William Shakespeare

Background information:
 No birth records exist for Shakespeare but church records indicate that he was baptized in
Stratford-upon-Avon, UK on April 26th 1564.
o From the date of baptism scholars calculate that he was likely born on or near
April 23rd and this date is widely acknowledged as his birthday.
o He died in April 1616 at the age of 52.
 There is a story that he died on his birthday but this is considered by many
scholars to be a myth
 He was buried in his home-town of Stratford on April 25th 1616
 By 1592 Shakespeare earned a living as an actor and playwright in London
 By the early 1590’s he was also a managing partner in the Lord Chamberlain’s Men, an
acting company in England.
o In 1603, after the crowning of King James I, the company changed its name to
The King’s Men
 By 1597 he had published 15 plays
 By 1599 Shakespeare and his business partners built their own theatre called the Globe
 Shakespeare wrote primarily, though not exclusively, in blank verse iambic pentameter.
o Blank verse simply means that the lines are not rhymed.
o Iambic pentameter refers to the rhythm of the lines - made up of syllables grouped
into feet
 Iambic refers to the type of feet used, specifically an iamb
 An iamb is an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one
 Pentameter refers to the number of feet per line, specifically 5

Julius Caesar

Background information:
 This play is a tragedy believed to have been written around 1599 when the first
performance of the play is recorded.
 While other of Shakespeare’s plays had times of unpopularity this one has remained a
fixture of both British and American theatre.
 While the text is loosely based on actual events, which occurred approximately 1600
years before Shakespeare wrote about them, a good amount was the invention of the
author.
A Note on Characters and their Historical Counterparts:
 Many characters share the same name or similar names and it is important to be clear on
who is who.
 Julius Caesar: Often referred to simply as Caesar, his full name was Gaius Julius Caesar
o Historically, he was a Roman statesman and general who lived between 100-
44BCE
o Prior to him Rome was a growing republic and through a series of wars and
battles he expanded the republic across Europe.
o He was elected to various political positions and eventually assumed control of
the republic (though he was not a king or emperor) and began a series of reforms
which included the creation of the Julian calendar
o Caesar was named dictator but the senate remained intact. Antony did offer him a
crown at a festival (probably on Feb. 15 at the feast of Lupercalia) and he did
refuse it.
o He was set to leave on another military campaign on March 18th (and was
supposedly warned of some personal danger but refused a bodyguard). He
attended the last meeting of the senate before he was to leave (on March 15th)
where he was killed by 60 conspirators led by Brutus and Cassius.
 Marc Antony: Sometimes referred to as Antonius to maintain the iambic pentameter, his
Latin name was Marcus Antonius
o He was a Roman general under Julius Caesar and the two were political allies
o When Caesar was assassinated the conspirators left him alive (supposedly this
was Brutus’ decision) and he was next in line to take Caesar’s place.
o He was challenged by Octavian (Caesar’s nephew/adopted son) who claimed to
be Caesar’s heir
o Antony took his armies into Gaul to pursue Caesar’s killers meanwhile Octavian’s
armies were defeating Antony’s forcing him into Southern Gaul. When Brutus
and Cassius prepared to descend on Rome Octavian, Antony and Lepidus joined
forces and defeated them in the battle of Philippi.
 Octavius: Also referred to as Octavian or Augustus, he was born Gaius Octavius and was
Julius Caesar’s great-nephew.
o When Julius Caesar’s daughter (his only child) died in childbirth he lost hope for
a male heir and adopted Octavius.
o When Julius Caesar died his will named Octavius as his heir but Antony would
dispute this
o Octavius would defeat the conspirators who killed Julius Caesar (with the help of
Antony and Lepidus) and would eventually defeat Antony
o He became the first emperor of the Roman Empire.
o For the first part of his life historians refer to him as Octavius, after his adoption
by Caesar as Octavian and once he became emperor as Augustus.
  Marcus Brutus: Usually he is referred to simply as Brutus; his full name was Marcus
Junius Brutus.
o He was a Roman politician and general under Julius Caesar
o He was optimistic about Caesar’s plans until Caesar was named dictator. After
that Brutus joined Cassius and others in the plot that led to Caesar’s assassination.
o He (with the other conspirators) was driven from the city of Rome by public
outrage. Brutus and Cassius stayed in Italy until Antony drove them out.
o Brutus and Cassius would raise armies which were met and defeated by Octavian
and Antony in 2 battles at Philippi.
o Brutus was defeated in the second battle and killed himself – Antony gave him an
honorable burial
o He is not to be confused with Decius Brutus who is listed in the play as another
conspirator and the one who convinces Caesar to go to the senate.
 Caius Cassius: Usually referred to simply as Cassius; his full name was Gaius Cassius
Longinus
o Cassius was a Roman general and politician.
o When Caesar named Brutus as a magistrate Cassius was offended and he became
one of the busiest conspirators and took a very active part in the assassination.
o He was defeated in the first battle of Philippi and ordered his servant to kill him.
o He is not to be confused with Caius Ligarius who is listed in the play as another
conspirator.

Act I, Scene i:
 It begins with a group of people gathered in town celebrating Caesar’s latest victory
o He has defeated the last sons of Pompey
 Flavius and Marullus chastise the crowd and tell them to disperse
o They aren’t happy about Caesar’s victory; he didn’t defeat foreign lands and bring
home slaves he only defeated the sons of his dead enemy, Pompey, who the
people used to love.
 After the crowd leaves they go around looking for others to send home and taking down
decorations put up to celebrate Caesar.

Act I, Scene ii:

 Caesar returns in a procession to celebrate his victory
 He is stopped by a soothsayer who warns him to “Beware the ides of March”
o Ides of March simply means March 15th
o Sooth means truth and soothsayers were supposed to be fortune-tellers
o Caesar shrugs off this warning, deeming the soothsayer a dreamer
 Cassius asks Brutus if he is going to watch the race
o Antony is about to run in a holy race as part of the festival celebrations
 Brutus is acting strangely and he says it is because he has been troubled lately by an inner
conflict
 Cassius tells Brutus about people being dissatisfied with the government and wishing that
Brutus could see what was wrong
 Brutus confesses that he doesn’t want Caesar to become king of Rome
 Brutus also says: “For let the gods so speed me as I love/The name of honor more than I
fear death.” (line 88-89)
o He loves honor more than he fears death – this statement is reminiscent of
Socrates
 Cassius tells a story about himself and Caesar in which Cassius saves Caesar from
drowning
o Cassius also talks about Caesar being ill and acting like “a sick girl”
 As they hear the crowds roar a second time Brutus believes they must be giving new
honors to Caesar.
 Cassius bemoans Caesar receiving more honors than himself and Brutus and utters
another famous line: “The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars, but in ourselves”
o Stars were generally used to reference fate in Shakespeare’s time and he used the
phrase multiple times such as in the beginning of Romeo & Juliet when he refers
to the titular characters as “star-crossed lovers”
 The race ends and Caesar and his procession pass by.
 Caesar tells Antony that he wants fat men around him and expresses distrust of Cassius
because he is lean and Caesar believes such men to be dangerous.
o The distinction between fat and lean was a common notion in Shakespeare’s time
that fat meant amiable and satisfied whereas lean meant dissatisfied and envious
o Antony tells Caesar that Cassius isn’t dangerous
o Caesar insists that he fears nothing but that if he did the thing he ought to fear
most would be Cassius
 Brutus stops Casca so that he and Cassius can find out what happened at the race.
o Casca informs them that Antony offered Caesar a crown three times and that all
three times Caesar refused it.
o Casca also implies that the second time the crown was offered Caesar didn’t
really want to refuse it.
o Finally Casca tells them that after the third refusal Caesar fainted
 He is described as falling down and foaming at the mouth which Brutus
calls the falling sickness
 Casca blames this on the bad breath of the people who were cheering for
Caesar but it is widely believed that he in fact suffered from epilepsy
 Some new research may suggest that Caesar suffered from minor
strokes rather than epilepsy.
  Casca uses the phrase “it was Greek to me” which is one of the earliest written uses of the
phrase.

Act I, Scene iii:

 A month after the event of scenes 1 & 2 a storm is raging and Casca says that there must
be “civil strife in heaven or else the world…incenses them to send destruction” (Line 11-
13)
o Either the gods are battling among themselves or they are so enraged by the world
that they have sent this destructive storm as punishment
 Cassius talks to Casca about Caesar. The Senate is going to crown Caesar king the next
day and Cassius says he will kill himself if it happens.
o Cassius calls Caesar a tyrant but says that he is only so because the people of
Rome are weak.
 Cassius stops his rant, unsure of Casca’s feelings on the situation and if Casca is in favor
of having Caesar as king Cassius will have to defend himself.
o Casca shares Cassius’ feelings about Caesar and joins in his scheme.
 Cinna, another member of the conspiracy, joins Cassius and Casca and tells Cassius that
everyone wishes he could get Brutus on board with their plan
o The people will view what they are all about to do as a crime/offense/wrong but if
Brutus were to join them then it would be viewed as virtuous and right.
o Cassius believes that Brutus is almost convinced to join them and only needs one
more conversation to push him to join them
o Cassius has Cinna leave notes for Brutus in various places

Things to think about:

 Brutus claims he was torn by an inner conflict before speaking to Cassius. Was he
already thinking about what to do about Caesar’s growing power before Cassius speaks
to him? Or was it really Cassius who puts the idea in his head as he claims?
 The soothsayer, who Caesar dismisses, warns him to “beware the ides of March” but
Antony, who he trusts, tells him not to fear Cassius. However, Cassius is clearly plotting
against Caesar. Why might Shakespeare give us this contrast?
 When Caesar says that he fears no one, but if he did it would be Cassius, does he really
have no fear or is he pretending not to but in fact does fear Cassius?
 Shakespeare follows Aristotle’s outline of Tragedy. To Aristotle, the purpose of tragedy
is the catharsis of pity and fear. The audience is meant to pity Caesar and fear for his
safety (as it mimics our own fears of being betrayed). The opening scene first gives us the
tension between Caesar’s supporters and detractors. Then the Soothsayer adds to the
tension as does Cassius’ conversation with Brutus and Caesar’s conversation with
Antony. The ominous storm adds more tension as do the fake letters to Brutus.
Act II, Scene i:
 Brutus is in his garden thinking about the conspiracy Cassius has brought to him
o He has no personal reason to hate Caesar but for the public good they might have
to kill him.
o He worries that being crowned king will change Caesar’s nature
o He knows Caesar to be a man of reason, not easily swayed by passions but “[false
humility] is young ambition’s ladder”
o He says that Caesar, if he is given more power, would go to extremes/tyranny so
he must think of him as a serpent’s egg and thus kill him in the shell
 As he is now he is a serpent’s egg
 Crowned king and allowed to grow his power further he would be the
hatched serpent growing mischievous
 They have to kill him before he hatches
o He receives one of the letters Cassius has left for him but it isn’t signed, he
doesn’t know where all these letters are coming from
o He says that it was Cassius who first set him against Caesar, but since then he
hasn’t slept
 Cassius arrives, with the rest of the conspirators, at Brutus’ house.
 Brutus calls for them all to shake hands and Cassius says they will swear an oath
o Brutus refuses to swear an oath because he believes it is for cowards
o If the wrongs they are attempting to right aren’t enough motivation for them to
simply go through with the plan then they should call it off
o If they call it off, he says, Caesar’s tyranny will grow and one by one he will have
them all killed
o But if the reason and virtue of what they are planning is enough to give them all
the courage to go through with it then that is enough and simply saying they will
do it will be enough without an oath.
 Decius asks if they should only kill Caesar and Cassius suggests that they also kill
Antony
o Brutus again says no, this time because he believes killing Antony will detract
from the virtue of what they are doing. If they kill Caesar they are saving Rome
from a tyrant but if they kill Antony as well they are butchers killing out of anger
and envy.
o The thing they want to stop is the spirit of Caesar and Brutus wishes there was a
way to kill his spirit without killing him and laments that there isn’t
o Cassius fears Antony because Antony has great love for Caesar
 Brutus tells Cassius not to fear Antony…much in the same way Antony
told Caesar not to fear Cassius.
 The conspirators worry about getting Caesar to where they want to kill him and discuss
how to arrange it
  All the other conspirators leave Brutus alone but soon his wife, Portia, joins him.
o Portia has noticed that Brutus has been acting strangely and wants to know what
is troubling him
o Brutus tells her he is sick but she doesn’t believe him because if he were sick,
since he is smart, he would take what he needed to get better
o He insists that he is sick and trying to get well but she sees through his excuse and
knows he has something weighing on his mind and demands to know what it is.
 Brutus and Portia are interrupted by Caius Ligarius who is ill but has come to take part in
the conspiracy.

Act II, Scene ii:

 Caesar’s wife, Calpurnia, has dreamt of Caesar’s murder. She says she never believed in
omens but that with so many strange things happening, and having dreamt her husband
being murdered, she is afraid.
o Caesar tells her that he cannot avoid what the gods want to happen and that the
omens apply to the world as much as to him specifically.
o She insists that there “are no comets” when beggars die and that the heavens only
announce the deaths of princes.
 Caesar responds with another famous line: “Cowards die many times before their deaths;
the valiant never taste of death but once”
o Caesar echoes Socrates as he tells his wife that he doesn’t understand why men
fear death since it is a necessary end that will come eventually for everyone.
o Note that this also mirrors Brutus’ line in Act I where he says he loves honor
more than he fears death.
 A servant returns to tell Caesar that the priests also believe something bad will happen if
Caesar leaves the house.
o He is determined to go out. The more people who urge him not to, the more
determined he becomes.
o He says that the priests’ omen is the gods telling him to go out and testing his
bravery
o Calpurnia warns Caesar that he is being over-confident and not thinking this
through reasonably.
o Finally, Caesar concedes and decides to stay home sending Antony in his stead to
say he is ill.
 Decius enters and Caesar tells him he will not be going to the senate today but refuses to
say he can’t because of illness or that he dare not out of cowardice, but simply that he
won’t because his wife asked him not to.
o When Caesar tells Decius of Calpurnia’s dream, Decius re-interprets it in a way
that plays to Caesar’s ego in the hopes of convincing him to go to the senate.
 o He also tells Caesar that the Senate plans to give him a crown today and that if he
does not go they may change their minds and that people will think him a coward
for fearing his wife’s dreams
 This is enough to convince Caesar and he decides he will go to the senate

Act II, Scene iii:

 Artimedorus has discovered the plot to kill Caesar so he has written a letter naming the
conspirators and plans to give it to Caesar as he passes on the way to the capitol.

Act II, Scene iv:

 Brutus has told Portia about the plot to kill Caesar and she is nervously awaiting news
from the capitol. She fears her nervousness will give away the secret and ruin Brutus.
 She wants Lucius to go to the capitol to observe Brutus and return to her with news but
she struggles to make him understand without giving away the secret
 The soothsayer comes by and tells Portia he has a message for Caesar, a warning to
befriend himself.
o She asks if he knows of anything that will happen to Caesar but he says he knows
nothing for sure, only things he fears may happen.

Things to think about:

 Are Brutus’ intentions noble? Are the rest of the conspirators’ motives the same?
 Is Caesar as ambitious/tyrannical as the conspirators make him out to be?
 Why is Caesar so insistent on defying the omens and going to senate anyway?
 What might Shakespeare’s purpose be in echoing Antony telling Caesar not to worry
about Cassius, in Act I Scene ii, by having Brutus tell Cassius not to worry about Antony
in Act II Scene i? In both cases the person who fears someone is correct in doing so and
the person who tells them not to worry is wrong. What is that meant to tell us?
 Aristotelian Tragedy continues: Brutus, alone, debating what to do (esp. the metaphor of
the serpent egg) and Brutus and the conspirators making a pact build the tension further.
The question of if they should kill Antony as well and its immediate denial by Brutus is a
quick spike and drop of the tension. Calpurnia’s dream and the priest’s warnings raise the
tension but when Caesar agrees to stay home the audience feels a release in the tension.
When Decius convinces Caesar to go to senate the tension is shot back up, higher than it
was before. Then we have Artemdorus’ letter which adds to the sense of urgency, Portia’s
nervousness that makes the audience nervous, and the Soothsayer’s reappearance with
Portia that build the tension further.
Act III, Scene i:
 On his way to the capitol Caesar encounters the soothsayer and Artemidorus, both of
whom have come to warn him.
 Caesar tells the soothsayer that the 15th of March has come, referring to his earlier
warning.
o The soothsayer warns that the day isn’t over yet.
 Artemidorus passes Caesar his letter and tries to get him to read it quickly but he doesn’t
 Caesar begins reviewing petitions as Cassius worries that their plot has been discovered.
Brutus reassures him and insists they move forward as planned.
o They all plead with Caesar to revoke the banishment of Publius Cimber and use it
as an opportunity to get close to him, kneeling before him.
o Caesar refuses their requests and they continue to plead until Casca says, “Speak
hands for me” and stabs Caesar. The others follow suit stabbing Caesar and
Brutus is the last to stab him.
o Caesar says the famous line: “Et tu, Brute? – Then fall Caesar” and dies
 “Et tu, Brute” is Latin meaning “and you, Brutus?”
o Brutus tells the other people/senators in the capitol not to run away, that they only
intend to kill Caesar to halt his ambitions.
 They look for Antony but he has fled to his house.
 Brutus has them cover their arms and swords in Caesar’s blood so they can run through
the city proclaiming “peace, freedom and liberty”
 Antony sends a servant back with a message to Brutus
o The servant tells Brutus that Antony loves both Caesar and Brutus, though for
different reasons.
o Antony wants to come back, with Brutus’ promise of safety, and have them
convince him that Caesar had to die. If they can convince him he will honor
Brutus more than Caesar.
o Brutus promises that Antony won’t be harmed and wants to explain to him why
they killed Caesar
 Brutus believes he can convince Antony that Caesar’s death was necessary but Cassius is
still fearful of Antony.
 Antony returns, mourns Caesar and asks that if they intend to kill him they do it now
while their hands and swords are still stained with Caesar’s blood.
 Brutus tells Antony they don’t wish to kill him and that he still loved Caesar even as he
stabbed him. Cassius adds that Antony will have a vote equal to anyone else’s in the new
republic they intend to establish in Caesar’s place.
 Antony shakes hands with the conspirators, apologizes to Caesar for doing so, and tells
Cassius that he will join them under two conditions.
o The first is that they convince him that Caesar was dangerous
  Brutus responds to this saying that the act would have been savage without
the evidence and that he will explain it to Antony
o The second is that he be allowed to give Caesar a proper funeral and speak to the
citizens at it.
 Again, Brutus agrees but Cassius pulls Brutus aside because he feels this
is a bad idea – what if Antony convinces the crowd that they were wrong?
 Brutus says that he will speak first at the funeral to tell the public the
reasons that they killed Caesar and to explain that Antony speaks only
with their permission; he believes this will help their case.
o Brutus turns back to Antony, telling him to prepare the body for the funeral and
ordering that he not speak ill of the conspirators in his speech and that Brutus will
speak first.
 Antony agrees without hesitation.
 Antony is left alone with the body of Caesar
o He apologizes for being so nice to his murderers
o Then he predicts civil war and bloody battles for all of Italy in the wake of
Caesar’s death.
 In this prediction he says yet another famous line: “Cry ‘Havok!’ and
unleash the dogs of war”
 A servant of Octavius Caesar, Julius Caesar’s nephew, enters and speaks with Antony
o Caesar had sent for Octavius to come to Rome and now that he is on his way he
sent a servant ahead to deliver a message.
o Antony tells the servant to wait for Antony to give his funeral speech, in which he
will test the waters with the public, and then the servant can return to Octavius
and report what has happened to Caesar and how the public reacts.

Act III, Scene ii:

 The funeral begins and Brutus makes the first speech
o He asks the people to believe what he is about to say on his honor
o He says that he loved Caesar as much as any of his friends did and that his reason
for killing him was “not that [he] loved Caesar less, but that [he] loved Rome
more.”
o He asks if they would prefer Caesar to be alive so that they can all die as slaves or
for Caesar to be dead so they can all live as free men.
o He repeats that he loved Caesar but that he killed him because he was ambitious.
o He tells them that it is only someone who wants to be a slave and not a Roman,
someone who doesn’t love their country who will be offended by what he has
done and he waits for anyone to respond
 o They all reply no one is offended and Brutus says that the evidence of Caesar’s
ambition is in the capitol’s record; his glory has not been diminished and his
offenses have not been exaggerated.
o Antony brings out Caesar’s body and Brutus takes his leave saying that he killed
Caesar, his best friend, for the good of Rome and he will kill himself when his
country requires it.
 Antony takes the pulpit and makes his speech:
o The famous opening line: “Friends, Romans, Countrymen, lend me your ears; I
come to bury Caesar not to praise him.”
o Antony’s speech has a pattern: he says a few lines about how good Caesar was,
asks if that is ambition then repeats that Brutus says Caesar was ambitious and
Brutus is an honorable man.
 First it is that Caesar was his friend who was always faithful and just to
him; but Brutus says he was ambitious and Brutus is an honorable man
 He brought home captives to Rome from his many victorious campaigns
and filled the public treasuries with their ransoms. When the poor cried he
wept.
 He was presented with a crown 3 times and 3 times he refused
 Everyone once loved him and not without good reason
 Caesar’s word could have stood against the world but now he’s dead and
if Antony were to urge them to mutiny he would be wronging Brutus and
Cassius
 Notice that each time he repeats this pattern Antony refers to Brutus. This
is in part because Brutus is the one who spoke to the crowd first and said
that Caesar was ambitious. However, the same way that the conspirators
said they needed Brutus to join them and justify their cause in the eyes of
the public; Antony needs to tear down Brutus to expose the conspiracy as
a crime.
o He presents Caesar’s will and they ask him to read it but he says he cannot
because it isn’t right that they know how much Caesar loved them
o He says that hearing the will read will make them angry so it’s good they don’t
know that they are his heirs.
o Again the crowd demands to hear the will and again Antony refuses saying that he
doesn’t wish to wrong the honorable men
 The crowd quickly turns on Brutus and the conspirators, who they were
praising not long ago, now calling them traitors and villains.
o Antony steps down off the pulpit to show the crowd the body of Caesar, pointing
out where each person stabbed him, esp. Brutus as he calls that wound the
“unkindest cut of all”
 o The crowd is ready to avenge Caesar by burning through the town and killing the
conspirators but Antony asks them to stay
o Finally Antony reads the will:
 To every Roman man he gives 75 drachmas
 He leaves all his walkways, private arbors and new orchards to the public
as public gardens
 When Antony is done the crowd disperses ready to burn the homes of the conspirators
 Antony is pleased that he successfully planted the seed of mischief
 The servant returns and tells Antony that Octavius has entered Rome and is in Caesar’s
house and while he entered he saw Brutus and Cassius fleeing

Act III, Scene iii:

 Cinna the poet is on his way to Caesar’s funeral and he encounters the angry mob that
Antony incited.
 They question him and upon hearing his name decide to kill him
 He tells them he is Cinna the poet not Cinna the conspirator but they don’t care and they
kill him anyway

Things to think about:

 Caesar again ignores the warning of the soothsayer and doesn’t read Artemidorus’ letter.
At this point would it have even made a difference? If he had read the letter would he
have believed it?
 Why does Brutus have the conspirators cover their arms and swords in Caesar’s blood?
What is the purpose for the character? What is the purpose of this image in the play?
 Cassius is suspicious of Antony’s cooperation and fears what his speech might hold but
Brutus believes he has the situation well under control. Is Brutus taking on the over-
confident qualities of Caesar? Is this another echo of Caesar/Cassius saying they fear
Cassius/Antony and Antony/Brutus telling them not to worry? If it is, why does
Shakespeare do it again and why change the format this time?
 Make note of the sarcasm in Antony’s speech and the way he manipulates the crowd.
 Antony says he isn’t a good speaker like Brutus is, was that a lie? If it is a lie, what’s the
purpose?
 Would the crowd have become an angry mod without the will? Was the rest of Antony’s
speech enough to incite mutiny and the will was just bonus or was the will what puts the
argument over the edge?
 What does the final scene of the act say about Rome? Was this Antony’s plan all along?
 End of the Aristotelian Tragedy: As Caesar goes to senate and both the Soothsayer and
Artimedorus attempt to warn him the tension continues to build. Cassius is nervous which
contributes to the audience’s sense of nervousness. As the conspirators move closer and
closer to Caesar the scene becomes more claustrophobic and the tension reaches its peak.
 With the first stab the tension hits its highest point and when Caesar says his last words
and dies the tension is released and we have catharsis.

Act IV, Scene i:

 The scene opens with Octavius, Lepidus and Antony deciding which of their enemies will
be put to death and thinking of ways to cheat the people of Rome out of what Caesar left
them in his will
o The same will Antony used in his speech to convince the people to turn on Brutus
and the other conspirators he now suggests they find ways to work around
o Lepidus agrees to have his brother killed and Antony to have his nephew killed
 When Lepidus leaves we see that Antony is already thinking of how they will knock him
down once he is no longer useful to them
 We also find out that Brutus and Cassius, who fled Rome in the previous act, are now
raising armies to fight against Octavius and Antony. Antony suggests they do the same.

Act IV, Scene ii:

 Now we see Brutus’ camp in Sardis.
 Cassius and his army are approaching and he sent Pindarus ahead to greet Brutus.
 Brutus has become uncertain of his friendship with Cassius and is questioning the things
they have done.
 The first thing Cassius says to Brutus is that Brutus has somehow wronged him.
o Note that just as Brutus was questioning their friendship, Cassius no longer
speaks to Brutus as warmly as he did before the conspiracy.
o Brutus doesn’t want to argue in front of the armies so they send everyone except 2
guards away from Brutus’ tent where they enter to speak.

Act IV, Scene iii:

 Cassius begins by telling Brutus that he has wronged him by not listening to his letters in
defense of a man, Lucius Pella, who was condemned and disgraced for taking bribes.
o Brutus responds saying that Cassius wrongs himself by siding with such a man
and then indirectly accuses him of greed and corruption. He tells Cassius it is
because he is Cassius that he hasn’t been punished.
 Cassius is offended by the accusation but Brutus quickly brings the argument to March
15th, the day they killed Caesar. He is now questioning if they killed him for justice. If it
was for justice then they can’t disgrace themselves, and their cause, by siding with
robbers.
o A robber here likely refers both to the greed and bribe-taking spoken of before but
more importantly to robbers of freedom.
o Cassius has had enough and threatens Brutus not to push him but Brutus doesn’t
back down.
  We find out that Brutus is angry with Cassius because he asked him for money to pay his
soldiers with, because he refuses to use dishonorable means to get the money, and
Cassius refused to help him.
 The argument comes to a head when Cassius offers Brutus his dagger and asks him to kill
him as he killed Caesar.
o Brutus refuses and the two apologize to each other
o A poet bursts in to get them to be friends again but they send him away, and have
him tell the armies to camp for the night and send for Messala.
 Next we find out that Brutus’ wife, Portia, has killed herself because she was sick with
worry.
 Messala arrives and they discuss Octavius and Antony’s army that is closing in on them.
 Messala also informs them that Octavius, Antony and Lepidus have put hundreds of
senators to death
 They then discuss whether it is better to go meet Octavius’ army or to stay and wait for
them
o Cassius wants to wait, so that while Octavius’ army will be tired from the journey
theirs will be rested and ready for battle
o Brutus thinks they should march and meet Octavius at Philippi.
 The people between them and Philippi, who they have forced into
submission, will greet Octavius as a liberator and join his ranks and Brutus
wants to prevent this by moving forward.
 He also believes that their armies are as big as they are going to get
whereas Octavius’ will continue to grow so they must battle while their
numbers are at their highest before Octavius has a chance to out-number
them.
o Cassius agrees to leave for battle in the morning and the men disperse to rest
 When everyone else falls asleep Brutus is visited by the ghost of Caesar who tells him
that he will see him again at Philippi
o After the ghost leaves Brutus wakes the others to see if they heard the ghost

Things to think about:

 Antony and Octavius have joined forces with Lepidus but Antony is already preparing to
betray him. What does this say about Antony? About Rome? What is Shakespeare telling
us here?
 Why has Brutus and Cassius’ relationship disintegrated so much?
 We see Portia twice in the play, when she questions Brutus and when she is waiting to
find out how the murder went, and now we find out she died. What was the purpose of
her character?
 What does Caesar’s ghost represent? Why does it show up just to tell Brutus they will
meet in Philippi?
  Also note that Octavius, historically, considered himself a savior of the republic. Rome
had a provision to give someone kingly power in special situations.

Act V, Scene i:
 Octavius and Antony are discussing Brutus and Cassius’ decision to march on Philippi.
 A messenger comes and tells them to prepare since the enemy is descending
 Antony tells Octavius to lead his forces to the left but Octavius says he will go to the
right and for Antony to go to the left.
 Brutus and Cassius take Octavius and Antony’s not moving to mean they want to talk and
head forward to do so. Octavius asks if they should signal their forces to attack but
Antony says they should wait for them to charge first. Seeing Brutus and Cassius
approaching alone to talk Antony suggests they go meet them
 The four men meet and exchange words.
 Octavius and Antony walk away daring Brutus and Cassius to charge.
 Cassius tells Messala that it’s his birthday and compares himself to Pompey
 Cassius also tells Messala that he didn’t used to believe in omens but has partly changed
his mind. He then describes the birds that fly over head.
o While marching to Philippi they were accompanied by 2 eagles but they have now
left
o Now overhead are crows, ravens and kites – all birds associated with death
 Cassius asks Brutus what he plans to do if they lose this battle
o Brutus says that he finds suicide to be cowardly so he will submit to what the
gods decide but he also says he will not allow himself to be lead through the
streets of Rome in chains

Act V, Scene ii:

 The battle has begun and while Cassius’ army battles Antony’s forces Brutus’ army
fights Octavius’ forces.
 Brutus is sending Messala to bring orders to Cassius’ army
 He believes he spotted a lack of fighting spirit in Octavius’ forces and that a sudden
attack would defeat them.

Act V, Scene iii:

 Cassius’ men have started to mutiny as defeat by Antony’s forces seems imminent
 Titinius believes that Brutus gave the order to move in too soon
 Pindarus comes to tell Cassius to retreat further because Antony has entered his camp and
will soon reach him.
 Cassius refuses to retreat further and sends Titinius to see if some troops in the distance
are allies or enemies.
 o Pindarus sees Titinius surrounded by men and then dismount his horse so he
reports to Cassius that Titinius has been captured.
 Cassius gives his sword, the same one he used to stab Caesar, to Pindarus and asks
Pindarus to kill him
 Pindarus stabs Cassius and before dying Cassius says that Caesar is avenged by the same
blade that killed him
 We then discover that Titinius wasn’t captured by the enemy, he is with Messala who is
telling him that the armies have changed places because Brutus overtook Octavius’ forces
just as Cassius’ army was defeated by Antony
 Titinius and Messala discover Cassius is dead and Titinius looks for Pindarus while
Messala goes to tell Brutus what has happened.
 Titinius places the wreath that Brutus sent for Cassius on Cassius’ head and then takes
Cassius’ sword and kills himself
 Brutus then arrives to find the bodies of Cassius and Titinius

Act V, Scene iv:

 Antony’s soldiers kill Cato and capture Lucilius who is pretending to be Brutus.
 Antony arrives and discovers that it isn’t Brutus.
o Lucilius says that Brutus will not be captured. He says that when Brutus is found,
be it alive or dead, it will be on his own terms.
o Antony tells the soldiers to keep Lucilius alive and treat him well.

Act V, Scene v:
 Brutus is asking the last of his men to kill him.
o We don’t actually know what he asked Clitus, but can presume it to be the same
as the others
o Dardanius says Brutus asked that he kill him
o We hear Brutus ask Volumnius to hold his sword while he runs on it.
 This sounds more like he’s asking for help committing suicide. Did he ask
Dardanius something different or does Dardanius consider this not to be
suicide on Brutus’ part but killing on the part of the sword holder?
 Antony is approaching so the men ask Brutus to run. Brutus has them go ahead saying
that he will catch up.
o He asks Strato to stay and then makes the same request he did of the others.
o Strato holds the sword and Brutus runs on it and before dying says he didn’t kill
Caesar half as willingly.
 Octavius and Antony arrive to find Brutus dead.
o Antony remarks that Brutus was the only conspirator that was noble and acted for
the general good rather than jealousy.
 o Octavius says Brutus will receive all the burial rites due to an honorable and
virtuous man.

Things to think about:

 When Octavius, Antony, Cassius and Brutus meet, what is the purpose of their exchange?
 Brutus finds suicide cowardly but refuses to be brought to Rome in chains. In Act III,
Scene ii he said that he would take his own life when his country required it. If suicide is
cowardly, why did he make that claim earlier? If he intended to follow through with the
promise to kill himself when his country demanded it, then why wait until now?
 In Act I Scene iii Cassius said he would kill himself if Caesar became king but now he
won’t kill himself and asks Pindarus to do it for him, why?
 Antony keeps Lucilius alive, saying he’d rather have such men as friends then enemies,
what is it about Lucilius that makes Antony respond as he does?
 Brutus tells Volumnius that he has seen Caesar’s ghost twice, once in Sardis and once in
Philippi, but we only got to witness one of these encounters. Why don’t we get a scene
with the second? What might have happened during that second encounter? What
purpose did the ghost serve?
 How does Brutus’ death differ from that of Cassius? Why does Shakespeare make such a
subtle yet significant difference?
 Note that there is a second arc of Aristotelian tragedy in the play. For the first part of the
story you are meant to feel pity and fear for Caesar but in the second half you feel these
for Brutus. He is driven from Rome when Antony’s speech betrays him. The next time
we see him he is no longer on good terms with Cassius and has regrets about what
they’ve done. His wife has committed suicide and he is being haunted by Caesar’s ghost.
The birds switching for those associated with victory to those associated with death adds
to this further. When Cassius is defeated we get the sense that there isn’t much hope left
for Brutus. Finally, we see Brutus ask for help killing himself and as he dies we again
experience catharsis. You can also interpret Brutus as being the character you are meant
to pity and fear from the beginning in which case his conversations with Cassius, the fake
letters being sent to him, his discussion with Portia, his agreeing to the conspiracy and
Caesar’s last words would all be adding tension as well.