ECONOMIC MINERAL DEPOSITS ALAN M. BATEMAN Silliman Professor of Geology, Yale University Editor, Economic Geology Second Edition JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc. New York *° LondonCopyrrarm, 1942, 1950 By Atay M. Bareman All Rights Reserved This book or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without the written permission of the publisher. SECOND EDITION Highth Printing, December, 1959 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICAPREFACE The first edition of this book appeared at the end of 1942. Since that time war and post-war readjustment has forcibly demonstrated the extent to which the materials of the mineral kingdom constitute the backbone of industrial life and peace-time economic development of nations. Former bountiful supplies now show serious depletion, and nations of the world are looking farther and farther afield for those miieral supplies necessary to their subsistence. This book deals with’ such mineral deposits, how they are formed, what they are, how and where they occur, and what they are used for. Its chief purpose is as a textbook, designed both for elementary and more advanced courses. The first edition was in demand also as a source of informa- tion to all those interested in mineral deposits and in the mineral industry. The organization of the first edition has been retained. The book is divided into three parts: (I) Principles and Processes, (II) Ore Deposits, and (III) Nonmetallic Mineral Deposits. Each part can be used separately or conjointly. The heart of the book is devoted to the principles and processes of formation of mineral deposits (Part I), and the results of these processes are exemplified in the occurrences described in Parts II and III. For advanced courses Part I can be expanded with contemporaneous collateral assignments chosen from Parts II and III along with other selected readings. The use of the book presupposes some knowledge of general geology and mineralogy. The treatment of mineral deposits according to processes of forma- tion instead of by a classification of mineral deposits is again followed in this edition. In the author's experience it is more satisfactory from the standpoint of the student and of the field worker as well as for practical considerations of ore finding. Increasing population and increasing mechanization, both in the home and in industry, are making greater and greater demands upon mineral resources and are requiring more scientific methods of exploration for new deposits to replace those being depleted. It is hoped that this book may provide funda- mental knowledge for such purposes. For this the author has drawn largely upon his own field studies in many countries of the world, and a large*number of the descriptions of the mineral deposits are based upon personal knowledge. viiviii PREFACE In this edition, as in the former one, magmatic deposits are treated in new detail, as are oxidation and supergene enrichment. Consider- able space is devoted to mineral deposits that arise from evaporation and sedimentation; and metamorphism is assigned a place in mineral formation. The chapter on ground water is retained. Statistics are eliminated, in general. In this revision, the greatest changes have been in Part I. The subchapter on contact metasomatism has had numerous changes, and the term “contact metasomatism” has replaced “ contact metamor- phism.” The former subchapters on replacement and cavity filling have been consolidated under hydrothermal processes, with a new preliminary discussion of hydrothermal processes fundamental to both cavity filling and replacement. The included sections have been much revised and consolidated. The subchapter on sedimentation has been completely rewritten, and much of the material formerly included has been transferred to Parts II and III. ‘The subchapters on residual concentration and mechanical concentration have been consolidated into one subchapter with a preliminary treatment of principles applicable to both. Each of the other chapters has undergone con- siderable revision for purposes of betterment and to bring the subject matter up to date. The war years brought many new mineral develop- ments and changes, and these have been incorporated. In response to many requests, the selected references at the end of each chapter have been expanded to a total of 41 pages, covering up to the end of 1949. Many new illustrations are included. For the material presented in this book the author has drawn upon his own field, teaching, government, and editorial experience, and he gratefully acknowledges the heritage of learning of those who have preceded him and of his contemporaries. Since footnotes are omitted, acknowledgments lacking in the text are here recorded with pleasure. His thanks are also due for permission for the use of illustrations, and to those who kindly sent in suggestions for changes. ‘Yaue Universiry April, 1960CONTENTS cuAPrER PART I. PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 1. Introduction 2. Brief History of the Use of Minerals and of the Develop- ment of Economie Geology 3. Materials of Mineral Deposits and Their Formation Materials, 19; Formation of Minerals, 27 ; Stability of Minerals, 85; Geologic Thermometers, 36 4. Magmas, Rocks, and Mineral Deposits Magmas and Differentiation, 46; Emanations, 56; Magmas and Mineral Deposits, 60 5. Processes of Formation of Mineral Deposits 5:1 Magmatic Concentration, 70; 5-2 Sublimation, 88 ; 68 Con- tact Metasomatism, 82; 5-4 Hydrothermal Processes, 94; Cavity Filling, 107; Replacement, 187; 5-5 Sedimentation, 163; 5-6 Evaporation, 183; 5-7 Residual and Mechanical Con- centration, 201; Residual Concentration, 204; Mechanical Concentration, 227; 58 Oxidation and Supergene Enrichment, 245; 59 Metamorphism, 289; 5-10 Summary of Origin of Mineral Deposits, 300 6. Controls of Mineral Localization Structural Controls, 303; Stratigraphic, 305; Physical and Chemical, $07; Igneous Rocks, 309; Zonal Distribution, 814; Metallogenetic Epochs and Provinces, 816 7. Folding and Faulting of Mineral Deposits Folding, 387; Faulting, 888 8. Classifications of Mineral Deposits 9. Resources, International Relations, and Conservation in Minerals 10. Geophysical Prospecting, Exploration, Development, and Valuation of Mineral Properties * Areal, 876; Geophysical, 377; Exploration and Development, 398 ix PAGE 18 68 303 327 355, 366 376x CONTENTS CHAPTER a 12. 13. 14. 15. Extraction of Metals and Minerals Mining, 398; Milling, 410; Smelting, 414; Refining, 414 PART II. METALLIC MINERAL DEPOSITS The Precious Metals Gold, 419; Silver, 45; Platinum, 475 ‘The Nonferrous Metals Copper, 481; Lead and Zine, 627; Tin, 546; Aluminum, 558 Tron and Ferroalloy Metals Iron, 561; Manganese, 578; Nickel, 586; Chromium, 591; Molybdenum, 595; Tungsten, 598; Vanadium, 603; Cobalt, 606 Minor Metals and Related Nonmetals Antimony, 607; Arsenic, 609; Beryllium, 610; Bismuth, 611; Cadmium, 612; Magnesium, 618; Mercury, 614; Radium and Uranium, 619; Selenium and Tellurium, 621; Tantalum and Columbium, 622; Titanium, 628; Zirconium, 626; Miscel- laneous, 627 PART III. NONMETALLIC MINERAL DEPOSITS Classification of Nonmetallic Minerals 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. The Mineral Fuels Coal, 634; Petroleum and Gas, 652; Associates, 693 Ceramic Materials Clay, 696; Feldspar, 706; Others, 708 Structural and Building Materials Building, Roofing and Crushed Stone, 711; Hydraulic Cements, 17; Sand and Gravel, 719; Gypsum, 720; Lime, 722; Mag- nesite, 728; Mineral Pigments, 726; Heat and Sound Insula- tors, 729; Asphalt and Native Bitumens, 732 Metallurgical and Refractory Materials Fluorspar, 734; Cryolite, 798; Graphite, 738; Refractories, 48; Foundry Sands, 747; Limestone and Lime, 747; Others, 148 Industrial and Manufacturing Materials Asbestos, 749; Mica, 756; Talc, 758; Barite and Witheritg, 761; Glass Sands, 763; Mineral Fillers, 765; Mineral Filters, 766; Fuller’s Earth or Bleaching Clay, 768; Optical Crystals, 173 PAGE 398 419 481 607 631 634 696 711 734 749cual 21 22, 23. 25. CONTENTS PTER Chemical Minerals Salt and Brines, 776; Borax and Borates, 780; Sodium Com- pounds, 783; Calcium and Magnesium Chloride, 785; Bromine and Iodine, 786; Potash, 787; Sulphur, 788; Nitrates and Nitrogen, 793; Lithium, 794; Strontium, 795; Miscellaneous, 796 Fertilizer Minerals Potash, 801; Nitrates, 809; Phosphates, 812; Limestone and Lime, 818; Sulphur, 819 Abrasives and Abrasive Minerals Diamonds, 828; Corundum, 824; Emery, 886; Garnet, 826; Natural Silica, 827; Miscellaneous, 881; Manufactured, 832 Gemstones Diamond, 837; Ruby and Sapphire, 847; Emerald and Beryl, 848; Opal, 849; Jade, 850; Quartz Gemstones, 851; Others, 852 Ground-Water Supplies Principles, 855; Supplies, 864; Ground-Water Areas, 868 GuneraL REFERENCES oN Economic GEoLocy InvEx, xi PAGE 776 821 834 855, 874 877CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Economic geology deals with the materials of the mineral kingdom that man wrests from the earth for his necessities of life and comfort. The search for them has given rise to voyages of discovery and settle- ment of new lands; their ownership has resulted in commercial or political supremacy or has caused strife and war. In the quest for these mineral substances knowledge of their distribution, character, occurrence, and uses has gradually accumulated, and this knowledge has led to theories regarding their origin. Thus, the subject of mineral deposits developed and as such was taught as one phase of mining in the early mining schools. As greater attention was paid to the rocks that enclosed the ore deposits, to deciphering their character, structure, and origin, and to the land forms developed upon the rocks, the broader seience of geology gradually arose. Today economic geology is a separate branch of geology, as are mineralogy, petrology, paleontology and stratigraphy, structural geology, and physiography or geomor- phology. The future of our mineral industry, which is basic to the national economy, rests largely upon the functioning of economic geology for a continued supply of materials, As C. K. Leith expresses it, With the advent of the industrial revolution in England, a century ago, began the real exploitation of earth materials in a way to influence essentially our material civilization. In this short time, at an ever accelerating rate, minerals have become the fundamental basis of industrialism ... In these hundred years the production of pig iron has increased 100-fold, of mineral fuels 75-fold, and of copper, 63-fold. Those countries abundantly supplied with mineral resources became the great industrial nations, and the insatiable demand for minerals to sustain industrialized life has caused the world to dig and consume more minerals within the period embracing the two world wars than in all previous history. Former adequate sources of supply are beginning to look small, and large sources are becoming fewer. This alarming consumption of our mineral resources and the exhaus- tion of own reserves means that new supplies must be discovered to take their place if the industry is to persist unimpaired. With waning 12 INTRODUCTION [Ch. 1 discovery of obvious mineral outerops, search must be directed to the less obvious deposits, of which vast numbers must be hidden by the ubiquitous overburden. Every art of geology must be employed to this end, and it promises to become the important work of the economic geologist. In this connection the petroleum geologist has already made an enviable record in the adaptation of geophysical methods and instru- ments to the discovery of petroleum. The scope of economic geology includes not only metallic ore deposits but the broader field of nonmetallics, whose value today is three times that of the metallic ores. In addition, it includes the general application of geology to the uses of man. Thus, it deals with practical problems of the industries and arts, the occurrence of sub- surface waters and soils, and the application of geologic principles to important engineering projects. The construction of any large dam, for example, involves questions of the suitability of the foundation rock, of leakage, of subsurface water flow, and of the character and resources of materials that enter into its construction. The subject of economic geology is related also to geography and economics, since it furnishes information regarding the geographic distribution and resources of the earth materials that are the foundation of the extrac- tive industries. The early kinship with mining, and metal mining in particular, with which economic geology grew up, has persisted, and there is now a specialized subdivision of economic geology known as mining geology which deals especially with the problems of ore deposits and their relation to metal mining and, to some extent, with metallurgy. This relation may be understood better by considering that the desired metals are locked up in ore minerals, which are admixed with undesired minerals or rock to form ores, and their separation involves the art of metallurgy; the extraction of ores from the ground falls within the realm of mining; and the study of the occurrence, localization, and origin of these ores and their relation to the enclosing rock is the domain of mining geology. The mining geologist functions early in mining operations when he is called upon to determine the probable shape, size, and value of mineral deposits, and particularly their exten- sions with depth. In addition, he cooperates with the mining engineer during mining operations in the exploration and development of min- eral deposits, in finding faulted bodies and in other ways helping to maintain ore reserves, and in the proper location of mine workings to avoid caving ground. In the future he will be called upon more and more to apply geology to mineral finding in districts of waning mines. His knowledge is sought also by the metallurgist to help solve prob-INTRODUCTION 3 Jems of ore and metal extraction and to obtain suitable ore mixtures for economical smelting. Another important subdivision of economic geology is petroleum geology. It deals specifically with the many problems of the location, occurrence, migration, and origin of petroleum and gas. The petro- leum geologist is called upon to determine probable oil-containing formations, to unravel their structure by geological or geophysical methods, and to locate prospecting wells. For this purpose he invokes a knowledge of structural geology, stratigraphy, paleontology, and the occurrence of petroleum. ‘These examples indicate the broad scope of economic geology. Since it deals with the basic materials underlying the extractive industries, its problems are intertwined with those of diverse industries. It enters into phases of transportation, international trade, and engineering. It also embraces many interesting scientific problems in its own field in which intellectual curiosity plays a greater part than utilitarian prob- lems. The problems of the genesis of different mineral deposits hold opportunity for long-continued research. Only certain phases of the broad field of economic geology are covered in this book, which confines itself largely to mineral deposits and the principles underlying their occurrence and formation. The technology of extraction (mining) and treatment (ore dressing and metallurgy) of the mineral substances are not considered in detail, and little space is given to statistics. Also the geological features of other than mineral deposits is beyond the scope of this book. The mineral substances are not followed far into industry save to indicate their uses. Of the great variety of mineral substances won from the earth for the uses of man, coal is the most valuable, followed by metallic min- erals, petroleum and natural gas, and other nonmetallic substances such as clay and gypsum. For ease in study and ready reference, these materials are divided in this book into two parts: metalliferous deposits, such as gold, copper, iron, or nickel (Part II); and nonmetallic substances, such as coal, clay, petroleum, or gemstones (Part III). The metalliferous deposits, or ore deposits, are sought for the metals they contain, which are extracted generally in the metallic state. These deposits are sub- divided according to the individual metals. Typical examples are described in order that their content, occurrence, and origin may be studied. The nonmetallic, or earthy substances, on the other hand, are notegenerally desired for their content of metal but are utilized principally, after suitable processing, in the form in which they are extracted. For example, clay is not mined for its aluminum content or4 INTRODUCTION [Ch.1 asbestos for its magnesium; but clay is used as a compound in making porcelain or pottery, and asbestos is used as the mineral asbestos. Their physical properties, more than their chemical, for the most part determine their utilization, Both graphite and diamond, for example, consist of carbon, but neither is desired for its carbon content. It is their physical properties that make one a coveted gem and the other a heat- and chemical-resisting substance desired for metallurgical pur- poses. There are so many utilized nonmetallic substances of such diverse character and origin that they defy simple classification. For the pur- pose of this book, however, they are grouped according to their impor- tant uses, as, for example, under mineral fuels, ceramic materials, or metallurgical materials. Such an arrangement offers the advantage, for an introductory book, of assembling many diversified materials that have common use under well-known utilitarian groups susceptible of ready reference for both the student of geology and the interested reader. The mode of occurrence and what constitutes workable deposits of these materials will be described under each group. Economie mineral deposits are geologic bodies that may be worked for one or more minerals or metals. They are exceptional features, sparsely scattered in the rocks or on the earth’s surface; they con- stitute only an infinitesimal part of the earth’s crust, but they assume an importance far in excess of their relative volume because of the highly valuable materials they supply to national wealth and industry. They have been concentrated in the rocks under peculiar and excep- tional conditions, which it will be our purpose to study. No two min- eral deposits are alike in all respects; nevertheless, certain broad prin- ciples control their formation, To understand properly how a gold vein or clay deposit has been formed it is necessary to understand first the constitution of mineral deposits and the processes that operate within and upon the earth to form them. Consequently, Part I of this volume is devoted primarily to a general consideration of the principles and processes of the formation of mineral deposits. General references are found at the end of the book. Selected ref- erences are found at the end of each chapter.CHAPTER 2 BRIEF HISTORY OF THE USE OF MINERALS AND OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGY Ancient Times Economic geology probably had its inception with the ancient utili- zation of mineral products. Long ages must have passed, however, before the early crude knowledge became a craft, later to develop into a science. The early incentive for the acquisition of such knowledge was undoubtedly utilitarian, but later it was raised to an intellectual plane by the Greek philosophers. The first earth materials used by primitive man were nonmetallic substances — flint, chert, quartz, and certain hard and soft stones such as quartzite, soapstone, or limestone — sought for their use in weapons, implements, utensils, and for carving. Clay was widely and exten- sively used, first for pottery and later for bricks. Unquestionably clay represents the first large-scale mineral industry, an industry that has persisted continuously through the ages. Burned clay figures believed to be Aurignacian (30,000-20,000 x.c.) have been discovered in Moravia, and excellent Paleolithic pottery of the Solutrean period (+ 10,000 .c.) has been found in Egypt. Brick, tile, and clay tablets were extensively used by the Chaldeans, Babylonians, and early Egyp- tians for building their cities, for irrigation, and for writing materials. The early Asiatic and African dwellings were built with bricks made of clay. Later, building stones were extensively used. During the build- ing of the pyramids (2980-2925 3.0.) this extractive industry must have been on a grand scale, as the Pyramid of Gizch contains 2,300,000 blocks of stone averaging 214 tons apiece. Paleolithic man between 100,000 and 7000 B.c., according to 8, H. Ball, used 13 varieties of minerals — chalcedony, quartz, rock crystal, serpentine, obsidian, pyrite, jasper, steatite, amber, jadeite, calcite, amethyst, and fluorspar. He also utilized ochers or mineral paints. At about the time Neolithic man became acquainted with gold and copper, he also used nephrite, sillimanite, and turquois. These non- metallio materials are mostly common substances that probably were found by accident and whose quest neither greatly stimulated human 56 BRIEF HISTORY OF THE USE OF MINERALS [Ch. 2 curiosity nor created specialized knowledge regarding their occurrence. They were accepted as found, and utilized. Economic geology had not yet arisen; it was the pre-dawn stage. Eoyprtan, Greex, anp Reratep Cunrures ‘As the desire for gemstones and metals became more urgent, how- ever, economic geology probably had its inception. Facts of occur- rence were noted and recorded; crude theories of origin were evolved; expeditions were organized for the discovery and exploitation of deposits; and ownership and barter of these substances became an important part of the life of the people, even more important relatively than it is today. The use of gemstones and the mining of them reached a high art among the early Egyptians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and Indians, Gemstones were greatly prized, and, living or dead, the Egyptian was bedecked with jewels, which attained important sig- nificance among a people obsessed with mysticism. In pre-Dynastic times (+ 3400 p.c.), it was the color rather than the substance that the Egyptian prized most. The Theban craftsmen created pleasing color schemes, utilizing the azure of the lapis lazuli, the red of the carnelian, the purple of the amethyst, the green of the malachite, the yellow of the jasper, and the blue of the turquois. He also used agate, beryl, chaleedony, and garnet and shaped and polished hard stones, producing not only ovoid but also faceted beads. All these stones ex- cept lapis have come from Egypt itself. Even in those remote times there must have been international barter, since the lapis was probably obtained from Afghanistan, some 2,400 miles away. According to Ball, other stones are known to have appeared, such as onyx in the 2nd Dynasty; azurite and jade in the 3rd Dynasty; and amber in the 6th Dynasty (2625-2475 p.c.). The stele of Nebona (18th Dynasty) reads: “I have consecrated numerous gifts in the temple of my father Osiris in silver in gold in lapis lazuli in copper and in precious stones.” (Ball.) Later, under Greek influence, in the time of the Ptolemies, several other stones were introduced, including some Indian gems, such as sapphire, zircon, and topaz. The oldest form of mining was for gems and decorative stones, and for over 2,000 years the Pharaohs dispatched expeditions including engineers and prospectors to the Sinai Peninsula for turquois, and into the Sudan. Ball identifies as the first economic geologist the Egyp- tian, Captain Haroeris, who about 2000 x.c. led an expedition to Sinai and after 3 months’ prospecting discovered and extracted largeaquanti~ ties of turquois. The ancient Egyptians (from 1925 ».c.) sank hun- dreds of shafts for emeralds on the Egyptian coast of the Red Sea;EGYPTIAN, GREEK, AND RELATED CULTURES 7 cer’ .in workings are said to have been 800 feet deep and sufficiently large to permit 400 men to work at a time therein. (Ball.) The first metals used were probably gathered as native metals from streams by primitive man. Gold is presumed to have been used before copper, and copper is considered by some to have been discovered 18,000 years before Christ; certainly copper was known to the Egyp- tians in 12,000 p.c. and was widely used in Europe about 4000 n.c. Strabo tells us that “in the country of Saones, where is Colchis, the winter torrents bring down gold which the barbarians collect in troughs pierced with holes and lined with fleeces.” Hence the legend of the Golden Fleece. Such fleeces, hung on the trees to dry so that the fine gold could be beaten out of them, spurred Jason and the Argonauts in the ship Argo to seek the Golden Fleece near the shore of the uxine. - This is the earliest record of placer gold mining and a poetic expression of an early mining adventure. Even today somewhat similar methods “are utilized to extract fine placer gold in South America. At the ancient mines of Cassandra, Greece, which Sagui estimates to have been mined from about 2500 to 356 n.c., the skillful extraction of the gold-silver ores was based upon a knowledge of their localiza- tion at the intersections of fissures, toward which tunnels were run below the oxidized zones. Also, the complications of faulting were sufficiently understood to trace the displaced end of a lode beyond an important fault. A beginning had been made in understanding the occurrence of ores. ‘A knowledge of the occurrence of ores and the beginning of curiosity regarding their genesis is shown in the writings of the Greek and Roman philosophers. Herodotus (484?-425 z.c.) told of the occurrence of gold in quartz veins in the Krissites district, Greece, later described by Diodorus. Theophrastus (372-287 B.c.), a pupil of Aristotle, in his Book of Stones, the first mineralogy textbook, described 16 min- erals, grouped as metals, stones, and earths. Strabo, writing in a. 19, says in reference to alluvial mining in Spain: “Gold is not only dug from mines, but likewise collected; sand containing gold being washed down by the rivers and torrents . . . at the present day more gold is produced by washing than by digging it from the mines.” (H. C. Hamilton and W. Falconer.) Many descriptions of ore occur- rences in Spain are given in Pliny’s elaborate technical descriptions. He also tells us that Hannibal had a silver mine, named the Baebulo, in southern Spain, in a mountain that had been penetrated 1,500 paces. Pliny said it yielded 300 pounds of silver daily. The production of silver-lead ores was an important industry in Attica at a remote period, the famous mines of Laurium having been worked long before the8 BRIEF HISTORY OF THE USE OF MINERALS [Ch. 2 days of Xenophon, who wrote a report upon them in 365 8.0. The ancients sank here more than 2,000 shafts, one of which is 386 feet deep, and their locations disclose an accurate knowledge of the occur- rence of the ores. Throughout the Dark Ages little appears to have ‘Quid Medici poffiae manibus quasiungere plagas Viceribus fordes.figna mouere loco? Exncit hic folus qui pondera, vifcera Terce ‘Rumatus, nobis hella metallafodir Gurgius poe Fra. 2-1, Portrait and signature of Agricola. (From Hofmann; Adams.) been added to the knowledge of the early philosophers, except by Avicenna (980-1037), the Arabian translator of Aristotle, who grouped minerals as Stones, Sulphur minerals, Metals, and Salts (Crook), thus definitely recognizing the sulphide group of minerals. Commencement of the Scientific Eras The first reasonable theory of ore gencsis was formulated by Georgius Agricola (Bauer) (1494-1555). Born in Saxony arpidst the mines of the Erzgebirge, he became a keen observer of minerals and a careful recorder (Fig. 2-1). Although some of his views were fan-