FIRE AND MATERIALS

Fire Mater. 2012; 36:139–152

Published online 28 April 2011 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI: 10.1002/fam.1094

Fire reaction properties of concrete made with recycled rubber

aggregate

J. R. Correia1, ∗, † , A. M. Marques1 , C. M. C. Pereira2 and J. de Brito1

1 Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Instituto Superior Técnico/ICIST, Technical University of
Lisbon, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
2 Instituto de Engenharia Mecânica e Gestão Industrial, University of Porto,

Rua Dr. Roberto Frias 400, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal

SUMMARY
This study investigates the fire reaction properties of concrete made with recycled rubber aggregate
(CRRA). Four different concrete compositions were prepared: a reference concrete (RC) made with natural
coarse aggregate and three concrete mixes with replacement rates of 5, 10 and 15% of natural fine and
coarse aggregate by recycled rubber aggregate (RRA) obtained from used tyres. Specimens of CRRA were
tested in a cone calorimeter according to the test standard ASTM E1354, submitted to heat fluxes of 25,
50 and 75 kW/m2 . These tests evaluated the effects of incorporating RRA in the fire reaction properties
of concrete, namely in the heat release rate, the time to ignition (TTI), the remaining mass, the production
of smoke, and the release of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. Owing to the organic nature of RRA,
with the exception of the carbon monoxide yield, higher replacement rates of natural aggregates by RRA
and increasing heat flux led to a worse fire reaction response, particularly in terms of TTI, heat release
rate and smoke production. Results of these experiments were then used to estimate the European fire
reaction classes of each concrete composition, using a flame spread model. All CRRA compositions tested
were provisionally rated as class A2 or B and such ratings allowed defining the field of application of
each solution under analysis, according to building code requirements. Copyright 䉷 2011 John Wiley &
Sons, Ltd.

Received 17 January 2011; Revised 14 March 2011; Accepted 15 March 2011

KEY WORDS: concrete; tyre; recycled rubber aggregate; fire; fire reaction properties

1. INTRODUCTION

For many years most used tyres were sent to dumping grounds, causing a dire problem for the
environment and public health. In 2009, according to the European Association of Tyres and
Rubber Producers, 3.2 Million tonnes of used tyres were discarded. The recovery ratio was 96%,
out of which 18% were retreaded or reused, 38% were recycled and 40% were used for energy
production. European legislation has sought to eliminate this worrying situation through specific
regulation (Council Directive No. 1999/31/CE) that forbids since 2006 the deposition of used
tires, either whole or grinded, in dumping grounds. Used tyres may be used whole in construction
activities, in agriculture to seal silos, in breakwaters (onshore and offshore), in retaining walls in
harbours and estuaries to break the impact of ships, in artificial reefs for fishery enhancement [1],
as granulate in football fields, synthetic and natural, and in kindergartens, since rubber softens

∗ Correspondence to: J. R. Correia, Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Instituto Superior
Técnico/ICIST, Technical University of Lisbon, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal.
† E-mail: jcorreia@civil.ist.utl.pt

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140 J. R. CORREIA ET AL.

the impact of falls [2], or as aggregate in construction works, mostly in concrete Jersey barriers
and in road pavements. New alternatives are welcome and structural concrete is one of the most
promising ones.
In terms of economical advantage and commercial prospects, the information available in the
literature is still very scarce. According to Mavroulidou and Figueiredo [3], because the production
of shredded or ground tyres is now well developed (particularly, when compared with other waste
materials), such procedure should also ensure economic viability. According to Kew and Kenny
[4], in the specific case of concrete blocks, the additional costs of using recycled rubber tyres vary
between 4 and 17%, depending on the concrete mix design and the cost of the rubber aggregates.
From the ground-breaking works of Eldin and Senouci [5], Toutanji [6], Topçu and Avcular [7],
and Khatib and Bayomy [8] until very recent research by Gesoglu and Guneyisi [9], Wong and
Ting [10], Valadares et al. [11] and Bravo and de Brito [12] (among many others) the feasibility
of concrete made with recycled rubber aggregate (CRRA) has been proven, as long as small
replacement rates of natural aggregates (NAs) by recycled ones are used. This limitation is caused
by the well-proven trends that result from this use of recycled rubber aggregate (RRA): a general
reduction in workability, any type of strength (except for abrasion resistance) and stiffness, and
increase in carbonation and chloride penetration, water absorption (by immersion and capillarity)
and shrinkage.
One of the critical issues associated with the use of CRRA that is worth investigating is their
behaviour when exposed to fire. This basically stems from the organic and combustible nature
of RRA and its relatively low decomposition temperature. Therefore, legitimate concerns may
arise due to the risk of ignitability, flame propagation, release of heat, production of smoke
and yield of toxic volatiles. Also from a mechanical point of view, the mechanical response of
CRRA under fire is likely to degrade more rapidly when compared with that of conventional
concrete.
Concerning fire resistance, only a few studies of CRRA are reported in the literature [13, 14].
In particular, for CRRA incorporating fine and coarse RRA, the only study known to the authors
is that of Marques et al. [15]—the authors evaluated the effect of incorporating varying rates (up
to 15%) of RRA as a replacement of NA on the post-fire mechanical performance of concrete.
Specimens were exposed for a period of 1 h to temperatures 400, 600 and 800◦ C, after being heated
in accordance with ISO 834 time–temperature curve. After cooling down to ambient temperature,
the mechanical properties were evaluated and compared with reference values obtained prior to fire
exposure. Figure 1 illustrates the ratio between residual compressive strength for each exposure
temperature ( f cT ) and the corresponding strength for the reference temperature of 20◦ C ( f c20 ), for
the different RRA incorporating rates in concrete. The authors concluded that although residual
mechanical properties of CRRA are noticeably more affected than those of reference concrete
(RC), particularly for higher exposure temperatures, the relative reduction does not prevent it from
being used in structural applications.
Regarding the fire reaction properties, to the authors’ best knowledge, there are no studies
reported in the literature about the performance of CRRA.
The aim of this study is to investigate the burning behaviour and the fire reaction properties
of CRRA. For that purpose, four types of concrete were produced: a RC and three concrete
mixes in which the total aggregate volume of NA was replaced by varying fractions (5, 10 and
15%) of RRA. Test specimens made of the different types of CRRA were tested in a cone
calorimeter, submitted to different heat fluxes, in order to determine and compare their fire
reaction properties, namely the following: (i) the heat release rate (HRR), (ii) the time to igni-
tion (TTI), (iii) the remaining mass (RM), (iv) the specific extinction area (SEA) (a measure
of the smoke produced), (v) the carbon dioxide (CO2 ) yield per unit of mass consumed and
(vi) the carbon monoxide (CO) yield per unit of mass consumed. Based on the results of
these tests, the European fire reaction classes of each composition were then estimated using a
flame spread model. This allowed defining the end-use limitations of each concrete mix, taking
into account the fulfilment of fire reaction requirements prescribed in the building fire safety
regulation.

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 FIRE REACTION PROPERTIES OF CRRA 141

Figure 1. Residual compressive strength versus temperature for concrete compositions

with different RRA replacement rates [15].

2. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME

2.1. Materials and specimen preparation

2.1.1. Materials. The NA used in this study consisted of coarse and fine crushed limestone aggre-
gate supplied by Unibetão. The fine NA (D<4 mm) used was natural fine and coarse sand. The
following types of coarse NA (D4 mm) were used: granule (4 mmD<5.6 mm), fine gravel
(5.6 mmD<11.2 mm) and coarse gravel (11.2 mmD25.4 mm). The recycled rubber aggregate
(RRA) used as a replacement of NA was obtained from used tyres—these were shredded mechan-
ically and supplied by Biosafe, packed according to their size: 0–0.8; 0.8–2.5 ; 2.5–4.0; 4.0–7.0
and 7.0–9.5 mm. The decomposition temperature of the rubber aggregate was assessed through
thermogravimetric (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) experiments (c.f. Section
2.2.1). Concrete was produced using CEM II A-L 42.5 R cement, provided by SECIL.

2.1.2. Concrete design. Table I presents the composition of the RC, which was designed using
Faury’s method [16]. All concrete mixes were produced with an Abrams cone slump value of
125±10 mm, to allow correct and consistent comparison between them. The target strength class
for the concrete mixes was C25/30 according to EN 206–1 [17], obtained using a cement content
of 350 kg/m3 and a water/cement ratio (w/c) of 0.55. The maximum particle dimension was set
as 22.4 mm and no admixtures or additions were used.
All concrete compositions, with either natural or recycled aggregate, were produced maintaining
the same grading curves of fine and coarse aggregate. Owing to the reduced water absorption
of both NA and RRA [18], it was not necessary to implement a water compensation procedure;
therefore the effective w/c ratio of all CRRA compositions was considered to be roughly the same
as the apparent w/c ratio.
Figure 2 illustrates the average cubic compressive strength ( f cm,28 ) at 28 days in the different
concrete compositions, at ambient temperature. Results show a linear decrease in the average
compressive strength with the replacement rate of NA by RRA—a maximum variation of 55%
was obtained for CRRA-15 when compared with RC.

2.1.3. Specimen preparation. For each composition, cubic specimens (150 mm) were produced,
which, after 24 h, were placed in a wet curing chamber (temperature = 20◦C, humidity= 100%) for
65 days. After this period, the cubic specimens were cut with a diamond saw blade into 100×100×
15 mm3 plates and placed in a dry chamber (temperature = 20±2◦ C, relative humidity= 50±5%),
where they remained for at least 1 week. Prior to testing, all specimens were wrapped in a layer

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142 J. R. CORREIA ET AL.

Table I. Mix proportions of the RC.

Component Mass (kg/m3 )

Natural coarse aggregate 22.4–31.5 0.00
16–22.4 321.76
11.2–16 319.95
8–11.2 122.92
5.6–8 122.92
4–5.6 108.46
Natural fine aggregate 2–4 194.81
1–2 168.49
0.5–1 105.30
0.25–0.5 249.22
0.125–0.25 70.20
0.063–0.125 0.00
Cement 350.00
Water 194.00

Figure 2. 28-day cubic compressive strength versus rate of replacement of NA by

RRA (average ± standard deviation).

of aluminium foil, covering their sides and bottom surfaces—Figure 3 illustrates the specimen
CRRA-10-HF50 before being tested.

2.2. Test set-up and experimental procedure

2.2.1. TGA/DSC measurements. TGA and DSC measurements were performed on the RRA mate-
rial, according to ISO 11357 [19], in order to determine the mass variation and energy changes as a
function of temperature. Experiments were performed on a SDT2960 Simultaneous TGA analyzer
from TA Instruments. Tests were run from ambient temperature (approximately 25◦ C) to about
800◦ C in air atmosphere, at heating rates of 5 and 10◦ C/ min.

2.2.2. Cone calorimeter tests. The experimental programme comprised fire reaction tests on speci-
mens made of concrete incorporating three different rates of RRA (5, 10 and 15%) as a replacement
of NA (from now on referred to as compositions CRRA-5, CRRA-10 and CRRA-15, respec-
tively). For each concrete mix, three specimens were exposed to three different heat fluxes: 25,
50 and 75 kW/m2 , corresponding to average temperatures of 605, 782, and 902◦ C at the cone

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 FIRE REACTION PROPERTIES OF CRRA 143

Figure 3. Specimen CRRA-10-HF50 before testing.

Table II. Overview of fire reaction experiments.

Replacement of Number of
Specimen Concrete mix RRA by NA (%) Heat flux (kW/m2 ) specimens
CRRA-5-HF25 CRRA-5 5 25 3
CRRA-5-HF50 50 3
CRRA-5-HF75 75 3
CRRA-10-HF25 CRRA-10 10 25 3
CRRA-10-HF50 50 3
CRRA-10-HF75 75 3
CRRA-15-HF25 CRRA-15 15 25 3
CRRA-15-HF50 50 3
CRRA-15-HF75 75 3

surface, respectively. Table II summarizes the fire reaction tests carried out within the experimental
programme.
The cone calorimeter used in the experiments is made of a conical-shaped radiant electric heater,
capable of producing irradiance levels on the specimen surface of up to 100 kW/m2 . Specimens
are placed below the conical heater, mounted on a metallic holder and ignition is induced by a
spark igniter, placed between the hot surface of the specimen and the conical heater. The other
basic components of the cone calorimeter include a load cell located underneath the specimens, an
exhaust gas system, an oxygen analyser, a smoke obscuration measuring system, carbon dioxide
(CO2 ) and carbon monoxide (CO) analysers and a data collection system.
The test procedure was implemented according to ASTM E1354 standard [20]. In all tests,
specimens were tested in a horizontal position, with the exhaust duct flow rate set at 0.025 m3/s.
The duration of the tests was also set taking into account the suggestions given in ASTM E1354 -
this standard recommends data to be collected (i) until 2 min after any flaming or combustion signs
cease, (ii) the average mass loss over 1 min drops below 150 g/m2 or (iii) until 60 min elapse.
For test specimens with the lowest content of RRA (CRRA-5) subjected to the lowest heat flux
(25 kW/m2 ), the maximum duration of the tests was defined as 2500 s (which was never reached).
This definition was based on preliminary tests that showed that for such duration those specimens
had already achieved a plateau of maximum temperatures for a sufficiently long period of time
and did not show any further signs of combustion or thermal degradation.

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144 J. R. CORREIA ET AL.

For all specimens, in addition to the peak values of the above-mentioned fire reaction properties,
the following average values were computed: overall average during the entire exposure period
(Avg,overall ); and average of data during 180 s after the peak HRR (Avg,180 ), as suggested by
Babrauskas and Peacock [21]. This value was used for comparison purposes since the duration of
the test was not the same for all specimens.
At the end of the exposure period, specimens were removed from the cone calorimeter equipment
and cooled at ambient temperature. After cooling, the surfaces of the specimens were subjected to
visual inspection.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1. TGA/DSC results

Figure 4 shows the RM and the heat flow (HF) of the RRA as a function of temperature. It can
be seen that at approximately 350−400◦ C, RRA undergoes some kind of decomposition, with
considerable mass loss but with very little thermal effects. At higher temperatures, RRA ignites and
burns—in fact, the substantial decrease in the RM occurs together with considerable exothermic
peaks in the heat flow curves. The average onset decomposition temperature (for the two heating
rates) defined as the temperature for which 5% of the mass is lost, was Td,onset = 274◦C. The
average temperature of decomposition, defined as the temperature for which 50% of the mass
is lost, was Td = 446◦C. For temperatures higher than about 550◦ C, the mass remained constant.
The average final residual mass, which corresponds to an inorganic residue, was determined to be
3.5%.

3.2. Cone calorimeter results

3.2.1. Burning behaviour and visual observations. Figure 5 shows different phases of the fire
reaction test of the specimen CRRA-10-HF50 (10% of RRA, heat flux of 50 kW/m2 ), which is
representative of most specimens tested. The only exceptions are two specimens of series CRRA-
5-HF25, which simply did not ignite during the test.
In a first stage (Figure 5(a)), whose duration decreased with the increase in both incident heat
flux and proportion of incorporated RRA, a small amount of smoke could be observed (which
increased with the quantity of RRA), but no other signs of degradation could be identified. During

Figure 4. TGA/DSC tests: RM and heat flow versus temperature.

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 FIRE REACTION PROPERTIES OF CRRA 145

Figure 5. The four stages of the burning behaviour of the specimen CRRA-10-HF50.

Figure 6. Exposed surface of specimens from composition CRRA-10 before testing and after exposure to
heat fluxes of 25, 50 and 75 kW/m2 .

this stage, the surface temperature increased and when rubber decomposition released enough
volatile gases they were ignited by the sparker. Ignition of the surface marked the beginning of
the second stage (Figure 5(b)), during which flames covered almost the whole surface of the
specimens, concentrating particularly in the zones containing RRA. After a period of intense
flaming combustion, flames started to cease, especially in the centre of the surface. In a third stage
(Figure 5(c)), there were only flames in the sides and corners of the specimens and, with increasing
exposure, these flames became intermittent. In a fourth and final stage (Figure 5(d)), no signs of
combustion or thermal degradation could be observed in the top surface of the specimens.
Figure 6 illustrates the exposed surface of specimens from composition CRRA-10 after exposure
to heat fluxes of 25, 50 and 75 kW/m2 . It can be seen that all specimens present cracks, which are
much more pronounced (in terms of number, length and width) for the highest heat flux—this is
basically due to the thermal gradients specimens were subjected to. The surface of the specimens
also underwent considerable colour changes—as expected, NAs exhibited pink discoloration, which
is often caused by heating to 300−600◦C [22]. In addition, some parts of the surface gained a
brown/black colour, owing to the dispersion of carbon black that is part of the rubber tyres—
this colour change is much more prominent in the specimen CRRA-10-HF25, because rubber
decomposition was not as complete as for the two higher heat fluxes. Some parts of the surface of
specimens CRRA-10-HF50 and CRRA-10-HF75 gained a yellow/green colour, most likely due
to the presence of sulphur in the constitution of RRA.

3.2.2. Fire reaction properties. As mentioned before, tests performed on the cone calorimeter with
varying heat fluxes allowed measuring the following fire reaction properties for the three different
concrete compositions with the RRA: TTI, HRR, RM, effective heat of combustion (EHC), SEA,
yield of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and yield of carbon monoxide (CO).
Based on the performed measurements, Table III lists the following statistics (average ± standard
deviation, from three specimens) for the above-mentioned properties: (i) peak values; (ii) average
values over the entire exposure period (Avgoverall ); and (iii) average values over a period of 180 s
after reaching the peak HRR (Avg180 ). In a number of experimental series, the standard deviation

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 146

Table III. Fire reaction properties for all experimental series (average ± standard deviation).

CRRA-5 CRRA-10 CRRA-15

Concrete composition
Heat flux (kW/m2 ) 25 50 75 25 50 75 25 50 75
Time to 2055±770 567±97 319±65 1290±145 427±65 265±13 1085±192 386±36 218±38
ignition,
TTI [s]
HRR Peak 13.1±11.4 23.1±1.3 51.9±28.6 22.1±10.8 52.5±6.0 61.6±5.0 75.7±6.5 105.4±17.9 122.4±14.4
(kW/m2 )

Copyright 䉷 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Avg,overall 4.8±4.7 6.9±3.6 23.3±13.6 5.6±2.2 15.4±1.8 21.2±2.8 20.3±2.5 38.0±11.6 50.8±10.9
Avg,180 11.2±9.8 16.6±4.7 38.0±22.3 17.9±8.7 34.2±4.4 31.3±9.3 64.7±5.3 68.3±17.2 75.1±16.8
EHC Peak 49.7±43.0 28.4±17.1 50.0±29.4 49.6±5.8 27.0±2.6 24.4±2.1 61.0±5.1 57.7±18.6 32.8±1.8
(MJ/kg)
Avg,overall 18.2±18.4 9.0±5.7 18.4±9.8 10.9±1.0 12.5±1.1 11.3±1.7 17.6±1.5 22.8±4.1 17.5±0.3
Avg,180 35.4±31.0 20.6±8.7 32.1±16.8 28.1±6.5 26.1±3.0 20.3±2.9 37.9±2.4 38.9±7.3 29.2±0.1
SEA(m2 /kg) Peak 1112.7±383.9 582.3±137.3 310.8±191.1 974.73±44.1 650.5±93.4 493.2±78.6 970.2±427.2 721.1±148.6 954.8±99.2
Avg,overall 67.2±7.6 154.9±89.0 83.1±41.6 226.03±178.3 188.8±16.2 127.7±29.6 284.0±71.3 241.9±69.0 308.3±30.6
118.1±98.3 328.2±286.6 458.5±86.2 228.8±113.0 418.5±51.0 530.4±115.4 613.1±103.3
J. R. CORREIA ET AL.

Avg,180 143.3±248.2 255.3±203.6

CO2 (kg/kg) Peak 0.765±0.313 0.575±0.832 1.188±0.306 1.878±1.449 2.328±0.919 2.070±0.577 2.123±0.413 2.439±1.528 1.235±0.584
Avg,overall 0.294±0.335 0.219±0.324 0.383±0.068 0.230±0.157 0.886±0.509 0.932±0.430 0.649±0.216 0.893±0.712 0.510±0.480
Avg,180 0.126±0.139 0.458±0.725 0.832±0.229 0.616±0.848 1.915±0.625 1.626±0.872 1.888±0.456 1.708±1.368 0.879±0.852
CO(kg/kg) Peak 0.1194±0.1069 0.0648±0.0955 0.0600±0.0111 0.1483±0.1122 0.2351±0.1047 0.0952±0.0176 0.1187±0.0421 0.2979±0.2697 0.0426±0.0500
Avg,overall 0.0304±0.0238 0.0276±0.0428 0.0270±0.0076 0.0208±0.0105 0.0524±0.0155 0.0296±0.0061 0.0219±0.0077 0.0545±0.0578 0.0096±0.0115
Avg,180 0.0172±0.0182 0.0337±0.0519 0.0480±0.0133 0.0404±0.0140 0.0634±0.0128 0.0452±0.0067 0.0287±0.0084 0.0396±0.0339 0.0126±0.0156
Final 97.2±0.3 95.9±0.3 95.1±0.9 95.0±0.4 94.9±0.3 94.1±1.4 94.2±0.8 93.6±0.2 92.1±1.6
remaining
mass,
RM (%)

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 FIRE REACTION PROPERTIES OF CRRA 147

Figure 7. Fire reaction properties as a function of time for all concrete compositions
and all incident heat fluxes.

obtained in some fire reaction properties is relatively high—the following reasons are put forward:
(i) the quantity of RRA used in the different compositions is relatively small; and, moreover, (ii)
there is an intrinsic variability in the quantity and geometric dispersion of RRA contained in the
specimens tested (even more so due to their limited size).
Figure 7 illustrates the variation of the different fire reaction properties as a function of time for
all concrete compositions and all incident heat fluxes. For each experimental series, one curve is
plotted corresponding to one representative specimen (with intermediate results within its series).

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148 J. R. CORREIA ET AL.

Regarding the variation of HRR with time, for all concrete compositions and heat fluxes, there
was an initial period during which specimens did not release any heat. After this initial period,
whose duration decreased with the incident heat flux and the amount of RRA, the HRR rapidly
increased due to the ignition and combustion of volatiles from rubber decomposition and reached
its peak value. Subsequently, the HRR gradually decreased with time, due to the reduction of
combustible material.
The RM curves, similarly to the HRR curves, present an initial delay period, during which mass
loss was negligible. Then, when specimens ignited mass started to reduce at a rate that increased
with both the incident heat flux and the amount of RRA. Owing to the ignition delay for decreasing
heat flux, the RM curves of all compositions exhibit a horizontal offset. Gradually, the mass loss
rate started to decay but, at the end of the test, it did not stabilize for any of the specimens.
The SEA profiles for compositions CRRA-10 and CRRA-15 followed a close trend to the
corresponding HRR curves, particularly for heat fluxes of 50 and 75 kW/m2 . For those experimental
series, although considerable amounts of smoke were released well before ignition (which also
holds true for the remaining series), the peaks of SEA and HRR occurred simultaneously. This
is due to the strong correlation between smoke density and HRR, which both depend on the
decomposition of combustible material (in this case, rubber aggregate) [23]. For composition
CRRA-5, the correlation between HRR and SEA curves is less significant.
The CO2 yield curves seem to depend closely on the HRR and RM curves. This trend stems
from the fact that the CO2 yield is directly related to the decomposition of organic material. After
ignition, the CO2 yield increased steeply, reaching a peak roughly at the same time as the HRR
curve. From this point on, the CO2 yield started to decrease.
In a first stage, before ignition, the CO yield had relatively low values, particularly for the heat
fluxes of 25 and 50 kW/m2 . Subsequently, after ignition, the CO yield increased but at a much
lower rate than that exhibited by the CO2 yield. Finally, when the CO2 yield started decreasing, the
CO yield increased at a higher rate and, in most specimens, it actually reached its maximum values
when the HRR, the mass loss rate and the CO2 yield were already almost negligible. This pattern
of the CO yield curve, which, for most specimens, is in disagreement with the CO2 yield, stems
from the completeness of combustion reactions. In fact, during an initial stage, when specimens
are burning under sustained flaming, combustion is mostly complete and, as a consequence, the
CO2 /CO ratio is maximized. When flames become intermittent and, in the limit, when they
extinguish, combustion becomes much more incomplete, thereby reducing the CO2 /CO ratio.
Figure 8 illustrates the comparison of the average (Avg,180 ) and peak values of the different
fire reaction properties as a function of the incident heat flux, for all concrete compositions.
As expected, the Avg,180 and peak values of HRR increased with the incident heat flux and the
quantity of RRA. This is due to the fact that both the higher heat flux and rubber content cause
increased yield of flammable volatiles.
Similarly, the TTI and the RM at the end of the test consistently decreased with the increase
in incident heat flux and RRA content. This is also an expected result, taking into account the
flammability of rubber and the fact that higher heat fluxes cause faster ignition and accelerate the
decomposition of organic materials.
In general, the Avg,180 and peak values of SEA both increased with the rubber content—this
trend is also associated with the higher amount of material available for combustion. However, the
influence of the incident heat flux on those figures is less consistent. As an example, for composition
CRRA-15, the Avg,180 values consistently increased with the incident heat flux, but this trend is
not observed in compositions CRRA-5 and CRRA-10 (they both present maximum values for a
heat flux of 50 kW/m2 ); the peak values for compositions CRRA-5 and CRRA-10 consistently
decreased with the incident heat flux, but this is not the case for composition CRRA-15.
Regarding the CO2 yield, as for the previous fire reaction properties, there is a clear influence
of the rubber content on both Avg,180 and peak values, particularly for the heat fluxes of 25 and
50 kW/m2 . The lowest values of those parameters correspond to concrete composition CRRA-5
that presents the lowest rubber content. No evident relationship was found between the Avg,180
and peak values of CO2 yield and the incident heat flux.

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 FIRE REACTION PROPERTIES OF CRRA 149

Figure 8. Average (Avg,180) and peak values of the different fire reaction properties as a function of the
incident heat flux, for all concrete compositions.

Finally, for the CO yield, there seems to be no influence from either the incident heat flux or
the amount of RRA in both Avg,180 and peak values, even though the variation exhibited by the
CO curves shows a considerable offset compared with that of the HRR, SEA and CO2 curves.
In fact, when CO yield reached their maximum values, these fire reaction properties had already
been very much reduced.

Copyright 䉷 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Fire Mater. 2012; 36:139–152
DOI: 10.1002/fam
150 J. R. CORREIA ET AL.

4. FIRE REACTION CLASSES AND FIELD OF APPLICATION OF CRRA

The possibility of correlating results of the cone calorimeter, a relatively simple screening test,
with those obtained in the more complex single burning item (SBI) test, which constitutes the basis
for the European fire reaction classification of building products, has been recently investigated by
several authors [24–28].
The SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden developed a flame spread model that, based on
ignition times and HRR measurements in the cone at a heat flux of 50 kW/m2 , allows estimating
results of the SBI test [29, 30]. In particular, the software developed (Conetools) provides a
simulation of the fire growth rate index (FIGRA) obtained in the SBI test and, additionally, the
corresponding fire reaction class according to the new European classification, the Euroclasses
[31]. The accuracy of this screening method was assessed through a series of experimental tests,
in which 39 materials were tested both in the cone calorimeter and in the SBI test [29]. The
Euroclasses according to the simulation were in very good agreement with the Euroclasses obtained
following the SBI test—for 90% of the materials analysed, the predicted Euroclasses matched those
obtained according to test results. A too severe simulation (conservative) was obtained in only
four materials, for which the simulated fire reaction classes were worser than those experimentally
obtained with the SBI test.
Given the high accuracy obtained in previous simulations, the Conetools software has been used
in the present study to estimate the SBI test curves of CRRA compositions. The result of these
simulations are presented in Figure 9 and show that, taking only into account the contribution
of the materials to fire development, all concrete compositions tested correspond to Euroclasses
A2 to B (non-combustible to non-flammable). Based on the SBI test results, such rating can be
attributed provided that the FIGRA is lower than 120 W/s, the total heat release (THR600 s ) is less
than 7.5 MJ and there is no lateral flame spread in the edge of the specimen.
As an illustrative example, the Portuguese regulation for the fire safety in residential houses
[32, 33] defines a set of requirements for the minimum fire reaction classes of materials used
in different components and locations of buildings. For structural applications, the main end-use
limitations for the CRRA analyzed in this research (comprising up to 15% of RRA and assuming that
no additional insulation or coating is used) are roofs, stairs, ventilation ducts and garbage disposal
compartments. In terms of non-structural applications, under the same assumptions, restrictions on
these CRRA’s use are limited to wall and ceiling finishing on escape routes, fire-proof enclosures
and certain areas that pose a greater risk in terms of fire outbreak and development (rated as

Figure 9. Simulation of SBI curves for all concrete compositions.

Copyright 䉷 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Fire Mater. 2012; 36:139–152
DOI: 10.1002/fam
 FIRE REACTION PROPERTIES OF CRRA 151

category C or above, according to References [32, 33]). In other less-restrictive areas there are no
limitations on the structural or non-structural use of (non-insulated or uncoated) CRRA.

5. CONCLUSIONS

Based on the results obtained in this study, on the fire reaction properties of CRRA, the following
main conclusions can be drawn:
1. The fire reaction properties studied were influenced by the amount of recycled rubber aggre-
gate (RRA)—in general, higher replacement rates of NAs by RRA led to a worse fire reaction
response.
2. With the exception of some specimens from series CRRA-5-HF25 (with a 5% content of
RRA and exposed to the lowest heat flux of 25 kW/m2 ), all specimens ignited. The time to
ignition consistently decreased with the increase in both incident heat flux and replacement
rate of RRA.
3. Owing to the organic nature of RRA, as expected, the average and peak values of the HRR
and the SEA all consistently increased with the quantity of RRA. The dependence of the
average and peak values of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) yield on the quantity of RRA was less
significant, although the lowest values corresponded to concrete compositions with the lowest
amount of RRA. The CO yield was not noticeably influenced by the amount of RRA.
4. The European fire reaction classes were determined based on a flame spread model, which
allows simulating the results of the SBI test based on the cone calorimeter test results: all
CRRA compositions tested were provisionally rated as class A2 or B.
5. As an illustrative example, according to the Portuguese regulation, the fire reaction-related
restrictions on the structural use of CRRA compositions incorporating up to 15% of RRA
are circumscribed to the structure of roofs, staircases, ventilation ducts and garbage disposal
compartments; for non-structural applications, end-use limitations correspond to wall and
ceiling coatings in escape routes, fire-proof enclosures and other specific areas with a higher
fire risk.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank ICIST-IST and FCT for funding the research, and companies Secil, Unibetão
and Biosafe for supplying the materials used in the experiments. The authors also wish to thank Prof.
Francisco Lemos (IST) for his help with the DSC/TGA measurements and Ms. Andreia Durães and Dr.
João Rodrigues (INEGI) for their valuable assistance with the cone calorimeter tests.

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Copyright 䉷 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Fire Mater. 2012; 36:139–152
DOI: 10.1002/fam