorcycles, and bicycles. Baggage carts and shopping carts may have
them for use on a moving ramp. Some airplanes are fitted with wheel brakes on the
undercarriage. Some aircraft also feature air brakes designed to slow them down in
flight. Friction brakes on cars store the heat in the rotating part (drum brake or disc
brake) during the brake application and release it to the air gradually The kinetic energy
lost by the moving part is usually translated to heat by friction. Alternatively, in
regenerative braking, much of the energy is recovered and stored in a flywheel,
capacitor or turned into alternating current by an alternator, then rectified and stored in
a battery for later use. Kinetic energy increases with the square of the velocity.
This means that if the speed of a vehicle doubles, it has four times as much energy. The
brakes must therefore dissipate four times as much energy to stop it and consequently
the braking distance is four times as long. When the brake pedal is depressed, the
vehicle’s braking system transmits the force from your foot to its brakes through a fluid.
Since the actual brakes require a much greater force than the leg could apply with,
vehicle must also multiply the force of foot. It does this in two ways; mechanical
advantage (leverage) and hydraulic force multiplication. The brakes 8 transmit the force
to the tires using friction, and the tires transmit that force to the road using friction also
[8]. The modern automotive brake system has been refined for over 100 years and has
become extremely dependable and efficient. The typical brake system consists of disk
brakes in front and either disk or drum brakes in the rear connected by a system of tubes
and hoses that link the brake at each wheel to the master cylinder. Other systems that
are connected with the brake system include the parking brakes, power brake booster
and the anti-lock system.
When the brake pedal is pressed, it pushed against a plunger in the master cylinder
which forces hydraulic oil (brake fluid) through a series of tubes and hoses to the
braking unit at each wheel. Since hydraulic fluid (or any fluid for that matter) cannot be
compressed, pushing fluid through a pipe is just like pushing a steel bar through a pipe.
Unlike a steel bar, however, fluid can be directed through many twists and turns on its
way to its destination, arriving with the exact same motion and pressure that it started
with. It is very important that the fluid is pure liquid and that there is no air bubbles in
it. Air can compress which causes sponginess to the pedal and severely reduced braking
efficiency. If air is suspected, then the system must be bled to remove the air. There are
"bleeder screws" at each wheel cylinder and caliper for this purpose.

47
Fig – 27 MODERN AUTOMOTIVE BREAK SYSTEM

48
 CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS & METHODS USED

49
3.1 GREY CAST IRON :

Grey cast iron is the material most commonly used in passenger cars and
commercial vehicles: EN-GJL-150, EN-GJL-200, EN-GJL-250 and in part also EN-GJL-300
(flake graphite cast iron). The casting compound is adapted to the specific application
in the vehicle by adding various alloying components such as silicon and manganese.
Explanation of designation:
GJL = flake graphite cast iron, 250 = minimum tensile strength 250 N/mm2

3.2 HIGH-CARBON BRAKE DISCS {HIGH CARBON} :

The brake discs or the friction ring on composite brake discs are made of grey cast iron
with higher carbon content for improved heat transfer. The brake disc heats up more
uniformly in the braking process and, conversely, also cools down more uniformly. This
results in lower thermal deformation of the brake discs with a positive effect on the
judder characteristics of the brake. Due to the casting compound, the wear properties
and tensile strength of high-carbon brake discs are slightly higher than those of
conventional cast iron break discs.
Example: EN-GJL-200 HC

3.3 STAINLESS STEEL :

Brake discs made from stainless steel are mainly used on motorcycles as well as
bicycles. Brake pads made of sintered metal or semimetal is used in connection with
such discs. Drilled and slotted versions of stainless steel brake discs are also available.
Two brake discs are sometimes used on the front wheel of high-powered motorcycles.
The brake discs can be mounted in a floating arrangement to isolate vibration.

3.4 CARBON CERAMIC :

Carbon ceramic brake discs are around 50% lighter than conventional brake discs
made of cast iron. This reduces the unstrung mass of the chassis, thus having a positive
effect on the handling characteristics of the vehicle. Carbon ceramic brake discs are
made up of a basic body and two friction layers on both sides. Both the basic body and
the friction layers are made of carbon fiber-reinforced silicon carbide. This material is
50
extremely hard – the carbon fibers increase its strength and fracture toughness – the
impact strength however is low.
In connection with the specifically developed brake pads, carbon ceramic brake discs
provide greatly improved response properties, increased fading stability and high
thermal stability. This combination produces less brake dust and minimizes judder.
Due to the less favorable thermal conductivity of carbon ceramic brake discs, all
components are subject to greater thermal stress compared to cast iron brake discs.
The carbon ceramic discs are however considerably more resistant to high
temperatures and have a very long service life. They have a wear indicator hole in the
friction ring. It shows when the brake discs are worn and need to be replaced. Under
normal usage conditions, carbon ceramic brake discs should be able to last for the
complete service life of the car.
The intricate process to produce carbon ceramic brake discs takes about 20 days and
is extremely cost-intensive. Consequently they are considerably more expensive than
cast iron brake discs and are predominantly used on luxury and sports cars.

3.5 CARBON FIBRE:

These extremely expensive brake discs are used in motorsport (e.g. formula 1). The
optimum operating temperature of such brakes is between 350 °C and 550 °C,
enabling deceleration of up to 5 g. The brake pads and brake discs are made of the
same material.

3.6 METHODOLOGY-

A Structural analysis calculates deformations, stresses, and strains on

model in response to specified constraints. A static analysis gives certain
information about model. For example, a static analysis tells us if the material in
our model will stand stress and if the part will break (stress analysis), where the
part will break (strain analysis), and how much the shape of the model changes
(deformation analysis). In this project work two different pad material – Ceramic
& composite Fiber are analyzed using FEM Software ANSYS. The present study
can provide a useful design tool and improve the brake performance of disk
brake system based on the strength and rigidity criteria.
The essential difference between Pro/ENGINEER and traditional CAD systems is
that models created in Pro/ENGINEER exist as three-dimensional solids. Other
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3D modelers represent only the surface boundaries of the model. These models
are the complete solid. This not only facilitates the creation of realistic geometry,
but also allows for accurate model calculations, such as those for mass
properties.

FIG - 28 FIG -29

Types of Solution Methods-

Two solution methods are available for solving structural problems.

Ø The h-method
Ø The p-method

The h-method can be used for any type of analysis, but the p-method can be used
only for linear structural static analyses. Depending on the problem to be solved,
the h method usually requires a finer mesh than the p-method. The p-method
provides an excellent way to solve a problem to a desired level of accuracy while
using a coarse mesh.

ANSYS automatically calculates all measures valid for a static analysis. Following
points are important when specifying loads and constraint sets for static
analyses:
Ø If you delete a constraint or load set that you included in an analysis, you
also delete that set from the analysis. Even if you create a new set with the

52
same name as the set you deleted, you must edit the analysis and reselect
the set. Otherwise, you may invalidate the analysis and any design studies
in which you included the analysis. ANSYS calculates results separately for
each load set you include in the analysis.

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CHAPTER 4

RESULT

54
 The two different pad material – Ceramic & composite Fiber are analyzed
using FEM Software ANSYS following are details of structural Analysis. these
materials have proven to have advantages and disadvantages regarding
environmental friendliness, wear, noise and stopping capability. Asbestos pads
caused health issues and organic compounds can't always meet a wide range of
braking requirements. Unfortunately, the steel strands used in semi metallic pads
to provide strength and conduct heat away from rotors also generate noise and
are abrasive enough to increase rotor wear. Since they were first used on a few
original equipment applications in 1985, friction materials that contain ceramic
formulations have become recognized for their desirable blend of traits. These
pads use ceramic compounds and copper fibers in place of the semi-metallic
pad's steel fibers.

FIG NO- 30 FIG -31

This allows the ceramic pads to handle high brake temperatures with less heat
fade, provide faster recovery after the stop, and generate less dust and wear on
both the pads and rotors. And from a comfort standpoint, ceramic compounds
provide much quieter braking because the ceramic compound helps dampen
noise by generating a frequency beyond the human hearing range.
Another characteristic that makes ceramic materials attractive is the absence of
noticeable dust. All brake pads produce dust as they wear. The ingredients in
ceramic compounds produce a light-colored dust that is much less noticeable and
less likely to stick to the wheels. Consequently, wheels and tires maintain a
cleaner appearance longer. Ceramic pads meet or exceed all original equipment
standards for durability, stopping distance and noise. According to durability
tests, ceramic compounds extend brake life compared to most other semi-
metallic and organic materials and outlast other premium pad materials by a
55
significant margin - with no sacrifice in noise control, pad life or braking
performance.

56
CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

57
1. Investigated the effects of the rotating speed of the disk and the material
properties on wear behaviors.

2. To reduce the solution time for the problem in FEA by utilizing ANSYS's
contemporary advantages in contact and thermo-mechanical problems.

3.Using carbon ceramic matrix disc brake material calculating normal force,
shear force and piston force and also calculating the brake distance of disc brake.
The standard disc brake two wheelers model using in Ansys, done the Thermal
and Modal Analysis calculate the deflection, total heat flux, Frequency and
temperature of disc brake model. This is important to understand action force
and friction force on the disc brake new material, which use disc brake works
more efficiently, which can help to reduce the accident that may happen in each
day

58
 CHAPTER 6

FUTURE SCOPE

59
 REGENERATIVE BRAKING SYSTEM {RBS} IN AUTOMOBILES

In Regenerative braking system instead of wasting the kinetic energy of vehicle

in the form of heat it is converted into electrical energy to be stored in batteries and
capacitors or as mechanical energy of a flywheel having large moment of inertia. In this
way a large proportion of energy of vehicle is saved only to be used later for either
accelerating the vehicle or for different electrical purpose.
Motor based regenerative braking:-
This type of regenerative system is used in electrical or hybrid electrical vehicles
as it makes use of electric motors. The drive shaft of vehicle is connected to a motor,
when current is supplied to motor it starts rotating and in turn rotates the drive shaft of
vehicle. When brakes are to be applied, the driver presses the brake pedal which cuts
off the current supply to motor. Now motor is no longer providing torque to the driving
shaft, instead the inertial kinetic energy and momentum of vehicle drives the motor,
electric motor now starts acting as a generator resisting the inertial rotational motion of
vehicle to slow down the vehicle besides producing electricity. This electricity can be
stored in battery or capacitor.

Flywheel Based Regenerative Braking:-

This regenerative braking system consists of a flywheel having a large moment
of inertia, so that it requires a large torque for rotational acceleration. There is a
provision for engagement and disengagement of flywheel with the drive shaft. When
driver needs to slow down or stop the vehicle, the flywheel is engaged with the drive
shaft with the help of gears. As flywheel gets engaged power now goes divided between
driving shaft and flywheel, flywheel having a large moment of inertia absorbs the power
from engine in the form of rotational kinetic energy and brings the vehicle to halt and
this rotational kinetic energy of flywheel can be used further to accelerating the vehicle.
Since it has huge momentum so it takes a great deal of stopping and changing its speed
takes a lot of effort. If an engine supplies power intermittently, the flywheel
compensates for surplus or deficit power. So flywheel helps to smooth out the power
wheel receives. The main drawback of using flywheels in moving vehicles is their heavy
weight.

Advantages Of Regenerative Braking Systems :-

Ø Improved Fuel Economy
Ø Reduction in Engine wears
Ø Reduction in Brake Wear
60
 Ø Reducing cost of replacement brake linings
Ø Emissions reduction
FUTURE SCOPE OF RBS: -

Regenerative braking is more efficient. it is still not popular as electric vehicles and
hybrid electric vehicles are still in developing phase. Energy stored in battery can be
used to operate air conditioning, lights, mobile charging etc. Besides increasing
efficiency of vehicle it increases its weight too that problem can be overcome by using
light materials for regenerative circuit components. As our future vehicles will be
having electric and hybrid vehicles, regenerative braking system is going to be next
revolution in braking system.

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CHAPTER 7

REFRENCES

62
1) R.S. KHURMI and J. K. GUPTA, (2008). Machine Design, Division of S. Chand
and Company Ltd, Ram Nagar New Delhi

2)Haripal Singh and Harsh Deep Shergill, (2012) Thermal Analysis of Disc Brake
Using Comsol International Journal on Emerging Technologies.

3) Daniel Das. A, Christo Reegan Raj. V, Preethy. S and RamyaBharani.G. (2013).

Structural and Thermal Analysis of Disc Brake in Automobiles. “International
Journal of Latest Trends in Engineering and Technology.

4) V. Chengal Reddy, M. Gunasekhar Reddy and Dr. G. HarinathGowd (2013),

Modeling and Analysis of FSAE Car Disc Brake Using FEM. International Journal
of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering.

5) Guru Murthy Nathi1, T N Charyulu, K.Gowtham and P Satish Reddy,(2012),

COUPLED STRUCTUAL THERMAL ANALYSIS OF DISC BRAKE ,GURU MURTHY
NATHI, et al ISSN: 2319 – 1163 Volume: 1 Issue: 4

6) K. NareshBabu and T.Siva Krishna, (2013) STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND

THERMAL ANALYSIS OF CARDISC BRAKE ROTOR. Babu, et al, International
Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Studies.

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