Composite Maintenance and Repair:

Future Challenge of Aircraft Structures

Total words = 3340

Introduction

The usage of material composites inside different sectors of the industry, such as aerospace
(commercial and military aircraft), automotive and infrastructure has increased dramatically during
the last years [1]. We have the perfect example of this inside the Boeing 787, where from the total
weight of the aeroplane, between 50 and 60% is made of composite materials [2]. Because of the
expansion in the use of composite materials, certificating authorities need to ensure about validation
of new technologies to execute reparations and maintenance . In addition, it is important to highlight
that new programs in the aerospace industry are integrating new materials and structural concepts
(Airbus A350 or Bombardier C series, for instance), which will require new methods to execute future
reparations [3].

Figure 1 Constitution of the Boeing 787 airplane [4].

This kind of materials result on the mixture of two different materials (fibre and matrix) and offer
different advantages against metal alloys; for example, in a composite material, both phases keep their
own physical and mechanical properties [1]. However, composites materials have some disadvantages
related to cost and maintenance; a summary of both points can be found on the next table:
 Advantages
1. Lightweight.
2. Improved fatigue life (composites are better
than metals in tension-tension loading.) [5].
3. Increase strength and stiffness modifying
layer orientation.
4. Excellent corrosion resistance.
Disadvantages
1. Fabrication and assembly operations are high in
cost.
2. Adversely affected by temperature and
moisture.
3. Vulnerable to impact damage and ply
separations (delamination).
4. Difficult to execute reparations.

5. Susceptible to tension-compression and multi-

axial fatigue loading [5].

Table 1 Advantages and disadvantages of composite materials

With the idea to reduced costs in manufacturing processes for the different type of composite
materials (thermoset/thermoplastic), create more complex structures to attend new designs and meet
load requirements (bending, transverse shear, etc.), some innovative solutions have emerged [2].

Maintenance

Inside the aerospace industry, there are several methods to evaluate the structural integrity of critical
components and calculate external/internal damage during all life of the aircraft; the most useful are
the Non-Destructive Inspection (NDI) techniques, which can afford information about the structure
and its conditions for the next years. These techniques are able to identify any discontinuities on the
assemblies based on the response of the acoustic, thermal, or electromagnetic wave, provided by NDI
instruments [6]. Between the most useful, we can find:

- Visual inspection: this method is useful to identify superficial cracks, porosity and edge
delaminations. For the correct evaluation of assemblies using visual inspection and reach areas
of difficult access from direct view, it is important to equip the person with advanced
instrumentation (borescopes and mirrors). The disadvantage of this method is clear: is
impossible to get information about the internal constitution of the part [1].

- Ultrasonic inspection: this method allows to identify porosity and foreign objects on solid
laminates. The operating principle is based on the acoustic impedance, which is different
depending on the type of material. In some cases, this method will not expose all strange
objects contained in the laminate and cannot size the profundity of the defects [1].

- Laser ultrasonic: grant identical information as previous method, with a significant

improvement in time to obtain results. This method is not effective with machined surfaces
[1].

- Radiographic inspection: based on the capacity of X-rays to pass through materials under
revision, this method allows identifying microcracks for solid laminates and defects for
honeycomb assemblies (most commonly deficiencies: crushed core and existence of water on
the cells). Related to disadvantages, we have: X-rays could origin health problems to the

2
 human body. Moreover, components must be removed and located in special ly guarded
chambers [1].

- Thermographic inspection: can be employed to diagnose solid laminates (including

delaminations, evaluate impact damage) and honeycomb assemblies (water intake). This
method offers advantages, such as: relatively fast, contact with the component is not
necessary, is a one side process and could cover a large area. To prevent water evaporation,
this method is executed immediately after the aircraft lands [1].

Figure 2 Thermograph inspection method [3].

- Electromagnetic methods: these methods, like Eddy current, capacitance and microwave, are
not commonly used for composite materials. Help to detect damage and internal features; for
carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP), which is a gently conductive material, these methods
are useful for discerning the external surface [7].

The future related to maintenance will be on the implementation of Structural Health Monitoring
(SHM) techniques, which have the advantage of being an autonomous in-service, providing
information about the structural integrity of a component using attached sensors with minimum
manual intervention. Accuracy, performance and reliability are some aspects to be validate d by
airworthiness authorities, such as the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), before the massive
use of SHM techniques [6].

Repair:

Although there are protection systems implemented on aircraft like the external environmental
protection using a polyurethane paint, and the surface isolation to avoid corrosion, damage can occur
in a random manner [8]. The most critical parameters that will give a correct guidance to execute a
reparation are time (in-service repairs will be a major issue, delay to aircraft departures will cost so
much money), material cost and availability [3].

The procedure followed to repair a damaged composite structure is:

1) Find the damage, which could appear for a manufacturing defect (this error can generate
porosity, micro-cracking and delaminations), assembly process mistake or transport [3].

2) Ascertain the length of the damage: Once the damage is exposed by skilled personnel, it is
important to evaluate the severity and based on the damage assessment, select the correct
reparation method or replace the part [3].

3) Remove damage: There are three types of repairs,

- Large damage with big impact in capability (mechanical properties like strength, stiffness and
fatigue are affected) must be repaired immediately. Repairs could be bolted or bonded [8].

3
With critical components like aerodynamic surfaces, where one of the most important parameters is
the weight, will be necessary to execute a re-balancing of the part [3].

- Minor damages involved reparation of the component in a defined period. The idea behind
this is to prevent the damage propagation and ingress of water and airframes [8].

- Negligible damage involved a cosmetic damage. Nevertheless, appearance is not a major

consideration.

4) Fabricate the repair scheme: in cases where the damage exceeds the limits, the stress engineer
must approve the repair procedure [1].

5) Apply the repair scheme: all composite repair procedures must be execute d following the
Structural Repair Manual (SRM) or a Technical Order (TO) for the aircraft. Both documents are
created by the aircraft manufacturer and authorized by a governing agency [1].

6) Restore aircraft surface finish.

It is important to highlight the person should be certified in the repair procedure to execute; a bad
reparation could origin a more extensive and complicated repair in the future, and a consequence,
replace the component and create scrap [1]. Other environmental parameters like moisture and
fatigue loads could increase the damage size in a structural component [3].

Repairs can be divided into fill, injection, bolted or bonded.

- Fill Repairs: these temporary repairs consist in the application of an epoxy in the area to be
filled, smoothed level with the surface and finally painted. It is important to highlight this
method must be restricted to minor damage areas; in some cases, will be useful to fix skin
damage, honeycomb panels and fastener hole elongation [3].

- Injection repairs: this method is convenient in honeycomb panels (where the skin has
disbonded from the core) and solid laminates (delamination between plies, there is no damage
on surfaces). As this method require to create two holes, first to inject low-viscosity epoxy
adhesive under pressure and second for venting [1], exist the possibility to make the damage
worse [3].

- Chopped fibre: this method allows to create new holes to meet tolerances or design
requirements, filling the wrong one with a mixture of fibres previously cut into small pieces
and epoxy resin [3].

- Bolted repairs: this process employs a patch, which could be internal, external or both
(however, this installation is more difficult to install). The operation consists of removing the
damaged area with a circular hole, eliminate impurities like moisture, drill new holes and
attached the patch to the laminate [3].

4
 Figure 3 Basic repair joints (bolted) [9].

- Bonded repairs: exist three variants which are the bonded patch, the scarf repair and the
stepped lap repair. These methods can be applied to repair solid laminates and thin-skinned
honeycomb assemblies; nevertheless, it is necessary to remove big areas of the component
and execute machining operations for adequate load transfer [1]. Bonded patches used are
normally pre-cured or co-cured, which are robust [3].

Whatever the method used in a repair process, the structure needs to be able to support the design
loads (including compressive loading) and accomplish stability requirements [3].

Strength: Failure and damage resistance of composite structures

Inside the failure mechanisms related to composites materials, we can find matrix cracks, fibre-matrix
debonding, fibre fractures and inter-laminar delamination. The last one, which consists of the
adherence reduction between plies in a laminate, has been investigated during the last years using
numerical, analytical and experimental methods. The interaction of these damage mechanisms, along
with the presence of fatigue and compression loads will decrease dramatically the load capability of
the component [10].

Between the most common agents for delamination are the material and structural discontinuities
(corners, solid-sandwich transition, skin stiffener interaction) which can generate interlaminar
stresses. When the structural component shows delamination, the three failure modes (mode I, II and
III) are mostly present. For a better understanding of the three modes, American Society for Testing of
Materials (ASTM) have created different methodologies to the correct characterization of
delamination [11].

The main agents of delaminations are:

5
 - Manufacturing and environmental effects: residual stress can be transmitted to the composite
laminate during the manufacturing process. Moreover, ambient conditions (temperature and
moisture) can reduce the resistance of the laminate to delamination [5].
- Machining: drill penetration (angle and shape) beyond heat generation that could affect the
matrix properties and induced delaminations [5].
- Critical geometrical configurations: components with sudden changes of section (tapered
laminates, curved sections, free edges), material discontinuities design for specific
performance and bolted composite joints could be critical. As a consequence, delaminations
can appear and spread quickly [5].
- Low-velocity impact: this phenomenon can be the result of manufacturing operation accidents
or during the maintenance process; delaminations can occur between layers with different
orientation and at ply interfaces [5].

With the idea to investigate and create numerical models to predict damage propagation on complex
structures, commercial Finite Element (FE) software are used. Related to fatigue analysis, it is
important to highlight that the mesh size and load increment parameter will define the accuracy on
results [10]. The advantages and disadvantages offered by the FE programmes are:

Advantages Disadvantages
1. Ability to simulate composite structures 1. Recreate and model progressive debonding
under static (tension/compression) and fatigue could be so difficult using CAE (computer-aided
loads. engineering) techniques.

2. Good accuracy in FE predictions using the 2D 2. Fatigue modules are established to operate
plate model against physical testing. with linear formulations (large displacements
and non-linear conditions are not taking in
3. Run 3D FEM models to model delamination account).
growth.
3. Due to the complexity of the topic, operate
using fatigue loads could be exceptionally
complicated.

4. Model 3D geometries to run CAE analysis will

demand immense computational cost.
Table 2 Advantages and disadvantages for FE programmes.

Exist two main theories used to simulate delamination using Finite Element theory: Virtual Crack
Closure Technique (VCCT, originated from the linear fracture mechanics) and Cohesive Zone (CZ,
derivated from damage mechanics). It is important to notice for VCCT method, a pre-crack path should
be introduced into the Finite Element model [10]. Nowadays, there are some non-destructive
techniques to detect delamination on laminated composites, like the vibration -based, electric
resistance change and piezoelectric sensors method [12].

Recycling

Recycling of composite materials has become a big issue for several companies, including transport as
one of the most important, around the world; meanwhile the idea of recycling metals like aluminium
and steel generates economic returns and is a standard and easy process, this is not the case for the
waste generated during the use of composite materials (like manufacturing). However, new
regulations and laws have been developed with the idea to impulse and create new alternatives for
recycling of composite materials [13].

6
During the last years, different recycling technologies have surged for thermoset composite materials
which can be classified into two categories: 1) those that use mechanical tools to decrease the size of
the part, and 2) the adoption of chemicals to separate the components of the composite material and
use in different process, taking advantage of the energy contains in these materials [14]; between the
most important we have:

- Grinding (crushing): this method can be used on any component made of CFRP. In this method,
the part is crushed in different grades; the powder can be used as fillers (the finest grade) or
as a reinforcer in the resin matrix.

- Pyrolysis: this process employs a neutral atmosphere with temperatures between 450 and 600
°C to separate the fibres from the resin. For carbon fibres, sulphuric acid is used to remove the
epoxy matrix. The resulting products can be used in other companies as a fuel.

- Hydrolysis: this process consists in the depolymerisation of the resin matrix under the effect
of water, in addition with an acid or a base. As pyrolysis, the products can be used in another
process. The main disadvantage with this hydrolysis is the degradation of the fibres in the
composite material due to the presence of water and acid.

- Energy recovery: the idea behind this process is taking advantage of the thermal energy
content inside composite materials, which are burst at temperatures near to 1000° C.
However, flue gases and residues originated during energy recover represent a problem to the
environment [14].

Design for manufacture (DFM) is identified as the biggest generator of scrap; during this step related
to the definition of the part using composite materials with different shapes and layers, the
manufacturing plies, the addition of trim allowances for machining and the process of ply flattering are
defined [14].

To limited the waste generation and increase material efficiency of composite materials, is important
to reduce the risk of error during manufacturing processes, which for example can be possible by using
standard computer numerical control (CNC) machines in the case of machining, which make use of
computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) programs to translate the ply information to machine
requirements. Another alternative emerged during the last years is automation of composites, like
direct material placement, to reduced variability [14].

Conclusion

It is clear that decisions made during the early stages of the design of new products using composite
materials will have an impact on manufacturing, repairing and recycling process. Repairs are something
common for aerospace structures, due to the high demand of several airlines around the world;
however, with good methodologies and correct execution of manufacturing processes, most of them
can be prevented. In some cases repairing will be unpredictable and unavoidable; in these cases, a
good execution of the repairing process following the SRM, TO and instructions given by stress
engineer will be beneficial in restoring the original strength of the laminate [1]. Scrap and waste
generated on the composites manufacture will always be created, but new methods can help to reduce
this situation, like improvements made on CNC machines to decrease error [14].

In the next years, the industry will demand more complex components and assemblies to be developed
using composite materials; based on this point, it is important to invest on investigations rel ated to
increasing the knowledge about composite materials. Delamination is the best example for thi s point;

7
the idea to use analytical and numerical models will help design engineers to take into account during
the earliest phases of the design of a new component in the aircraft industry [5].

Nowadays, there are so many Finite Element programmes can be used to simulate non-linear fatigue
and crack propagation using composite materials, like ABAQUS and ANSYS. In the next years,
applications will increase and be more focused on aerospace structures with the idea to meet weight,
safety and environmental requirements. 3D models can spend too much time to running; however,
automotive and aircraft companies have the technology of High-Performance Computing (HPC) to face
these challenges.

Figure 4 Delamination simulation using ANSYS

The interest in biomaterials and green composites has increased due to the advantages by using these
materials; due to the use of natural fibres, can be biodegradable and be burned with energy recovery.
Automotive companies like Ford has included more green ingredients like natural fibre-reinforced
plastics inside the components; exist big challenges related to performance and durability, but
different teams inside the company have been working on these parameters since a few years ago
[15].

Figure 5 Examples of Green materials used at Ford Motor Company [15]

8
The challenges for aircraft companies are clear: develop and create composite materials using new
technologies to reduce the cost of manufacturing and facilitate the process to reuse and recycling.
Meanwhile, advances have been promising to the environment, decreasing fuel consumption and
emissions to the ambient.

References

1. Campbell FC. Manufacturing Processes for Advanced Composites. Elsevier Advanced

Technology; 2004. 517 p.
2. Soren N., Alann A., Bredberg A. An Experimental Study on the Strength of Out of Plane Loaded
Composite Structures. In: Riccio A (ed.) Damage Growth in Aerospace Composites. Springer
International; 2015. pp. 223–230.
3. Archer E., McIlhagger A. Repair of damaged aerospace composite structures. In: Irving PE,
Soutis C (eds.) Polymer Composites in the Aerospace Industry. Elsevier Ltd; 2014. pp. 393–412.
Available at: DOI:10.1016/B978-0-85709-523-7.00014-1
4. Hale J. Boeing 787 from the Ground Up. AERO Magazine. 2006; : 17–23. Available at:
DOI:10.1021/ja061741o
5. Riccio A. Delamination in the context of composite structural design. In: Sridharan S (ed.)
Delamination behaviour of composites. Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC; 2008.
pp. 28–64.
6. Martinez M., Yanishevsky M., Rocha B., Groves RM., Bellinger N. Maintenance and monitoring
of composite helicopter structures and materials. In: Beaumont PWR, Soutis C, Hodzic A (eds.)
Structural Integrity and Durability of Advanced Composites: Innovative Modelling Methods and
Intelligent Design. Elsevier Ltd; 2015. pp. 540–578. Available at: DOI:10.1016/B978-0-08-
100137-0.00021-3
7. Bossi RH., Giurgiutiu V. Nondestructive testing of damage in aerospace composites. Polymer
Composites in the Aerospace Industry. Elsevier Ltd; 2014. 413-448 p. Available at:
DOI:10.1016/B978-0-85709-523-7.00015-3
8. Abrate S. Impact on Composite Structures. Cambridge University Press; 1998. 289 p.
9. America D of D of the US of. Vol. 3: Polymer Matrix Composites. Composite Materials
Handbook. 2002; 3(3): 1–693. Available at: DOI:10.1016/0378-3804(85)90127-5
10. Millan J., Armendáriz I. Delamination and Debonding Growth in Composite Structures. In: Riccio
A (ed.) Damage Growth in Aerospace Composites. Springer International; 2015. pp. 63–88.
11. Raju I., O´Brien TK. Fracture mechanics concepts, stress fields, strain energy release rates,
delamination initiation and growth criteria. In: Sridharan S (ed.) Delamination behaviour of
composites. Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC; 2008. pp. 3–27.
12. Tan P., Tong L. Integrated and discontinuous piezoelectric sensor/actuator for delamination
detection. In: Sridharan S (ed.) Delamination behaviour of composites. Woodhead Publishing
Limited and CRC Press LLC; 2008. pp. 141–168.
13. Adams RD., Collins A., Cooper D., Wingfield-Digby M., Watts-Farmer A., Laurence A., et al.
Recycling of reinforced plastics. In: Beaumont PWR, Soutis C, Hodzic A (eds.) Structural Integrity
and Durability of Advanced Composites: Innovative Modelling Methods and Intelligent Design.
Elsevier Ltd; 2014. pp. 263–284. Available at: DOI:10.1007/s10443-013-9380-1
14. Potter K., Ward C. In-process composite recycling in the aerospace industry. In: Goodship V

9
 (ed.) Management, recycling and reuse of waste composites. Great Abington, Cambridge:
Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC; 2010. pp. 458–494.
15. Auto123. FORD’S DISTINCTIVE APPROACH TO ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS. Available at:
https://www.auto123.com/en/news/fords-distinctive-approach-to-alternative-
materials/21349/ (Accessed: 30 October 2018)

10