This document discusses the classification and systematics of organisms. It covers key concepts like phylogeny, taxonomy, and nomenclature. The main levels of taxonomic categories are described from most specific (species) to most general (domain). Important taxonomic ranks include genus, family, order, class, division, and kingdom. The goals of taxonomy are outlined as developing a natural classification system that reflects evolutionary relationships. Methods like cladistics, which examine phylogenetic similarity, are discussed for analyzing evolutionary relationships between organisms.
This document discusses the classification and systematics of organisms. It covers key concepts like phylogeny, taxonomy, and nomenclature. The main levels of taxonomic categories are described from most specific (species) to most general (domain). Important taxonomic ranks include genus, family, order, class, division, and kingdom. The goals of taxonomy are outlined as developing a natural classification system that reflects evolutionary relationships. Methods like cladistics, which examine phylogenetic similarity, are discussed for analyzing evolutionary relationships between organisms.
This document discusses the classification and systematics of organisms. It covers key concepts like phylogeny, taxonomy, and nomenclature. The main levels of taxonomic categories are described from most specific (species) to most general (domain). Important taxonomic ranks include genus, family, order, class, division, and kingdom. The goals of taxonomy are outlined as developing a natural classification system that reflects evolutionary relationships. Methods like cladistics, which examine phylogenetic similarity, are discussed for analyzing evolutionary relationships between organisms.
(Monocot), Rosaceae (Roses), Asteraceae/ Concepts Compositae (Daisies, asters, sunflowers), Poaceae/ Graminae (Grasses: wheat, rice, corn), Brassicaceae - Fossils /Cruciferae (Mustards), Apiaceae/Umbelliferae ‣ Lines of evolution that have become extinct (Umbels: celery, dill) - Phylogeny 4. Order ‣ Hereditary relationships of any group of organisms ‣ –ales ‣ Evolutionary history of each member of the group ‣ Ex. Fabales (Eudicot), Liliales (Monocot) ‣ The steps that were involved as a group/several groups of 5. Class organisms evolved from some early ancestor ‣ –opsida ‣ Reality ‣ Ex. Magnoliopsida (Eudicot), Liliopsida (Monocot) - Systematics 6. Division ‣ Study; Understand these evolutionary lines ‣ –phyta ‣ Determine which organisms share a recent ancestry with ‣ Ex. Chlorophyta (Green Algae), Coniferophyta others (Conifers), Magnoliophyta (Flowering plants) ‣ Concerned about the amount of evolutionary changes that 7. Kingdom may have occurred between ancestries 8. Domain ‣ Hypothesis, attempt to map evolution ‣ Archaea - Taxonomy ‣ Bacteria ‣ Classifying and naming organisms ‣ Eukarya - Nomenclature - Lumpers ‣ System of names that reflects the relationships of ‣ Taxonomists, believe that distantly related species should evolutionary lines accurately be grouped together in large genera ‣ Has numerous levels: closely related = genus, genera = ‣ Ex. Cranberries and blueberries are similar enough that family, and so on the should be grouped in genus Vaccinium - Taxonomists / Systematists - Splitters ‣ Discover organisms and assign names ‣ Prefer many small genera with few closely related species ‣ Identify and explain lineages and evolution ‣ Ex. Cranberries are distinct enough from blueberries that - Goals of Taxonomists the should be grouped in their own genus Oxycoccus ‣ Developing a Natural System of Classification - Monophyletic Group • Closely related organisms are classified together ‣ Genera are natural • Nomenclature reflects natural system of classification ‣ All species in the genus are closely related by a common (see below) ancestor ‣ Assigning plant names based on phylogenetic ‣ All descendants of that ancestor are in the same genus relationships - Polyphyletic Group ‣ Unnatural Levels of Taxonomic Categories ‣ Members evolve from different ancestors ‣ Resemble each other due to convergent evolution - Varying degrees of relatedness ‣ Convergent Evolution - Taxonomic Ranks • Same traits, different ancestor 1. Species - Binomial System of Nomenclature ‣ Most fundamental ‣ Scientific name composed of the genus name and species ‣ Most closely related by descent epithet ‣ Can interbreed successfully ‣ Typewritten: Zea mays ‣ Do not have standard suffixes ‣ Handwritten: Zea mays ‣ Subspecies ‣ Other examples: Lycopersicon esculentulum (Tomato), • Extremely closely related, similar genetically Fagopyrum esculentulum (Buckwheat), Colocasia • Chromosomes can function in the same nucleus esculenta (Taro) and spore mother cells can undergo meiosis when ‣ Carolus Linnaeus mature • Professor of natural history at University of Uppsala in • Organisms have undergone divergent evolution Sweden from common ancestor recently so that few • Adopted genus system of Bauhin mutations* accumulate since the diversion • Created genera and placed species into one genus or • As mutations accumulate, when the two another subspecies are crossed the offspring becomes • Created the Binomial System of Classification sterile ‣ J.B.P. de Lamarck - Ex. Horses and Donkeys are not the same • Inheritance of required characteristics species but can reproduce (Offspring: Mule). • “All cells of the body produced fluids that diffuesd into Mules are sterile. genitalia” * Mutations - Change in genetic sequence, ‣ Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace nitrogenous bases change (Adenine, Guanine, • Theory of evolution by natural selection Cyanine, Thymine) • Species are descendants of a common ancestor and 2. Genera (Genus, singular) are related by evolution ‣ Closely related species • “Survival of the fittest”: most adapted to the current ‣ Grouping of a genus is subjective and causes environment dispute 3. Family Cladistics ‣ Usually well-derived, enough characteristucs are unique to each family (cacti, daisies, orchids, etc.) - Study of phylogeny ‣ –acea - Examining the similarity of on species to others - Method of analyzing phylogenetic, evolutionary relationships advantageous, spines deter animals from eating - Involves construction of a Cladogram/Phylogenetic Tree plants to get water. Cactus spines are modified - Species > Two Separate Species leaves, Euphorbia spines are modified shoots in ‣ Accumulate distinct alleles the axil of leaves ‣ Acquire own mutations - Paraphyletic Group ‣ Cannot breed, cannot share new alleles ‣ Does not contain all descendants of - Reasons plants resemble each other: - Uninformative Character ‣ Descended from a common ancestor ‣ Trait that does not help understand phylogeny ‣ Undergone convergent evolution ‣ Plesiomorphy, Symplesiomorphy, Autapomorphy, - Mutations that affect early stages of development can cause Homoplasy closely related species to look deceptively similar - Informative Character - DNA Sequencing ‣ Helps understand phylogeny ‣ Most effective tool for analyzing evolutionary relationships ‣ Apomorphy and Synapomorphy ‣ Sequence of nucleotides in the DNA of a species must - Principle of Parsimony differ from other species ‣ Prefer the simplest hypothesis ‣ Do not make it more complicated than it needs to be I. Understanding Cladograms ‣ Move on to more complicated hypothesis only when - Cladogram data indicates that the simplest is false ‣ Diagram that shows evolutionary patterns by means of - Equally Parsimonious a series of branches ‣ Equally simple cladorgams with the taxa arranged - Cladogram Parts differently ‣ Node - Unresolved Polychotomy • Points at which cladogram branches ‣ Not enough data to form an accurate depiction of the • Divergence of one taxon into two phylogeny • Branches that extend from a node represent descendants of original group II. Cladograms and Taxonomic Categories • Represents a detectable change that forms a new - Originally it was believed that Angiosperms were divided group; after divergence, one taxa differs form the into two: Monocots and Dicots, and that this convergence other due to mutations/accumulation of mutations occurred very early that causes one taxa to be unable to breed with - However, there is strong evidence that early the other taxa angiosperms diverged into several clades before this ‣ Polytomy happened • Various groups come from the same node - Living descendants of these early clades are called Basal ‣ Common Ancestor Angiosperms (no formal taxonomic name) • Represented by the point where descendants - The rest are called Eudicots, which have pollen tricolpate branch out (Node) ‣ Clade Other Types of Classification Systems • Any ancestor and all the branches that lead from it ‣ Plesiomorphy I. Artificial Systems of Classification • Ancestral Condition - Uses several, easy to observe characters ‣ Symplesiomorphy - Ex. Picture guides, white and red flowers, trees shurbs • Shared ancestral characters herbs and vines • Shared primitive traits • Not helpful in analyzing relationships II. Classification Systems for Fossils ‣ Apomorphy - Form Genera • Derived condition not present in ancestors ‣ Artificial classification is used before natural ‣ Synapomorphy/Homologous Features classification • Similar phenotype, descended from common ‣ Compare to living species ancestral feature • Share derived character Taxonomic Studies • Important characters to search for - International Code of Botanical Nomenclature • Forms a natural/monophyletic group ‣ Describes steps needed for naming a species • Ex. Anthurium Family: have spathe and spadix - Type Specimen inflorescence ‣ Single preserved plant that truly carries the name ‣ Autapomorphies ‣ Contains all characteristics of new species • Unique derived characters - Isotypes • Occurs in only one group ‣ Other specimens as similar as possible to type specimen • Does not help understand relationships • Ex. Large ears of Zea mays The Major Lines of Evolution ‣ Homoplasy/Analogous Features - Bacteria • Different genotypes ‣ Cyanobacteria (blue green algae) • Result of convergent evolution - Archaea • Characters appear the same - Eukarya • Similar phenotype, different ancestors ‣ Animals and Fungi • Two distinct evolutionary lines respond to similar ‣ Plants environments and selection pressures ‣ Protists • Mistaking homoplasies for synapomorphies - Grade Classification creates unnatural/polyphyletic groups ‣ Protistans were placed together because they had a lpw • Ex. Cacti and Euphorbias (Succulent): Do not level of evolutionary development share common ancestry but occur in deserts - Kingdom Plantae where succulent water storing bodies are ‣ Algae adapted to living on land