Long-Term Stability Characteristics of a Lime-Treated

Plastic Soil
S. A. A. Khattab1; M. Al-Mukhtar2; and J.-M. Fleureau3

Abstract: There are several questions that are not well understood with respect to the long-term stability characteristics of lime-treated
expansive soils in spite of being used as a conventional technique to improve the properties of expansive soils. This paper examines the
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Engenharia Biblioteca on 03/16/17. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

long-term stability characteristics of FoCa bentonite soil 共FoCa represents the first two letters of the two towns between which this type
of soil is excavated: Fourgues and Cahaignes兲 using 4% lime treatment. The long-term stability characteristics referred to as durability in
the paper were interpreted taking into account the influence of wetting–drying and freezing-thawing cycles on key engineering properties
which include swelling and strength behavior of both untreated and lime-treated FoCa. In addition, leaching tests were carried out to study
the Ca2+ions and pH concentration changes of the percolating water from both treated and untreated compacted expansive soil specimens
analyze the permanence of the clay treatment. Finally, to highlight the changes induced in the texture of the material, pore size volume and
distribution were investigated by mercury intrusion tests.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲0899-1561共2007兲19:4共358兲
CE Database subject headings: Expansive soils; Durability; Leaching; Lime; Soil stabilization; Plasticity.

Introduction 1989; Khattab et al. 2001兲. These reactions contribute to miner-

Several problems are commonly encountered when lightly loaded
structures such as roads, railways, and buildings are constructed
on expansive soils. The majority of expansive soils are typically
medium to highly plastic soils 共i.e., CL to CH兲 with swelling
pressure values in the range of 50– 500 kPa and swell potential in
the range of 2–20% 共Williams and Donaldson 1980兲. Lime treat-
ment or stabilization has been conventionally used in engineering
practice to improve the strength and workability characteristics
and decrease the swelling potential of expansive soils 共Metcalf
1977; Bell 1996; Little 1995, 1996; Khattab et al. 2000; Lopez-
Lara and Castano 2001兲. In addition, lime treatment is one of the
most economical techniques to improve the engineering behavior
of expansive soils.
Typically, lime addition to expansive soils initiates four types
of reactions between lime and the silicate and aluminate constitu-
ents of the expansive clay. These are flocculation, cation ex-
change, carbonation, and pozzolanic reaction 共Arabi and Wild
1
Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, College of
Engineering, Mosul Univ., Al-Majmooah St., Mosul, Iraq. E-mail:
suhailkhattab@yahoo.com
2
Professor, Centre de Recherches sur la Matière Divisée, CNRS-
CRMD UMR6619, Univ. d’Orléans, Ecole Polytechnique de l’Université
d’Orléans, 1 bis rue de la Férollerie, 45071 Orleans Cedex 2, France.
E-mail: muzahim@cnrs-orleans.fr
3
Professor, Laboratoire de Mécanique, Ecole Centrale Paris and
CNRS UMR 8579, Grande voie des vignes, 92295 Châtenay-Malabry
Cedex, France. E-mail: fleureau@mssmat.ecp.fr
Note. Associate Editor: Carl Liu. Discussion open until September 1,
2007. Separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers. To
extend the closing date by one month, a written request must be filed with
the ASCE Managing Editor. The manuscript for this paper was submitted
for review and possible publication on March 11, 2005; approved on May
4, 2006. This paper is part of the Journal of Materials in Civil Engi-
neering, Vol. 19, No. 4, April 1, 2007. ©ASCE, ISSN 0899-1561/2007/
4-358–366/$25.00.
alogical and microstructural changes in the treated or stabilized
soils. Due to this reason, lime-treated expansive soil behavior is
significantly different from natural or untreated expansive soils.
The pozzolanic reaction has significant influence particularly on
the expansive soil behavior. This reaction needs a considerable
period of time and needs a highly alkaline environment 共i.e.,
pH艌 12.4兲 which is achieved by the addition of an optimum
amount of lime 共Eades and Grim 1966; Hill and Davidson 1960兲.
The alkaline environment is responsible for the slow dissolution
of the aluminosilicate constituents of clay, which react with lime
producing hydrated cementitious products that bond the adjacent
soil particles together 共Ingles and Metcalf 1972; Little 1995; Bell
1996兲.
Several research studies were undertaken in the post to better
understand lime stabilized expansive soil behavior 共Sherwood
1995; Little 1995, 1996; Khattab et al. 2000兲. However, studies
related to the understanding of long-term stability characteristics
with respect to the influence of environmental factors such as
wetting–drying and freezing-thawing cycles on key engineering
properties 共i.e., shear strength, volume change, and flow behavior兲
of lime-treated expansive soils are limited. Few studies reported
in the literature show that wetting and drying cycles have differ-
ent effects on swelling potential and shear strength of untreated
clayey soils. Several parameters such as the soil type, compaction
procedure, and the testing conditions influence the soil durability
共Allam and Sridharan 1981; Pile and Mc Innes 1984; Abouleid
1985; Dif and Bluemel 1991; Day 1994; Lin and Benson 2000兲.
Thompson and Dempsey 共1969兲 showed that freezing and thaw-
ing cycles induce significant volume changes accompanied by the
reduction of shear strength even in stabilized clayey soils. This
effect was found to be more detrimental in the nonstabilized 共i.e.,
natural or untreated兲 soils in comparison to stabilized clayey soils.
Other studies by Malhotra and Bhasker 共1983兲 and Little 共1995兲
show that leaching has a significant effect both on treated and
untreated soils containing highly soluble salts and minerals. How-

358 / JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / APRIL 2007

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2007, 19(4): 358-366

 ever, leaching has limited detrimental effects on soils that do not
contain soluble salts.
The long-term stability characteristics referred to as durability
in this paper can be better interpreted if the influence of environ-
mental factors such as wetting–drying and freezing-thawing
cycles on key engineering properties is studied. There are several
questions that are not well understood with respect to the durabil-
ity characteristics of lime-treated expansive soils in spite of being
used as a conventional technique to improve the properties of
expansive soils. For this reason, an attempt is made to study the
durability characteristics of untreated and lime-treated expansive
clay from France. In the study presented in this paper, untreated
and lime-treated expansive compacted soil specimens were placed
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Engenharia Biblioteca on 03/16/17. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
in a specially designed oedometer and subjected to wetting until
saturation followed by drying at 60° C. 60° C was selected to
simulate the conditions prevailing in an arid region. The effect of
predrying at 60° C, followed by wetting–drying cycles, was stud-
ied on the durability characteristics 共i.e., swelling and strength
behavior of both untreated and lime-treated expansive clay兲. In
addition, leaching tests were carried out to study the Ca++ ions
and pH concentration changes of the percolating water from both
treated and untreated compacted expansive soil specimens to ana-
lyze the permanence of the clay treatment. Finally, to highlight
the changes induced in the texture of the material, pore size vol-
ume and distribution were investigated by mercury intrusion tests.
Materials and Methods
Soil and Lime
A natural bentonite type of clayey soil from France which is
commonly referred to in the literature as FoCa soil was chosen for
the study presented in this paper. This soil has Ca++ ions as ex-
changeable cations and has a swelling potential of 20% and a
swelling pressure of 150 kPa for specimens compacted at opti-
mum moisture content. Williams and Donaldson 共1980兲 suggested
a broad classification of expansive soils using either swelling po-
tential or swelling pressure values. Soils with a swelling potential
in the range of 5–20% are classified as highly expansive soils. As
the swelling pressure is high, the soil used in the study was clas-
sified as highly expansive clay.
The mineralogical analysis from x-ray diffraction and chemi-
cal analysis shows 80% of interstratified smectite/kaolinite min-
erals and a small amount of free kaolinite in this clay. The
nonclay minerals present are quartz, goetite, hematite, anastas,
and traces of calcite 共Atabek et al. 1991兲. The maximum dry
density 共␥d兲 and optimum moisture content 共wopt兲 are
12.94 kN/ m3 and 32%, respectively, from standard Proctor tests
conducted according to ASTM Specifications 共D-698兲 共Khattab et
al. 2000兲.
Hydrated lime 关i.e., Ca共OH兲2兴, manufactured by Balthazard et
Cotte 共Grenoble, France兲, was used for the stabilization of the
FoCa soil. This lime is made from limestone rock and is consti-
tuted of 95% CaCO3. Of this lime 90% is very fine and passes
through an 80 ␮m sieve opening.
Experimental Program
The experimental program consisted of the following:
1. Estimation of the optimum lime content to achieve favorable
durability characteristics of the FoCa soil 共i.e., to achieve
JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / APRIL 2007 / 359
J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2007, 19(4): 358-366
Table 1. pH Values of Soil Specimens for Different Lime Concentrations
Percentage of lime pH
0 8.5
1 11.7
2 12.3
3 12.4
4 12.6
7 12.6
reduction in swell behavior characteristics, improved
strength, and flow properties of FoCa soil兲.
2. Comparison of different soil properties of the untreated 共i.e.,
natural兲 and treated FoCa soil. The soil properties compared
are: Index properties, consolidation parameters, swelling
properties, strength, and permeability of soil.
3. Measurement of the swelling and strength properties of both
untreated and treated FoCa soil after being subjected to sev-
eral wetting–drying cycles.
4. Measurement of the changes in Ca2+ ions and pH concentra-
tion in water seeping through untreated and lime-treated
FoCa soil, as a function of time.
5. Measurement of the changes in the coefficient of permeabil-
ity, k, of lime-treated specimens with time.
6. Mercury intrusion tests on treated and untreated compacted
FoCa soil specimens to highlight the changes induced in the
texture and volume and distribution of pore size.
Estimation of the Optimum Percentage of Lime
Two independent methods proposed by Eades and Grim 共1966兲
and Hill and Davidson 共1960兲 were used to determine the opti-
mum lime percentage for the FoCa soil. In the first method, sug-
gested by Eades and Grim 共1966兲, a minimum pH value of 12.4 is
necessary to activate the pozzolanic reaction between the lime
and the soil. The alkalinity of the soil increases with the addition
of lime. The pozzolanic reaction increases as the pH value in-
creases and contributes to achieve better flocculation. The expan-
sive clay undergoes major transformations in its structure when
mixed with lime. Flocculation and coagulation contribute to bring
several expansive soil particles together to form larger sized ag-
gregates. The change in the soil structure is a consequence of
cation exchange caused by dissociated bivalent calcium ions in
the pore water replacing univalent cations that are normally at-
tached to the negatively charged individual expansive soil par-
ticles.
The pH values measured in the soil specimens for various lime
percentages are shown in Table 1. pH of a soil-water mixture
containing various amounts of lime 共by mass兲 is measured. Ac-
cording to this method, a minimum of 3% lime is necessary to
achieve a pH value of 12.4. In the second method, suggested by
Hill and Davidson 共1960兲, which is referred to as the minimum
lime percentage or “lime fixation point” method, Lm, is given by
the following empirical expression:
Clay content 共⬍2 ␮m兲
Lm = + 1.25 = 3.55
35
Taking into consideration the above-mentioned methods, it
was decided to use 4% lime to treat the soil. Nevertheless, per-
centages of 1, 3, and 10%, were tried which supported the choice
 Table 2. Physical and Mechanical Properties of Natural and Lime-
Treated FoCa Soil
FoCa soil

Property Natural Treated with 4% lime

Liquid limit, wL 共%兲 115 77
Plastic limit, w P 共%兲 45 65
Plasticity index, I p 共%兲 70 12
VB 共g / 100 g兲 21 16
Specfic surface, S p 共m2 / g兲 70 50
Cation exchange capacity 共meq/ 100 g兲 84 86

of 4% lime giving favorable results for stabilization of FoCa soil.

Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Engenharia Biblioteca on 03/16/17. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

More details are provided in the section entitled “Results and

Discussions.”

Effect of Lime Treatment on the Properties of FoCa

Soil
Lime treatment modifies most of the original properties of the
FoCa soil as summarized in Table 2. There is a significant reduc-
tion of plasticity index I p and swell pressure ␴s of the FoCa soil
due to lime treatment. The addition of lime leads to an increase in
the optimum moisture content and a decrease in the maximum dry
density with respect to compaction properties of the soil. How-
ever, in this study, for comparison purposes, all the tests were
carried out on untreated and treated FoCa soil specimens at a
water content of 32% and dry density of 12.94 kN/ m3, which
corresponds to optimum moisture and maximum dry density from
standard Proctor compaction tests for the natural FoCa soil. The
lime percentage was fixed at 4% for most of the tests.
Specimen Preparation
Precalculated quantities of FoCa soil and distilled water were
thoroughly mixed and sealed in a container for 24 h to achieve
uniform moisture content. Distilled water was used to study the
durability characteristics of untreated FoCa soil in order to nullify
any chemical interaction of ions which might be present in tap
water. The mixture was then statically compacted in the specially
designed oedometer mold at the rate of 1 mm/ min, using a load-
ing frame to achieve compaction characteristics reflecting opti-
mum moisture and maximum dry density 共OMC兲 determined
from standard Proctor tests. The compacted specimens were kept
under an applied load for at least 30 min prior to testing the
untreated specimen. The final dimensions of the specimens were
65 mm in diameter and 10 mm in height. The oedometer assem-
bly with the compacted specimen was then placed on a rigid
frame along with a piston and dial gauge as shown in Fig. 1. The
specially designed oedometer facilitates the determination of the
constant volume and free swell pressure characteristics of clayey
soils. The oedometer device had provisions such that the com-
pacted specimen can imbibe distilled water from the lower end to
the top of the specimen to ensure expulsion of all the air bubbles
during saturation. The required amount of FoCa soil, lime, and
water were added and cured for a period of 7 days before prepa-
ration of treated specimens.
Procedure for the Determination of Constant Volume
Swelling Pressure, ␴CV, and Free Swell Pressure, ␴FS
Although the swell force acting on the piston is measured by a
proving ring, the displacement of the piston is measured using a
Fig. 1. Experimental device for the measurement of swelling
pressure and free swell
dial gauge with an accuracy of 0.01 mm. The position of the mold
is manually controlled by a screw to ensure the null displacement
condition of the piston while determining the constant volume
swell pressure, ␴CV, of the expansive soil specimen.
For the free swell pressure measurements, ␴FS, the displace-
ment of the piston is recorded as a function of time. A seating
stress of 2.3 kPa, which is due to the weight of the piston, is
applied on the specimen while continuously monitoring the ver-
tical displacements. The influence of seating stress can be consid-
ered to be negligible on the free swell pressure characteristics of
the FoCa treated and untreated soil specimens as the swell pres-
sures are high. The displacement readings were continued until
stabilization of the vertical displacement for 24 h.
Wetting and Drying Test Procedures
This section provides the experimental procedure details of how
the compacted specimens were subjected to wetting and drying to
study the effect of these cycles on the swelling pressure charac-
teristics of lime-treated and untreated compacted FoCa soil speci-
mens. The 10 mm thick statically compacted specimen in the
oedometer was allowed to imbibe water from the bottom of the
specimen under a head water of 300 mm to achieve fully satu-
rated conditions. The saturated specimens were then subjected to
relative humidities of 76, 44, and 32% to achieve 37, 111, and
150 MPa suction values, respectively, in a desiccator using differ-
ent salt solutions at a controlled room temperature of 20° C for a
period of two days. This procedure facilitates achieving reason-
ably dry samples with high suction values. In addition, this tech-
nique is also useful to understand the influence of soil structure
without inducing fissures in the expansive soils even at high suc-
tions. These specimens were then subjected to drying in an oven
at 60° C. The mass of the soil specimens was then measured on a
daily basis until the mass attained a constant value. At the end of
the drying phase, the mass and volume of the specimens were
carefully measured. Averages of four to six readings of measure-
ments were taken. This technique facilitated the preparation of
specimens with water contents as low as 3.5%.

360 / JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / APRIL 2007

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2007, 19(4): 358-366

 Table 3. Effect of Lime Treatment 共after 7 Days of Curing兲 on Various Mechanical Properties of Specimens of FoCa Soil Compacted at Proctor Optimum
Moisture Content and Maximum Dry Density
Unconfined
Compression Swelling Swelling compressive Coefficient of
FoCa index index pressure, ␴s Free swell strength, qu permeability, k
soil Cc Cs 共kPa兲 共%兲 共MPa兲 共m/s兲
Natural 0.5 0.18 154 21.6 0.3 3 ⫻ 10−10
Treated with 4% lime 0.2 0.06 22 1.2 1.4 8 ⫻ 10−8
Percentage of change 共%兲 60 67 86 94 367 2.6⫻ 104

A total of seven wetting and drying cycles was applied to the tinued for several days until the weight of the soil specimen sta-
specimens prepared using the procedures detailed earlier. One se- bilized 共i.e., up to the point all the water has been extracted from
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Engenharia Biblioteca on 03/16/17. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

ries of tests was undertaken on specimens that have been sub-
jected to drying at 60° C after the curing time to study the influ-
ence of predrying on the treated soil. Then the test was continued
in the same way as the others. In the case of untreated specimens,
the same procedure was applied, with only 2 h rest during phase
共1兲, as no curing was necessary.
The volumetric changes associated during wetting and drying
cycles were determined from the measurements of soil specimen
dimensions. These measurements were taken at the end of each
cycle 共i.e., after achieving equilibrium conditions兲.
Leaching Test Procedure
After stabilization of the vertical swell and determination of the
constant volume swell pressure of the soil specimen, distilled
water was allowed to percolate through the specimen from the
bottom upwards in order to facilitate the removal of air bubbles, if
any. A constant head of 1 m was applied with a constant level
water reservoir, corresponding to a hydraulic gradient of 10. This
gradient was selected to simulate a most severe condition, such as
inundation. Water passing through the soil specimen was col-
lected by a pipe connected to an outlet fixed on the upper side of
the piston, which in turn was connected to a leachate container.
Special care was taken to minimize the effects of evaporation and
air contamination on the leachate solution.
Continuous measurements of water flow, pH, and concentra-
tion in Ca++ ions were performed in the leachate solution. The
leaching test continued for 15 days after the stabilization of the
pH values. A time period of 60 days was required to complete the
test. During the test, it was ensured that the specimen height
remained constant by regularly checking dial gauge readings 共i.e.,
to maintain constant volume conditions兲.
the soil voids兲. The pore sizes were then estimated using the
Young–Laplace equation. Mercury intrusion tests were performed
both on the treated and untreated specimens prepared at optimum
moisture content and maximum dry density conditions, before
and after saturation, and finally on the specimens subjected to the
durability tests.
Results and Discussion
Swell Pressure
The constant value swelling pressure, ␴CV and free swell pressure
␴FS, the free swell index, the unconfined compression, qu and the
coefficient of permeability, k, tests were determined both on natu-
ral 共i.e., untreated兲 and lime-treated FoCa soil specimens. Table 3
summarizes changes in the soil properties expressed as the ratio
of the parameter variation to its initial value. Most of the soil
properties’ parameter variation from this study is in the range
from 60 to 360%.
Fig. 2 shows that the swelling pressure decreases with an in-
crease in the percentage of lime, up to 4%, then stabilizes, which
confirms the value of 4% chosen for this study. The addition of
lime significantly reduces the swelling potential of the soil, in-
creases its unconfined compressive strength, qu, and the coeffi-
cient of permeability, k. These results suggest positive short-term

Mercury Intrusion Tests

The mercury intrusion tests were performed using a Poresizer
9320 porosimeter on lyophilized soil specimens. The mercury
was forced into the soil specimen by using pressure application
and intruded volume of mercury was continuously monitored.
The apparatus used facilitated a maximum pressure capacity on
the mercury which was equal to 210 MPa and is capable to esti-
mate pore diameters in the range between 0.0036 and 350 ␮m. In
practice, pore diameters smaller than 0.1 ␮m are not considered
for the analysis as the applied pressure on the mercury is substan-
tially high and could modify the original pore structure 共Tessier
1984兲. After compaction and extrusion from the mold of the
specimens, they were immediately frozen using liquid nitrogen
and lyophilized to take out the ice. This operation has to be car-
ried out quickly to minimize the changes in pore sizes 共Delage et Fig. 2. Swelling pressure of lime-treated soil as a function of the
al. 1982; Tessier et al. 1992兲. The lyophilization process is con- lime content

JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / APRIL 2007 / 361

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2007, 19(4): 358-366


Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Engenharia Biblioteca on 03/16/17. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
Fig. 3. Influence of wetting–drying cycles on the volumetric changes
of untreated specimens versus cycle number
effects due to 4% lime treatment of FoCa soil. Several studies in
the literature on different expansive soils report similar improve-
ments in the engineering behavior of expansive soils with respect
to short-term effects due to lime treatment 共Little 1996; Geney et
al. 1987兲. However, the major focus of this study is to understand
how effective and permanent the lime treatment is on a long-term
basis. There is limited information in the literature along this
direction.
Effect of Wetting and Drying on the Deformations of
Untreated and Lime-Treated Specimens
Fig. 3 shows the results of the variation of void ratio which pro-
vides details of volumetric changes with respect to wetting–
drying cycles carried out on natural FoCa soil 共i.e., untreated
compacted specimen of FoCa soil兲. In this test, initial wetting is
followed by a drying phase. During the second wetting phase,
Fig. 4. Envelopes of volumetric changes of lime-treated and untreated specimens during wetting–drying cycles, for two different hydration
conditions
362 / JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / APRIL 2007
J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2007, 19(4): 358-366
swelling reaches about 75%, whereas the second phase of drying
leads to a 25% settlement of the specimen. These values tend to
slightly increase during the following wetting and drying phases.
A comparison was made between the volumetric changes of the
untreated specimen and those of two specimens treated with 4%
lime, one immediately subjected to wetting and the other one
subjected to wetting after an initial drying phase. The changes in
void ratio due to the wetting–drying cycles applied to the speci-
mens are presented in Fig. 4, where only the envelopes of the
cycles have been represented. From these observations it can be
concluded that the addition of lime significantly reduces the am-
plitude of the void ratio changes and the magnitude of the final
value of the void ratio. In the case of the untreated specimen, the
void ratio increases very quickly during the first two cycles from
approximately 1 to 2.5, due to the difference in the initial state
conditions, and remains constant during the following cycles. The
observations from this study are consistent with the findings by
Abouleid 共1985兲, who used untreated remolded clay specimens.
On the other hand, the final void ratio is limited to approxi-
mately 2 for the specimen treated with 4% lime, with the cycles
starting from wetting. In that case, the free swell tends to increase
slightly with the number of wetting–drying cycles. This can be
attributed to the breakage and damage of some cementation bonds
created by the lime treatment. In the case of the specimen dried
before the application of the wetting–drying cycles, a constant
increase in swell is observed, with a final value approaching that
of the untreated specimen. A similar trend is observed during
drying, but the changes are less important with void ratio reduc-
tion from 1 to 0.5 for the untreated specimen, and from 1 to
approximately 0.7 for the specimens treated with lime.
In the case of the specimen first subjected to drying, the final
void ratio after 7 cycles is higher than that of the specimen sub-
jected to wetting. On the drying side, the effect of the predrying
has a significant influence on the initial shrinkage of the specimen
共possibly accompanied by the formation of microfissures兲, which
remains quasi-constant afterwards. Another possible reason may
be attributed to the detrimental effect of the predrying could be
the fact that it stops the pozzolanic reaction for which a certain
degree of humidity in the soil is necessary.
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Engenharia Biblioteca on 03/16/17. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

Fig. 6. Variation of Ca2+ ions concentration in the leachate solution

Fig. 5. Variation of pH of the leachate solutions after flowing after flowing through the 4% lime-treated specimen
through lime-treated and untreated specimens

When considering the volumetric changes, lime treatment permeability of the lime-treated specimen. The coefficient of per-
leads to a reduction in total swelling strain 关␧␯ = ⌬e / 共1 + e0兲兴 from meability, k, first increases from 1 ⫻ 10−7 m / s to a maximum
75% in the untreated specimen to 49% for the lime-treated speci- value of 1.8⫻ 10−7 m / s, then it begins to decrease to reach a
men after 7 cycles of wetting and drying. This reduction reached constant value of 3.8⫻ 10−8 m / s after 42 days. The initial in-
68% in the lime-treated specimen starting with predrying. Conse- crease could be attributed to the leaching of nonreactive lime
quently, lime treatment appears to be efficient in the first case during the first few days. On the other hand, the continuous lime/
共i.e., starting with wetting兲, considering the severe conditions to clay reaction which increases with time may modify the pore size
which the specimens were subjected distribution by cementation, filling, and/or closing of some pores.
Lime/clay reactions induce changes in the pore size and pore
Leaching Test Results accessibility, thus increasing the tortuosity of the soil and result-
ing in a reduction of the coefficient of permeability 共Khattab et al.
Leaching tests were carried out on a specimen treated with 4% 2001兲. During the testing period, no variation was observed in the
lime and on an untreated compacted specimen. During the testing swelling pressure under constant volume conditions.
period, which continued for 60 days, several other properties
were measured on the same soil specimens. These properties in-
clude pH, concentration of Ca2+, ions and flow of water in the
leachate. Fig. 5 shows for the lime-treated specimen, the pH value
starts from a value close to 12 which continuously decreases, first
slowly during the first seven days, then more quickly during the
next fortnight, to reach an equilibrium value slightly lower than 8.
This effect is probably due to the leaching of excess of free lime
Ca共OH兲2. For the untreated specimen, the pH increases from 7 to
7.8 during the same period of time.
Fig. 6 presents the Ca2+ ion concentration in the leachate after
flowing through the treated soil specimen. The results suggest that
there is a small increase in this Ca2+ ion concentration during the
first two days 共from 245 to 250 mg/ L兲, followed by a continuous
decrease in Ca2+ ion concentration. After 7 days of further leach-
ing, the concentration value reaches 20 mg/ L, and remains con-
stant up to 60 days. The cumulative amount of lime displaced by
the flow of water, calculated on the basis of the Ca2+ ion concen-
tration, is less than 100 mg, which represents about 6% of the
original quantity of lime added for the treatment. The small quan-
tity of lime leached with water means that the reaction of lime
with the soil is stable.
In the case of the untreated specimen, the coefficient of per-
meability, k, calculated from the flow of water measured during
the leaching tests changes little 共i.e., between 1.5 and 1.8 Fig. 7. Permeability of the 4% lime-treated specimen to the leaching
⫻ 10−10 m / s兲. Fig. 7 shows the variation of the coefficient of solution

JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / APRIL 2007 / 363

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2007, 19(4): 358-366


Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Engenharia Biblioteca on 03/16/17. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
Fig. 8. Pore size distribution derived from mercury intrusion tests:
共A兲 Untreated specimen compacted to OMC and maximum density;
共B兲 4% lime-treated specimen compacted to OMC and maximum
density; 共C兲 4% lime-treated specimen after wetting–drying cycles,
starting by wetting; and 共D兲 4% lime-treated specimen after wetting–
drying cycles, starting by drying
Mercury Intrusion Test Results
Mercury intrusion tests were conducted on six soil specimens:
One untreated 共A兲 and one lime-treated 共B兲 specimen compacted
at the optimum moisture content and maximum dry density before
saturation; two treated specimens after the wetting–drying tests,
which were allowed to swell freely: one without predrying 共C兲
and one with predrying 共D兲; and two treated specimens after the
leaching test 共E兲 and the swelling pressure measurement 共F兲 under
constant volume conditions. It was not possible to test a represen-
tative specimen of untreated soil subjected to wetting–drying
cycles because of its low strength and brittle behavior.
Table 4. Results of Mercury Intrusion Tests on the Different Specimens after Wetting–Drying or Leaching Tests
Compared
specimens
Untreated
Parameter 共A兲
Total volume of mercury injected 共cm3兲 0.234
Average pore diameter 共␮m兲 0.068
Volume % of pores ⬎10 ␮m 26
Volume % of pores ⬎10 ␮m 74
364 / JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / APRIL 2007
J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2007, 19(4): 358-366
Fig. 8 and Table 4 present the mercury intrusion test results for
the first four specimens, namely, A, B, C, and D. Pore size distri-
bution results show that all the specimens present two classes of
pore sizes: Large pores with an entrance diameter larger than
approximately 10 ␮m and small pores having an entrance pore
diameter smaller than 10 ␮m. They also show that the total pore
volume of the compacted specimen prepared at the optimum
moisture content is larger for the lime-treated specimen than for
the untreated one. This can be explained by the lime-clay reac-
tions 共flocculation兲 and the reduction of the water content in the
treated specimen, compared to the untreated one. It is well known
that larger water content on the dry side of the compaction curve
facilitates particle arrangements that contribute towards a reduc-
tion in pore volume. Moreover, in Table 4, the effect of lime
reaction with clay can be observed in the changes in the pore
repartition: the volumetric percentage of larger pores decreases
共from 26 to 9兲, which denotes a refinement of the pore structure
due to lime treatment. Such changes induce a more homogeneous
pore size distribution in the treated specimen as the particles are
less oriented due to flocculation than in the untreated specimen.
For the two treated specimens 共C and D兲 tested at the end of the
wetting–drying cycles, the total pore volume and the percentage
of large pores are, as expected, higher than in the treated com-
pacted specimen 共B兲. In the prehydrated specimen 共C兲, the pro-
portion of large and small pores is nearly the same. Nevertheless,
a finer analysis of the pore size distribution in the predried speci-
men 共D兲 shows that the proportion of large and small pores is
similar to that obtained in the untreated specimen 共A兲. The satu-
ration of the predried specimen seems to have not influenced
large/small pore ratio, but only enlarges the existing pore spaces.
Fig. 9 and Table 4 show the mercury intrusion test results for
the two treated specimens that are saturated under constant vol-
ume conditions after 7 curing days. Two classes of pore sizes can
be seen from these test results 共Fig. 9兲. The total pore volume is
practically the same for the two specimens, resulting from the fact
that these two tests were carried out with no volume change.
However, it may be observed that the pore size distribution is
affected by leaching: The proportion of large pores slightly de-
creases, which could be explained by the continuous formation of
cement-type bonds due to lime–clay reactions leading to an in-
crease in the water flow path within the specimen and a decrease
in the coefficient of permeability of the leached specimen. Finally
it should be noted that the average pore diameter decreases with
saturation and leaching, from 0.078 ␮m for B to 0.060 and
0.067 ␮m for E and F, respectively.
Compacted specimens
Compacted specimens after saturation under
after wetting–drying tests no volume change
共free swell兲 condition
Treated, Treatd, Treated, Treated,
with initial with initial after after
Treated wetting drying leaching saturation
共B兲 共C兲 共D兲 test 共E兲 test 共F兲
0.283 0.472 0.492 0.274 0.270
0.078 0.112 0.108 0.060 0.067
9 40 27 13 20
91 60 73 87 80

Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Engenharia Biblioteca on 03/16/17. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
Fig. 9. Pore size distribution derived from mercury intrusion tests:
共E兲 4% lime-treated specimen after 60 days leaching and 共F兲 4%
lime-treated specimen after 7 days curing and saturation
Conclusions
The long-term efficiency of the treatment of an expansive soil
using lime was studied in this paper on the basis of wetting–
drying cycles and leaching tests. All the tests were carried out on
specimens compacted at optimum moisture content and maximum
dry density conditions to simulate the possible exposure of a typi-
cal expansive soil to climatic changes in road construction, or
other civil engineering applications. The main conclusions of this
study are:
• The treatment of the soil with 4% lime results in an overall
improvement of most of the mechanical properties of the ex-
pansive clay by increasing the shear strength and reduction in
volume change and swelling pressure properties.
• Lime treatment induces changes in the pore size distribution.
Typically, the pore volume increases with a refinement of the
pore structure. These structural changes contribute to increase
in the coefficient of permeability of the clayey soil.
• The influence of wetting and drying cycles on lime-treated
expansive soil shows reduction in the swelling characteristics
of the tested FoCa soil. However, the flow behavior is influ-
enced differently. Its efficiency is maximum when the soil is
first submitted to wetting, it is less important if the soil is first
submitted to drying. In the hydrated treated specimen, the free
swell 共i.e., volumetric changes兲 seems to stabilize after a few
cycles at a value significantly lower than in the untreated
specimen, whereas in the dried specimen, the free swell pro-
gressively increases during the cycles and the treatment seems
to lose most of its beneficial effect. Such behavior was attrib-
uted to the interruption of the 共mainly pozzolanic兲 lime–clay
reactions during the initial drying. The mercury intrusion tests
confirmed this assumption as the proportion of large and small
pores appeared to be the same as that of the untreated sample.
On the contrary, lime treatment highly increases the total pore
volume, with similar proportions of large and small pores.
• Leaching does not reduce the efficiency of the treatment as the
quantity of lime displaced by the water flow under the applied
conditions 共hydraulic gradient of 10兲 is small, compared to the
initial quantity of lime added for the treatment.
JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / APRIL 2007 / 365
J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2007, 19(4): 358-366
From an engineering practice point of view, it is suggested that
lime-stabilized soils should not be exposed to drying too early
after the curing period and should be protected as long as possible
from direct sunlight and heat, especially during the hot season, in
order to avoid any reduction of the efficiency of the lime
treatment.
References
Abouleid, A. F. 共1985兲. “Foundation on swelling soils.” Proc., Seminar
on Foundation Problems in Egypt and Northern Germany, Cairo,
Egypt, 4–43.
Allam, M. M., and Sridharan, S. 共1981兲. “Effect of wetting and drying on
shear strength.” J. Geotech. Engrg. Div., 107共4兲, 421–438.
Arabi, M., and Wild, S. 共1989兲. “Property changes induced in clay soils
when using lime stabilization.” Municipal Engineer (London), 6, 85–
99.
Atabek, R., Félix, B., Robinet, J. C., Lahlou, R. 共1991兲. “Rheological
behavior of saturated expansive clay materials.” Workshop on Stress
Partitioning in Engineered Clay Barriers, Duke Univ., Durham, N.C.,
29–31.
Bell, F. G. 共1996兲. “Lime stabilization of clay minerals and soils.” Eng.
Geol. (Amsterdam), 42, 223–237.
Day, R. W. 共1994兲. “Swell-shrink behavior of compacted clay.” J. Geo-
tech. Engrg., 120共3兲, 618–623.
Delage, P., Tessier, D., and Marcel-Audiguier, M. 共1982兲. “Use of the
Cryoscan apparatus for observation of freeze-fractured planes of a
sensitive Quebec clay in scanning electron microscopy.” Can. Geo-
tech. J., 19, 111–114.
Dif, A. E., and Bluemel, W. F. 共1991兲. “Expansive soils under cyclic
drying and wetting.” Geotech. Test. J., 14共1兲, 96–102.
Eades, J. L., and Grim, R. E. 共1966兲. “A quick test to determine lime
requirements for soil stabilization.” Highway Research Record No.
139, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C.
Geney, D. S., Bartholomew & Associates 共1987兲. “Lime stabilisation,
reaction, properties, design and construction.” State-of-the-Art Rep.
No. 5 Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C.
Hill, G. H., and Davidson, D. T. 共1960兲. “Lime fixation in clayey soils.”
Highway Research Board Bulletin No. 262, 20–32.
Ingles, O. G., and Metcalf, J. B. 共1972兲. Soil stabilization, theory, and
practice, Butterworth Pty. Limited, Sydney, Australia.
Khattab, S., Al-Mukhtar, M., Alcover, J. F., Fleureau, J. M., and Bergaya,
F. 共2001兲. “Microstructure of swelling clay treated with lime.” Proc.,
15th Int. Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering,
Istanbul, Turkey, Vol. 3, 1771–1775.
Khattab, S., Al-Mukhtar, M., Crespin, M., Alcover, J. F., Fleureau, J. M.,
and Bergaya, F. 共2000兲. “Stabilization with lime: Swelling capacity
and microstructure changes.” Proc., 3rd Int. Conf. on Ground Im-
provement Techniques, Singapore, 209–216.
Lin, L.-C., and Benson, C. H. 共2000兲. “Effect of wet-dry cycling on
swelling and hydraulic conductivity of GCLs.” J. Geotech. Geoenvi-
ron. Eng., 126共1兲, 40–49.
Little, D. N. 共1995兲. Handbook for stabilization of pavement subgrades
and base courses with lime, Kendall/Hunt, Iowa.
Little, D. N. 共1996兲. “Fundamentals of the stabilization of soil with lime.”
National Lime Association Bulletin No. 332, Arlington, Va.
Lopez-Lara, T., and Castano, V. M. 共2001兲. “Time dependency of CaO-
treated expansive soils.” Electronic J. of Geotech. Eng., 6, T. Lpez-
Lara and V. M. Castaño, eds., 具http://www.ejge.com/2001/Ppr0101/
Abs0102.htm典.
Malhotra, B. B., and Bhasker, S. K. 共1983兲. “Leaching phenomenon in
lime-soil mix layers.” Soil Engineering Research Bulletin No. 22, 15–
25.
Metcalf, J. B. 共1977兲. “Principles and application of cement and lime
 stabilization.” Research Rep. No. 49, Australian Road Research
Board.
Pile, K. C., and Mc Innes, D. E. 共1984兲. “Laboratory technology for
measuring properties of expansive clays.” Proc., 5th Int. Conf. an
Expansive Soils, Australia, 85–93.
Sherwood, P. T. 共1995兲. Soil stabilization with cement and lime, HMSO,
London.
Tessier, D. 共1984兲. “Etude experimentale de l’organisation des matériaux
argileux.” Thèse Sci. Paris VII, France 共in French兲.
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Engenharia Biblioteca on 03/16/17. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
366 / JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / APRIL 2007
J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2007, 19(4): 358-366
Tessier, D., Lajudie, A., and Petit, J. C. 共1992兲. “Relation between the
macroscopic behavior of clay and their microstructural properties.”
Applied Geochemistry. Supp. Issue 1, 151–161.
Thompson, M. R., and Dempsey, B. J. 共1969兲, “Autogeneous healing of
lime soil mixture.” Highway Research Record No. 263.
Williams, A. B., and Donaldson, G. W. 共1980兲. “Developments related to
building on expansive soils in South Africa 1973–1980.” Proc., 4th
Int. Conf. on Expansive Soils, Denver, Vol. 2, 834–844.