Tunnelling to the beginning of time

The Large Hadron Collider

The LHC (Large Hadron Collider) is an international project, in which the UK has
a leading role. This site includes the latest news from the project, accessible
explanations of how the LHC works, how it is funded, who works there and what b
enefits it brings us. You can access a wide range of resources for the public, j
ournalists and teachers and students, there are also many links to other sources
of information.
The LHC is asking some Big Questions about the universe we live in
How did our universe come to be the way it is?
The Universe started with a Big Bang – but we don’t fully understand how or why it d
eveloped the way it did. The LHC will let us see how matter behaved a tiny fract
ion of a second after the Big Bang. Researchers have some ideas of what to expec
t – but also expect the unexpected!
Latest News from the LHC
LHC inauguration at CERN, 21 October 2008 (more...)
Swiss President Pascal Couchepin and French Prime Minister François Fillon were jo
ined by science ministers from CERN’s Member States and around the world to inaugu
rate the Large Hadron Collider as planned on the 21st October 2008.
CERN explains what happened to the LHC and the timetable for repair (more...)
CERN has confirmed that a fault in an electrical connection between two magnets
caused the incident on the 19th September, which has temporarily shut down prepa
ration of the LHC for experiments. The fault led to mechanical damage and a rele
ase of liquid helium, which contributed to further damage to the affected sub-se
ctor of the machine. All of the safety systems operated as expected and no one w
as put at risk. CERN has the spares and resources available to complete replacem
ent and repair during the scheduled CERN-wide, maintenance shutdown over winter.
Checks and modifications will ensure that similar failures do not occur elsewhe
re once the LHC restarts in Spring 2009. A detailed technical report is availabl
e here.
What had been an exceptionally smooth early commissioning phase for the LHC, fol
lowing first injection of proton beams on the 10th September (more...), was halt
ed by a technical failure on the 19th September (more...). The first few days of
commissioning beams in the LHC had encountered some technical problems, which h
ad been resolved (more...). However, the damage caused by failure of an electric
al connection (during a test) has required that the affected sector be warmed up
for repair.
The LHC Computing GRID launches (more...)
The worldwide LHC Computing Grid is an essential element of the LHC project, res
ponsible for the analysis and management of the more than 15 million Gigabytes o
f data flowing from the LHC every year. The LHC Grid combines the power of more
than 140 computer centres across a 33 country collaboration.
The launch of the LHC project was be covered live by international broadcasters
and followed by an audience estimated (unofficially) to be close to 1 billion. U
K media organisations were at CERN and at a simultaneous media event in London.
BBC Radio 4 devoted a day of programming to the LHC, including covering first in
jection of beams live on the Today programme. See the BBC website for programmin
g, background etc.
Dr Tara Shears talks about some of the scientific questions that the LHC project
will help us answer, on the www.labreporter.com website.
You can try your hand at running the LHC and interpreting collisions on our simu
lator at www.particledetectives.net.
The extensive preparations for the start of LHC experiments have included exhaus
tive safety assessments, including the potential risk of creating new particles,
black holes etc. The latest risk assessment is available here.

The ATLAS detector

ATLAS (A Toroidal LHC
About the LHC
The LHC is an international research project based at CERN in Geneva, Switzerlan
d, where scientists, engineers and support staff from 111 nations are combining
state-of-the-art science and engineering in one of the largest scientific experi
ments ever conducted.
The LHC is the latest and most powerful in a series of particle accelerators tha
t, over the last 70 years, have allowed us to penetrate deeper and deeper into t
he heart of matter and further and further back in time. The next steps in the j
ourney will bring new knowledge about the beginning of our Universe and how it w
orks, as the LHC recreates, on a microscale, conditions that existed billionths
of a second after the birth of our Universe.

Lead Tungstate Crystals

ATLAS (A Toroidal LHC Apparatus) detector

What is the LHC?
The LHC is exactly what its name suggests - a large collider of hadrons. Strictl
y, LHC refers to the collider; a machine that deserves to be labelled ‘large’, it no
t only weighs more than 38,000 tonnes, but runs for 27km (16.5m) in a circular t
unnel 100 metres beneath the Swiss/French border at Geneva.
However, the collider is only one of three essential parts of the LHC project. T
he other two are:
• the detectors, which sit in 4 huge chambers at points around the LHC tunnel and
• the GRID, which is a global network of computers and software essential to proce
ssing the data recorded by LHC’s detectors.
The LHC’s 27km loop in a sense encircles the globe, because the LHC project is sup
ported by an enormous international community of scientists and engineers. Worki
ng in multinational teams, at CERN and around the world, they are building and t
esting LHC equipment and software, participating in experiments and analysing da
ta. The UK has a major role in leading the project and has scientists and engine
ers working on all the main experiments.
What will the LHC do?
The LHC will allow scientists to probe deeper into the heart of matter and furth
er back in time than has been possible using previous colliders.
Researchers think that the Universe originated in the Big Bang (an unimaginably
violent explosion) and since then the Universe has been cooling down and becomin
g less energetic. Very early in the cooling process the matter and forces that m
ake up our world ‘condensed’ out of this ball of energy.
The LHC will produce tiny patches of very high energy by colliding together atom
ic particles that are travelling at very high speed. The more energy produced in
the collisions the further back we can look towards the very high energies that
existed early in the evolution of the Universe. Collisions in the LHC will have
up to 7x the energy of those produced in previous machines; recreating energies
and conditions that existed billionths of a second after the start of the Big B
ang.
The results from the LHC are not completely predictable as the experiments are t
esting ideas that are at the frontiers of our knowledge and understanding. Resea
rchers expect to confirm predictions made on the basis of what we know from prev
ious experiments and theories. However, part of the excitement of the LHC projec
t is that it may uncover new facts about matter and the origins of the Universe.
One of the most interesting theories the LHC will test was put forward by the UK
physicist Professor Peter Higgs and others. The different types of fundamental
particle that make up matter have very different masses, while the particles tha
t make up light (photons) have no mass at all. Peter’s theory is one explanation o
f why this is so and the LHC will allow us to test the theory. More of the Big Q
uestions about the universe that the LHC may help us answer can be found here.
How does the LHC work?
The LHC accelerates two beams of atomic particles in opposite directions around
the 27km collider. When the particle beams reach their maximum speed the LHC all
ows them to ‘collide’ at 4 points on their circular journey.
Thousands of new particles are produced when particles collide and detectors, pl
aced around the collision points, allow scientists to identify these new particl
es by tracking their behaviour.
The detectors are able to follow the millions of collisions and new particles pr
oduced every second and identify the distinctive behaviour of interesting new pa
rticles from among the many thousands that are of little interest.
As the energy produced in the collisions increases researchers are able to peer
deeper into the fundamental structure of the Universe and further back in its hi
story. In these extreme conditions unknown atomic particles may appear.
Who is involved?
The LHC project includes 111 nations in designing, building and testing equipmen
t and software, participating in experiments and analysing data. It is a remarka
bly harmonious international collaboration in which the UK has a leading role. B
ritish scientists and engineers have prominent roles in construction, management
and experimental teams and the UK makes a significant contribution to the LHC b
udget.
CERN has many opportunities for students, postdoctoral researchers, scientists a
nd technical experts in a range of disciplines (links to Working @ CERN)
UK research groups involved in the LHC project.
Over the 13 year construction period (1994 to 2006 inclusive) the total UK contr
ibution for the detectors, GriddPP (materials and staff effort) and collider was
£511M. This includes the UK’s annual CERN subscription over this period. This is le
ss than the price of one pint of beer per UK adult per year.
The total cost to the UK of participating in the LHC project will be £108M per yea
r, including £82M per year as its national subscription to CERN’s on-going annual bu
dget of approximately £455M. The subscription of member countries to the CERN budg
et is linked to their GDP. Non-member countries are also involved in, and contri
bute to, experiments.
The cost of the LHC project (machine and personnel) is £2.1bn, or £3.5bn if the infr
astructure costs, incurred during the construction phase, and the costs of compu
ting, GRID, early running etc are included. The cost of the LHC is mainly paid f
or by the 20 members of CERN, with significant contributions from the 6 observer
nations.
Who benefits?
There are two types of benefit that the LHC project produces for the UK. The les
s easily measured benefits are:
• new understanding of the physical world,
• training of world class scientists and engineers,
• maintenance of a vibrant, world class UK research base and,
• a leading role in a major international project.
More easily appreciated are the knowledge, expertise and technology that is spun
off from the LHC and can be directly applied to development of new medical, ind
ustrial and consumer technologies (more...)
The science of the LHC is far removed from everyday life, but the fact that the
science is so extreme constantly pushes the boundaries of existing technical and
engineering solutions. Simply building the LHC has generated new technology.
The LHC is not primarily about building a better world. Rather, it allows us to
test theories and ideas about how the Universe works, its origins and evolution.
The questions asked, and answers found, are so fundamental that the information
from LHC experiments will only be applied many years in the future, if at all.
However, this is an experiment and one of the surprises from the experiment may
be new science that can be applied almost immediately.
Where is the LHC?
The LHC is physically located in a circular 27km (16.5m) long tunnel under the S
wiss/French border outside Geneva, but as an international project the LHC cross
es continents and many international borders.
In the UK, engineers and scientists at 20 research sites are involved in designi
ng and building equipment and analysing data. UK researchers are involved with a
ll four of the main detectors and the GRID. British staff based at CERN have lea
ding roles in managing and running the collider and detectors.
Most, if not all, research teams are contributing to GridPP.
UK LHC centres:
• Brunel University, (CMS)
• Imperial College - University of London, (CMS, LHCb)
• Lancaster University, (ATLAS)
• Oxford University, (ATLAS, LHCb)
• Queen Mary - University of London, (ATLAS)
• Royal Holloway – University of London, (ATLAS)
• STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, (ATLAS, CMS, LHCb)
• University College London, (ATLAS)
• University of Birmingham, (ATLAS, ALICE)
• University of Bristol, (CMS, LHCb)
• University of Cambridge, (ATLAS, LHCb)
• University of Durham, (theory)
• University of Edinburgh, (LHCb, GridPP)
• University of Glasgow, (ATLAS, LHCb theory)
• University of Liverpool, (ATLAS, LHCb)
• University of Manchester, (ATLAS)
• University of Sheffield, (ATLAS)
• University of Sussex, (theory)
• University of Swansea,
• University of Warwick,
• University of the West of England
What next?
The LHC is still new, but its successor - the International Linear Collider (ILC
) – is already being discussed. So why build two high energy colliders that operat
e on the same principles?
The LHC is a ‘discovery’ machine, a general purpose tool that will open up new areas
of physics and demonstrate the existence, or not, of predicted new laws and par
ticles. The ILC is a precision instrument that will allow scientists to explore
in detail the discoveries made by the LHC.
The ILC is still at the planning stage, no location for the machine has been agr
eed and much feasibility testing has to be conducted before the construction pha
se.
FAQs
I have heard that the LHC will recreate the Big Bang, does that mean it might cr
eate another Universe and if so what will happen to our Universe?
People sometimes refer to recreating the Big Bang, but this is misleading. What
they actually mean is:
• recreating the conditions and energies that existed shortly after the start of t
he Big Bang, not the moment at which the Big Bang started,
• recreating conditions on a microscale, not on the same scale as the original Big
Bang and,
• recreating energies that are continually being produced naturally (by high energ
y cosmic rays hitting the earth’s atmosphere) but at will and inside sophisticated
detectors that track what is happening.
No Big Bang – so no possibility of creating a new Universe.
How much does the LHC cost and who pays?
The direct total LHC project cost is £2.6bn, made up of:
• the collider (£2.1bn),
• the detectors (£575m).
The total cost is shared mainly by CERN s 20 Member States, with significant con
tributions from the six observer nations.
UK’s direct contribution to the LHC is £34m per year, or less than the cost of a pin
t of beer per adult in the UK per year:
The UK pays £70m per year as our annual subscription to CERN.
The LHC project involves 111 nations in designing, building and testing equipmen
t and software, participating in experiments and analysing data. The degree of i
nvolvement varies between countries, with some able to contribute more financial
and human resource than others.
CERN stands for Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire (or European Council
for Nuclear Research); does that mean that CERN is studying nuclear power and nu
clear weapons?
At the time that CERN was established (1952 – 1954) physics research was exploring
the inside of the atom, hence the word ‘nuclear’ in its title. CERN has never been
involved in research on nuclear power or nuclear weapons, but has done much to i
ncrease our understanding of the fundamental structure of the atom.
The title CERN is actually an historical remnant. It comes from the name of the
council that was founded to establish a European organisation for world-class ph
ysics research. The Council was dissolved once the new organisation (the Europea
n Organization for Nuclear Research) was formed, but the name CERN remained.
Why is the LHC underground? Is it because it is doing secret experiments that sc
ientists want to hide away?
The LHC has been built in a tunnel originally constructed for a previous collide
r (LEP – the Large Electron Positron collider). This was the most economic solutio
n to building both LEP and the LHC. It was cheaper to build an underground tunne
l than acquire the equivalent land above ground. Putting the machine underground
also greatly reduces the environmental impact of the LHC and associated activit
ies.
The rock surrounding the LHC is a natural shield that reduces the amount of natu
ral radiation that reaches the LHC and this reduces interference with the detect
ors. Vice versa, radiation produced when the LHC is running is safely shielded b
y 50 – 100 metres of rock.
Can the work at CERN be used to build more deadly weapons?
Unlikely for two main reasons. Firstly, CERN and the scientists and engineers wo
rking there have no interest in weapons research. They are trying to understand
how the world works, not how to destroy it.
Secondly, the high energy particle beams produced at the LHC require a huge mach
ine (27km long, weighing more than 38,000 tonnes – half the weight of an aircraft
carrier), consuming 120MW of power and needing 91 tonnes of supercold liquid hel
ium). The beams themselves have a lot of energy (the equivalent of a Eurostar tr
ain travelling at top speed) but they can only be maintained in a vacuum, if rel
eased into the atmosphere they would immediately interact with atoms in the air
and dissipate their energy in a very short distance.
Are the high energies produced by the LHC dangerous and what happens if somethin
g goes wrong?
The LHC does produce very high energies, but these energy levels are restricted
to tiny volumes inside the detectors. Many high energy particles, from collision
s, are produced every second, but the detectors are designed to track and stop a
ll particles (except neutrinos) as capturing all the energy from collisions is e
ssential to identifying what particles have been produced. Very little of the en
ergy from collisions is able to escape from the detectors.
The main danger from these energy levels is to the LHC machine itself. The beam
of particles has the energy of a Eurostar train travelling at full speed and sho
uld something happen to destabilise the particle beam there is a real danger tha
t all of that energy will be deflected into the wall of the beam pipe and the ma
gnets of the LHC, causing a great deal of damage. The LHC has several automatic
safety systems in place that monitor all the critical parts of the LHC. Should a
nything unexpected happen (power or magnet failure for example) the beam is auto
matically ‘dumped’ by being squirted into a blind tunnel where its energy is safely
dissipated. This all happens in milliseconds – the beam, which is travelling at 11
,000 circuits of the LHC per second, will complete less than 3 circuits before t
he dump is complete.