AGBT03-18 Guide To Bridge Technology Part 3 Typical Superstructures Substructures and Components

Guide to Bridge Technology Part 3:
Typical Superstructures, Substructures and

Components
Sydney 2018
Guide to Bridge Technology Part 3: Typical Superstructures, Substructures and Components
Publisher
Second edition prepared by: Hanson Ngo
Austroads Ltd.
Level 9, 287 Elizabeth Street
Second edition project manager: Henry Luczak Sydney NSW 2000 Australia
Phone: +61 2 8265 3300
Abstract
austroads@austroads.com.au
This Part of the Austroads Guide to Bridge Technology discusses the need for www.austroads.com.au
the bridge designer to address the specific requirements such as the
transporting of goods and services, development of flood free routes, About Austroads
navigational clearances, longer spans, and construction methods to reduce
costs and reduce construction times. Austroads is the peak organisation of Australasian
road transport and traffic agencies.
Topics covered include the various types of bridges by their building material,
ranging from timber to prestressed concrete construction, and a range of Austroads’ purpose is to support our member
cable type bridges, including pedestrian facilities. Included in discussion in organisations to deliver an improved Australasian
this Part are superstructure and substructure components of various road transport network. To succeed in this task, we
materials, namely timber, steel, wrought iron, reinforced and pre-stressed undertake leading-edge road and transport
concrete. There is also discussion on foundations, bearings, decks and deck research which underpins our input to policy
joints. Ancillary components including traffic barriers, noise barriers, protection development and published guidance on the
screens and pedestrian rails are also covered. design, construction and management of the road
network and its associated infrastructure.
Austroads provides a collective approach that
delivers value for money, encourages shared
Keywords knowledge and drives consistency for road users.
Bridge, superstructure, substructure, bridge component, timber bridge, steel Austroads is governed by a Board consisting of
bridge, concrete bridge, stayed-cable bridge, suspension bridge, arch bridge, senior executive representatives from each of its
pedestrian bridge, bridge deck, bridge foundation, bridge bearing, bridge eleven member organisations:
expansion joint.
• Roads and Maritime Services New South Wales
• Roads Corporation Victoria
Second edition published February 2018 • Queensland Department of Transport and Main
First edition published September 2009 Roads
• Main Roads Western Australia
• Department of Planning, Transport and
Infrastructure South Australia
ISBN 978-1-925451-93-1
• Department of State Growth Tasmania
Austroads Project No. BT1830 Pages 212
• Department of Infrastructure, Planning and
Austroads Publication No. AGBT03-18 Logistics Northern Territory
• Transport Canberra and City Services
Directorate, Australian Capital Territory
© Austroads Ltd 2018 • Australian Government Department of
This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Infrastructure and Regional Development
Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced by any process without • Australian Local Government Association
the prior written permission of Austroads.
• New Zealand Transport Agency.
Acknowledgements
First edition prepared by Don Carter and project managed by Geoff Boully.
This Guide is produced by Austroads as a general guide. Its application is discretionary. Road authorities may vary their practice
according to local circumstances and policies. Austroads believes this publication to be correct at the time of printing and does not
accept responsibility for any consequences arising from the use of information herein. Readers should rely on their own skill and
judgement to apply information to particular issues.
This edition provides updated details and information on various sections, and removing overlapping information. Major changes
include:
• Section 2 General Bridge Types and Components | New section.

• Section 3 Timber Bridges | Added Section 3.2.3 to discuss connections and fasteners used in timber bridges and Section 3.6 for
assessment of existing timber bridges.
• Section 4 Steel Bridges | Incorporated Wrought Iron Bridges (Section 5 in 2009 edition).
• Section 5 Reinforced Concrete Bridges | Minor revision.
• Section 6 Prestressed Concrete Bridges | Added Section 6.1, Section 6.2, and Section 6.4 to provide background information
about prestressing. Restructured and provided additional details in Section 6.10 to cover various forms of prestressed concrete
box girders based on construction methods.
• Section 7 Cable-stayed Bridges | Added Section 7.3 to provide an overview of common cable-stayed bridge components and
Section 7.4 to provide further information about the structural types of cable-stayed bridges.
• Section 8 Suspension Bridges | Added Section 8.2 to Section 8.4 to align with Section 7.
• Section 9 Arch Bridges | Added Section 9.4 to provide information on the assessment of arch bridges.
• Section 10 Pedestrian Bridges | Added an introduction. Added Section 10.3 to provide a discussion on pedestrian bridge types and
components. Changed Section 10.3 to Section 10.4 and included design requirements. Added Section 10.5 for fibre reinforced
polymer pedestrian bridges.
• Section 11 to Section 14, reordered: 11 changed to 12, 12 to 13, 13 to 14, and 14 to 11. Changes are noted below.
• Section 11 Bridge Decks | Divided Section 11.1 into subsections to cover plank decks, laminated timber decks and stressed
laminated decks. Added Section 11.5.2 to cover steel orthotropic decks.
• Section 12 Major Bridge Substructure Elements | Added Section 12.1.3 for design considerations for abutments and retaining
walls, Section 12.2.2 for typical cross-sections of piers, Section 12.2.3 for pier protections and Section 12.4 for mechanically
stabilised earth walls.
• Section 13 Bridge Foundations | Added Section 13.1 for an introduction of bridge foundations, Section 13.3 for design
considerations and Section 13.4 for scour assessments.
• Section 14 Bridge Bearings | Added Section 14.2.7 for bearings for horizontally curved bridges, Section 14.4.3 for disc bearings
and Section 14.4.4 for cylindrical and disc bearings.
• Section 15 Bridge Deck Joints | Revised the structure and content, including moving information on joint maintenance and failures
to Part 7. Added guidelines on design, manufacture, testing and installation. Added a section on the selection criteria for expansion
joints. Added design considerations and notes on noise restriction when using modular expansion joints in the vicinity of residential
areas.
• Section 16 Ancillary Bridge Components | Added Sections 16.5 to 16.7 for utilities, drainage and road signs on bridges.
• Glossary | New section.
Contents
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Scope ....................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 Need ........................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1.2 Available Materials ..................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Guide Structure ........................................................................................................................................ 2
2. General Bridge Types and Components .............................................................................................. 2

2.1 Classifications of Bridge Structures.......................................................................................................... 3
2.1.1 Materials ..................................................................................................................................... 3
2.1.2 Structural Types ......................................................................................................................... 3
2.1.3 Support Conditions ..................................................................................................................... 3
2.1.4 Function ...................................................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Bridge Components .................................................................................................................................. 5
2.2.1 Superstructure ............................................................................................................................ 5
2.2.2 Substructure ............................................................................................................................... 5
2.2.3 Ancillary Bridge Components ..................................................................................................... 5
3. Timber Bridges ....................................................................................................................................... 6

3.1 Historical Background .............................................................................................................................. 6
3.1.1 Timber Girder Bridges ................................................................................................................ 6
3.1.2 Timber Truss Bridges ................................................................................................................. 7
3.1.3 Stressed Laminated Timber Decks ............................................................................................ 9
3.1.4 Timber/Concrete Composite Bridges ......................................................................................... 9
3.2 Timber Girders.......................................................................................................................................... 9
3.2.1 Superstructure .......................................................................................................................... 10
3.2.2 Substructure ............................................................................................................................. 12
3.2.3 Connections and Fasteners...................................................................................................... 14
3.3 Timber Trusses....................................................................................................................................... 16
3.3.1 Timber Truss Types .................................................................................................................. 16
3.3.2 Timber Truss Members ............................................................................................................ 17
3.4 Stress Laminated Timber Bridge Decks ................................................................................................. 20
3.5 Timber/concrete Composite Bridge Deck............................................................................................... 22
3.6 Assessment of Existing Timber Bridges ................................................................................................. 24
4. Steel Bridges ......................................................................................................................................... 25

4.1 Historical Background ............................................................................................................................ 25
4.2 Steel Beams and Girders ....................................................................................................................... 26
4.2.1 Wrought Iron Girder Bridges..................................................................................................... 27
4.2.2 Rolled Sections ......................................................................................................................... 29
4.2.3 Trough Girders.......................................................................................................................... 32
4.2.4 Box Girders ............................................................................................................................... 35
4.2.5 Composite Action ..................................................................................................................... 37
4.3 Steel Truss Bridges ................................................................................................................................ 37
4.3.1 Truss Structural Concepts ........................................................................................................ 37
4.3.2 Steel Truss Types ..................................................................................................................... 43
4.3.3 Member Configuration .............................................................................................................. 43
4.3.4 Truss Connections .................................................................................................................... 47
4.3.5 Steel Truss Bridge Decks ......................................................................................................... 50
4.3.6 Steel Protective Coatings ......................................................................................................... 51
4.3.7 Truss Design Basis ................................................................................................................... 52
4.3.8 Structural Assessment of Trusses ............................................................................................ 53
4.4 Special Types of Steel Truss Bridges .................................................................................................... 54
4.4.1 Lift Span Trusses ...................................................................................................................... 54
4.4.2 Moveable Bridges ..................................................................................................................... 56
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4.5 Steel Bridge Design Issues .................................................................................................................... 57

4.5.1 Web Buckling ............................................................................................................................ 57
4.5.2 Local Buckling of Girder Flanges.............................................................................................. 58
4.5.3 Lateral Stability ......................................................................................................................... 58
4.5.4 Bracing...................................................................................................................................... 59
4.5.5 Cross Girders............................................................................................................................ 61
4.5.6 Stiffeners................................................................................................................................... 61
4.5.7 Fatigue ...................................................................................................................................... 63
4.5.8 Dynamic Behaviour .................................................................................................................. 65
5. Reinforced Concrete Bridges .............................................................................................................. 66

5.2 Precast and Cast-in Situ ......................................................................................................................... 66
5.3 Slabs ....................................................................................................................................................... 66
5.4 T-beams ................................................................................................................................................. 67
5.5 Inverted U-beams ................................................................................................................................... 68
5.6 Box Culverts ........................................................................................................................................... 69
6. Prestressed Concrete Bridges ............................................................................................................ 70

6.2 Concepts of Prestressing ....................................................................................................................... 70
6.3 Pre-tensioning and Post-tensioning ....................................................................................................... 72
6.4 Losses of Prestress ................................................................................................................................ 74
6.4.1 Immediate Loss of Prestress .................................................................................................... 74
6.4.2 Time-dependent Loss of Prestress .......................................................................................... 74
6.5 Planks/Deck Units .................................................................................................................................. 75
6.6 I-girders .................................................................................................................................................. 78
6.7 Trough Girders ....................................................................................................................................... 82
6.8 Super T-girders....................................................................................................................................... 84
6.9 Prestressed Concrete Voided Slab ........................................................................................................ 86
6.10 Box Girders ............................................................................................................................................. 87
6.10.1 Span Arrangements .................................................................................................................. 88
6.10.2 Typical Cross-sections ............................................................................................................. 88
6.10.3 Progressive Constructed Bridges ............................................................................................. 90
6.10.4 Incrementally Launched Bridges .............................................................................................. 91
6.10.5 Balanced Cantilever Constructed Girder Bridges..................................................................... 92
6.10.6 Segmental Cable-stayed Bridges ............................................................................................. 97
7. Cable-stayed Bridges ........................................................................................................................... 99

7.2 Advantages of Cable-stayed Bridges ................................................................................................... 100
7.3 Cable-stayed Bridge Components ....................................................................................................... 100
7.3.1 Cables ..................................................................................................................................... 100
7.3.2 Girders .................................................................................................................................... 104
7.3.3 Towers .................................................................................................................................... 104
7.4 Structural Types of Cable-stayed Bridge ............................................................................................. 105
7.4.1 Single-span ............................................................................................................................. 105
7.4.2 Double-span ........................................................................................................................... 105
7.4.3 Three-span ............................................................................................................................. 105
7.4.4 Multiple-span .......................................................................................................................... 106
7.5 Prestressed Concrete Cable-stayed Bridges ....................................................................................... 107
7.6 Steel Cable-stayed Bridges .................................................................................................................. 109
7.7 Cable-stayed Pedestrian Bridges ......................................................................................................... 109
8. Suspension Bridges ........................................................................................................................... 110

8.1 Historical Background .......................................................................................................................... 110
8.1.1 Modern Suspension Bridges .................................................................................................. 111
8.1.2 Suspension Bridges – Australia and New Zealand ................................................................ 113
8.2 Advantages of Suspension Bridges ..................................................................................................... 115
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8.3 Suspension Bridge Components .......................................................................................................... 115

8.3.1 Cables ..................................................................................................................................... 116
8.3.2 Towers .................................................................................................................................... 117
8.3.3 Stiffening Girders .................................................................................................................... 118
8.3.4 Anchorages............................................................................................................................. 120
8.4 Structural Forms of Suspension Bridges .............................................................................................. 121
9. Arch Bridges ....................................................................................................................................... 122

9.1 Historical Background .......................................................................................................................... 122
9.2 Modern Arch Bridges ............................................................................................................................ 126
9.2.1 Concrete Arches ..................................................................................................................... 126
9.2.2 Steel Arches ........................................................................................................................... 127
9.3 Arch Classification ................................................................................................................................ 129
9.3.1 Fixed Arch............................................................................................................................... 129
9.3.2 Two-hinge Arch ...................................................................................................................... 129
9.3.3 Three-hinged Arch .................................................................................................................. 129
9.3.4 Bow String or Tied Arch .......................................................................................................... 130
9.3.5 Network Arch .......................................................................................................................... 130
9.3.6 Deck Support .......................................................................................................................... 131
9.3.7 Arch Structural and Aesthetic Options ................................................................................... 131
9.4 Arch Bridge Assessment and Current Practice .................................................................................... 131
9.4.1 Masonry Arch Bridges ............................................................................................................ 131
9.4.2 Steel and Concrete Arch Bridges ........................................................................................... 133
10. Pedestrian Bridges ............................................................................................................................. 134

10.1 Materials and Structural Forms ............................................................................................................ 134
10.2 Pedestrian Bridge Types ...................................................................................................................... 135
10.3 Pedestrian Bridge Main Components................................................................................................... 135
10.4 Design Issues ....................................................................................................................................... 135
10.4.1 Design Requirements ............................................................................................................. 135
10.4.2 Special Considerations ........................................................................................................... 136
10.5 Proprietary Fibre Reinforced Polymer Pedestrian Bridges .................................................................. 136
11. Bridge Decks ....................................................................................................................................... 137

11.1 Timber Decks ....................................................................................................................................... 137
11.1.1 Plank Decks ............................................................................................................................ 137
11.1.2 Laminated Timber Decks........................................................................................................ 139
11.1.3 Stressed Laminated Timber Decks ........................................................................................ 140
11.2 Concrete Decks .................................................................................................................................... 142
11.3 Decks for Prestressed Concrete Members .......................................................................................... 142
11.4 Decks for Wrought Iron Bridges ........................................................................................................... 142
11.5 Decks for Steel Bridges ........................................................................................................................ 142
11.5.1 Concrete Decks ...................................................................................................................... 142
11.5.2 Steel Orthotropic Decks.......................................................................................................... 143
12. Major Bridge Substructure Elements ............................................................................................... 145

12.1 Abutments and Wing Walls .................................................................................................................. 145
12.1.1 Access for Inspection ............................................................................................................. 146
12.1.2 Approach Slabs ...................................................................................................................... 147
12.1.3 Design Considerations ........................................................................................................... 149
12.2 Piers ..................................................................................................................................................... 150
12.2.1 Types of Piers ......................................................................................................................... 150
12.2.2 Typical Cross-sections ........................................................................................................... 155
12.2.3 Pier Protection ........................................................................................................................ 156
12.3 Retaining Walls..................................................................................................................................... 156
12.4 Mechanically Stabilised Earth Walls..................................................................................................... 158
13. Bridge Foundations ............................................................................................................................ 159

13.1 General ................................................................................................................................................. 159
13.2 Typical Foundation Types .................................................................................................................... 159
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13.3 Design Considerations ......................................................................................................................... 162

13.3.1 Shallow Footing ...................................................................................................................... 162
13.3.2 Pile Foundations ..................................................................................................................... 163
13.4 Scour Assessment................................................................................................................................ 163
14. Bridge Bearings .................................................................................................................................. 164

14.1 Bearing Function .................................................................................................................................. 164
14.2.2 Types of Bearings ................................................................................................................... 165
14.2.3 Components of Bearings ........................................................................................................ 167
14.2.4 Interaction between Bearings and Substructure .................................................................... 167
14.2.5 Bearings for Simply-supported Spans .................................................................................... 168
14.2.6 Bearings for Continuous Spans .............................................................................................. 169
14.2.7 Bearings for Horizontally Curved Bridges .............................................................................. 170
14.2.8 Bearings for Skewed Bridges ................................................................................................. 171
14.2.9 Bearings Subjected to Uplift ................................................................................................... 172
14.2.10 Effects of Crossfall .................................................................................................................. 172
14.3 Typical Bearings in Older Bridges ........................................................................................................ 172
14.3.1 Simple Rocker Bearings ......................................................................................................... 172
14.3.2 Simple Sliding Bearings .......................................................................................................... 173
14.3.3 Sliding Bearings ...................................................................................................................... 173
14.3.4 Hinge Bearings ....................................................................................................................... 174
14.3.5 Rocker Bearings ..................................................................................................................... 174
14.3.6 Roller Bearings ....................................................................................................................... 175
14.3.7 Ball and Socket Bearings ....................................................................................................... 175
14.3.8 Double Knuckle Bearings ....................................................................................................... 176
14.4 Typical Bearings in Modern Bridges..................................................................................................... 177
14.4.1 Elastomeric Bearings .............................................................................................................. 177
14.4.2 Pot Bearings ........................................................................................................................... 180
14.4.3 Disc Bearings.......................................................................................................................... 186
14.4.4 Cylindrical and Spherical Bearings ......................................................................................... 186
14.4.5 Proprietary Bearings ............................................................................................................... 187
15. Bridge Deck Joints ............................................................................................................................. 188

15.1 Function of Deck Joints ........................................................................................................................ 188
15.2.2 Types of Deck Joints .............................................................................................................. 189
15.2.3 Components of Deck Joints.................................................................................................... 189
15.2.4 Selection of Deck Joints ......................................................................................................... 190
15.3 Types of Deck Joints ............................................................................................................................ 190
16. Ancillary Bridge Components ........................................................................................................... 194

16.1 Traffic Barriers ...................................................................................................................................... 194
16.1.1 New Bridges ........................................................................................................................... 194
16.1.2 Existing Bridges ...................................................................................................................... 194
16.1.3 Road-to-bridge Transition ....................................................................................................... 195
16.2 Pedestrian Rails ................................................................................................................................... 199
16.3 Noise Barriers ....................................................................................................................................... 200
16.4 Protection Screens on Road and Pedestrian Bridges .......................................................................... 201
16.5 Utilities .................................................................................................................................................. 201
16.6 Drainage ............................................................................................................................................... 201
16.7 Road Signs and Lighting Structures ..................................................................................................... 201
References .................................................................................................................................................... 202
Summary of Deck Types and Associated Superstructure Type.......................................204
Glossary ........................................................................................................................................................ 208
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Tables
Table 1.1: Parts of the Guide to Bridge Technology .................................................................................. 2
Table 8.1: Suspension bridges: typical types of suspension cables ......................................................117
Table 8.2: Suspension bridges: tower types – bridge transverse direction ...........................................118
Table 12.1: Typical abutment types ......................................................................................................... 147
Table 12.2: Typical types of bridge piers used ........................................................................................ 151
Table 12.3: Retaining wall types .............................................................................................................. 157
Table 13.1: Foundation types................................................................................................................... 159
Table 15.1: Typical deck joints details ..................................................................................................... 190
Table 16.1: Typical bridge barriers on existing and new bridges............................................................. 196
Figures
Figure 2.1: Simply-supported spans ........................................................................................................... 3
Figure 2.2: Cantilevered span with drop-in ................................................................................................. 4
Figure 2.3: Continuous spans ..................................................................................................................... 4
Figure 2.4: Portal frame............................................................................................................................... 4
Figure 3.1: Typical timber girder bridges..................................................................................................... 7
Figure 3.2: Flood damage to timber girder bridge ....................................................................................... 7
Figure 3.3: Timber truss – 1882 .................................................................................................................. 8
Figure 3.4: Timber truss – 1898 .................................................................................................................. 8
Figure 3.5: Side view of typical timber girder bridge ................................................................................... 9
Figure 3.6: Cross-section of typical timber girder bridge at pier ............................................................... 10
Figure 3.7: Top surface of girder faced for seating transverse decking ....................................................10
Figure 3.8: Facing of top and bottom of girder and corbel at the pier .......................................................10
Figure 3.9: Top surface of girder faced for seating transverse decking ....................................................11
Figure 3.10: Timber girder bridge showing girders and corbels.................................................................. 11
Figure 3.11: Alternative timber piers ........................................................................................................... 12
Figure 3.12: Effect of capwale recesses cut into pile .................................................................................. 13
Figure 3.13: Replacement of capwales with pile band and bracket ............................................................ 13
Figure 3.14: Timber replacement piles ready for driving with steel shoe and recess for steel
band at head ........................................................................................................................... 14
Figure 3.15: Basic types of connections for timber members ..................................................................... 14
Figure 3.16: Typical types of fasteners used for timber bridges ................................................................. 15
Figure 3.17: Timber truss types................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 3.18: Truss member cut from timber log with heartwood................................................................. 17
Figure 3.19: Truss flitches cut from true wood of timber log ....................................................................... 17
Figure 3.20: De burgh truss – vertical timber compression members, diagonal wrought iron
tension rods ............................................................................................................................. 18
Figure 3.21: Allan truss vertical tension rods, diagonal timber compression members ..............................18
Figure 3.22: Construction of replacement truss on a heritage bridge .........................................................19
Figure 3.23: Replacement truss .................................................................................................................. 19
Figure 3.24: SLT deck ................................................................................................................................. 20
Figure 3.25: Cross-section of SLT deck ...................................................................................................... 20
Figure 3.26: Transverse bending and shear effects ................................................................................... 21
Figure 3.27: Replacement SLT deck on a timber truss. Steel cross girders replace timber
cross girders............................................................................................................................ 21
Figure 3.28: SLT deck on timber beams and girders .................................................................................. 22
Figure 3.29: Side elevation of timber/concrete composite bridge deck ......................................................22
Figure 3.30: Cross-section of half-width timber/concrete composite bridge deck ......................................23
Figure 3.31: Timber/concrete composite bridge deck – Doolan Deck ........................................................23
Figure 3.32: Timber girder with steel plates and coach screws to develop composite action
with the concrete deck ............................................................................................................ 24
Figure 4.1: Britannia Bridge....................................................................................................................... 25
Figure 4.2: Riveted steel truss – 1903 ...................................................................................................... 26
Figure 4.3: Types of steel bridges ............................................................................................................. 27
Figure 4.4: Components of a riveted wrought iron girder .......................................................................... 28
Figure 4.5: Riveted wrought iron girder ..................................................................................................... 28
Figure 4.6: Taper flange beam span ......................................................................................................... 29
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Figure 4.7: Typical universal beam span .................................................................................................. 30

Figure 4.8: Welded plate web girder ......................................................................................................... 31
Figure 4.9: Submerged arc welding .......................................................................................................... 31
Figure 4.10: Plate web girder fabrication .................................................................................................... 32
Figure 4.11: Hawkesbury River Bridge trough girders ................................................................................ 32
Figure 4.12: Steel trough girder bridge cross-section ................................................................................. 33
Figure 4.13: Steel trough girder span .......................................................................................................... 33
Figure 4.14: Trough girder fabrication ......................................................................................................... 34
Figure 4.15: Butt weld – flange plate ........................................................................................................... 34
Figure 4.16: Flange/web full-penetration weld ............................................................................................ 34
Figure 4.17: Comparison of torsional stiffness ............................................................................................ 35
Figure 4.18: Box girder fabrication .............................................................................................................. 36
Figure 4.19: Interior of box girder showing bracing (foreground), diaphragm (background)
and longitudinal stiffeners ....................................................................................................... 36
Figure 4.20: Composite concrete bridge deck ............................................................................................ 37
Figure 4.21: Random bend test of fusion weld............................................................................................ 37
Figure 4.22: Deep beam with sections removed to form truss.................................................................... 38
Figure 4.23: Truss members ....................................................................................................................... 38
Figure 4.24: Node point – intersection of members in a quasi-pinned truss ...............................................38
Figure 4.25: Intersection of members in a pure pinned truss ...................................................................... 39
Figure 4.26: Pure pinned truss .................................................................................................................... 39
Figure 4.27: Truss span components .......................................................................................................... 40
Figure 4.28: Loss of principal – bending of bottom chord at first node .......................................................40
Figure 4.29: Truss configuration ................................................................................................................. 41
Figure 4.30: Steel under-truss bridge .......................................................................................................... 41
Figure 4.31: Damage to vertical through-truss member from vehicle impact (temporary
timber member in place) ......................................................................................................... 42
Figure 4.32: Severe damage to bracing of through-truss bridge caused by over-height vehicle ...............42
Figure 4.33: Typical truss types .................................................................................................................. 43
Figure 4.34: Truss member configurations on early bridges ....................................................................... 44
Figure 4.35: Built-up riveted wrought top chord .......................................................................................... 44
Figure 4.36: Riveted built-up truss members using channels and lacing ...................................................45
Figure 4.37: Built-up truss member using rolled channel and welded plates .............................................45
Figure 4.38: Truss member – rolled channel section and welded plates ....................................................46
Figure 4.39: Wrought iron lattice truss – 1874 ............................................................................................ 46
Figure 4.40: Wrought iron lattice truss – 1891 ............................................................................................ 47
Figure 4.41: Pinned truss connections ........................................................................................................ 48
Figure 4.42: Field riveting ............................................................................................................................ 49
Figure 4.43: Bolted girder splice ................................................................................................................. 49
Figure 4.44: Buckle plate deck .................................................................................................................... 50
Figure 4.45: Part section of a buckle plate deck ......................................................................................... 51
Figure 4.46: Fatigue crack in truss span stringer ........................................................................................ 52
Figure 4.47: Vertical lift span – 1800s ......................................................................................................... 55
Figure 4.48: Bascule lift span – steel truss ................................................................................................. 55
Figure 4.49: Horizontal swing span – 1874 ................................................................................................. 56
Figure 4.50: Horizontal swing span showing fendering system to protect the central pier from
ship impact .............................................................................................................................. 56
Figure 4.51: Forces in web .......................................................................................................................... 57
Figure 4.52: Local compression buckling – top flange ................................................................................ 58
Figure 4.53: Lateral torsional buckling ........................................................................................................ 59
Figure 4.54: Buckling modes I-girder .......................................................................................................... 60
Figure 4.55: Buckling of top chord of a truss due to overloading ................................................................ 60
Figure 4.56: Cross girder at pier ................................................................................................................. 61
Figure 4.57: Load-bearing stiffeners ........................................................................................................... 62
Figure 4.58: Stiffeners ................................................................................................................................. 63
Figure 4.59: Fatigue in web ......................................................................................................................... 64
Figure 4.60: Transition of flange plates of different thickness..................................................................... 64
Figure 4.61: Corner cuts to avoid weld intersections .................................................................................. 64
Figure 4.62: Fatigue crack caused by stress raiser at corner ..................................................................... 65
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Figure 5.1: Reinforced concrete slab ........................................................................................................ 67

Figure 5.2: Reinforced concrete T-beam bridge ....................................................................................... 68
Figure 5.3: Inverted U-beam – bridge deck............................................................................................... 68
Figure 5.4: Inverted U-beam – articulated plate action ............................................................................. 69
Figure 5.5: Box culvert .............................................................................................................................. 69
Figure 6.1: Stress distribution across a concentrically prestressed concrete section...............................70
Figure 6.2: Stress distribution across an eccentrically prestressed concrete section...............................71
Figure 6.3: Tendon layout for bridge superstructures ............................................................................... 72
Figure 6.4: Pre-tensioning process ........................................................................................................... 73
Figure 6.5: Post-tensioning process .......................................................................................................... 73
Figure 6.6: Typical solid prestressed concrete plank ................................................................................ 75
Figure 6.7: Typical voided prestressed concrete plank ............................................................................. 75
Figure 6.8: Typical plank connection ......................................................................................................... 75
Figure 6.9: Inverted-T plank deck ............................................................................................................. 76
Figure 6.10: Part of typical prestressed concrete plank deck ..................................................................... 76
Figure 6.11: Prestressed concrete planks................................................................................................... 77
Figure 6.12: Transversely stressed deck unit bridges used in Queensland ...............................................78
Figure 6.13: Typical I-girder bridge deck ..................................................................................................... 78
Figure 6.14: Standard pre-tensioned I-girders for skew bridge................................................................... 79
Figure 6.15: Precast post-tensioned I-girder ............................................................................................... 79
Figure 6.16: Standard I-girders ................................................................................................................... 80
Figure 6.17: Broad flange girders ................................................................................................................ 81
Figure 6.18: Broad flange girder deck ......................................................................................................... 81
Figure 6.19: T-girder deck ........................................................................................................................... 81
Figure 6.20: Inverted-T girder deck ............................................................................................................. 82
Figure 6.21: Trough girder section .............................................................................................................. 82
Figure 6.22: Typical trough girder bridge .................................................................................................... 83
Figure 6.23: Typical 27 m span trough girder bridge .................................................................................. 83
Figure 6.24: Super T-girder ......................................................................................................................... 84
Figure 6.25: Standard precast prestressed concrete super T-girder ..........................................................85
Figure 6.26: Typical super T-girder bridge deck – open top flange ............................................................ 86
Figure 6.27: Part section of super T-beam deck – open top flange ............................................................ 86
Figure 6.28: Standard precast prestressed closed flange super T-girder ...................................................86
Figure 6.29: Prestressed concrete voided slab ........................................................................................... 87
Figure 6.30: Cross-section of a two-cell box girder bridge .......................................................................... 87
Figure 6.31: Cross-section of a cast-in-place simply-supported box girder bridge .....................................87
Figure 6.32: Prestressed concrete box girder bridges: structural types .....................................................88
Figure 6.33: Single-cell box girder with internal prestressing tendons – alternative external
tendons shown dotted ............................................................................................................. 89
Figure 6.34: Twin-cell box girder ................................................................................................................. 89
Figure 6.35: A twin-cell box girder with varying depth and bottom flange thickness ..................................89
Figure 6.36 Precast segments for box girder construction ........................................................................ 90
Figure 6.37: Incrementally launched prestressed concrete box girder .......................................................91
Figure 6.38: Typical construction sequence for incrementally launched prestressed concrete
box girder ................................................................................................................................ 91
Figure 6.39: Mooney Mooney balanced cantilever construction – 220 m central span ..............................93
Figure 6.40: Gateway Bridge, Brisbane – 260 m centre span .................................................................... 94
Figure 6.41: Typical construction sequence for balanced cantilever construction – 1................................94
Figure 6.44: Envelopes of bending moments in different construction stages ...........................................96
Figure 6.45: Typical layout of post-tensioning internal cables .................................................................... 96
Figure 6.46 Glebe Island Bridge – cable-stayed balanced cantilever construction ...................................97
Figure 6.47: Prestressed concrete cable-stayed box girder bridge construction using the
balanced cantilever method .................................................................................................... 98
Figure 7.1: Anzac Bridge ........................................................................................................................... 99
Figure 7.2: Cable arrangements ............................................................................................................. 101
Figure 7.3: Stay cable using strands protected by polyethylene pipe and wax ......................................102
Figure 7.4: Installation of stay cables ...................................................................................................... 102
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Figure 7.5: Supplementary wires added to dampen vibrations ............................................................... 103

Figure 7.6: Components of a friction damper assembly ......................................................................... 103
Figure 7.7: Tower shapes........................................................................................................................ 104
Figure 7.8: Single-span cable-stayed bridge........................................................................................... 105
Figure 7.9: Double-span cable-stayed bridge ......................................................................................... 105
Figure 7.10: Three-span cable-stayed bridge ........................................................................................... 106
Figure 7.11: Multiple-span cable-stayed bridge ........................................................................................ 106
Figure 7.12: Box girder cable-stayed bridge – single plane of cables ......................................................107
Figure 7.13: Girder deck cable-stayed bridge – double plane of cables ...................................................107
Figure 7.14: Prestressed concrete box girder cable-stayed bridge ..........................................................108
Figure 7.15: Cable-stayed bridge construction ......................................................................................... 108
Figure 7.16: Example of a cable-stayed bridge with steel girders ............................................................ 109
Figure 7.17: Typical steel plate girder and steel box girder decks used for cable-stayed bridges ...........109
Figure 8.1: Typical suspension bridge .................................................................................................... 110
Figure 8.2: Menai Bridge ......................................................................................................................... 110
Figure 8.3: George Washington Bridge – 1931....................................................................................... 111
Figure 8.4: Tacoma Narrows Bridge failure ............................................................................................ 112
Figure 8.5: Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, Japan – 1998 .................................................................................... 112
Figure 8.6: Opening of Fitzroy River Bridge – 1881 ................................................................................ 113
Figure 8.7: Hampden Bridge Kangaroo Valley........................................................................................ 114
Figure 8.8: Walter Taylor Bridge ............................................................................................................. 114
Figure 8.9: Walter Taylor Bridge cable anchorage ................................................................................. 115
Figure 8.10: Main components of a suspension bridge ............................................................................ 116
Figure 8.11: Suspension bridges: parallel-wire strands ............................................................................ 116
Figure 8.12: Suspension bridges: tower types – bridge longitudinal direction ..........................................117
Figure 8.13: Suspension bridges: examples of girder cross-section ........................................................119
Figure 8.14: Suspension bridges: examples of cable anchorages ...........................................................120
Figure 8.15: Structural forms of suspension bridges ................................................................................ 121
Figure 9.1: Roman arch bridge ............................................................................................................... 122
Figure 9.2: Semicircular arch .................................................................................................................. 123
Figure 9.3: Segmental arch profile .......................................................................................................... 123
Figure 9.4: New London Bridge construction – 1831 .............................................................................. 123
Figure 9.5: Coalbrookdale Cast Iron Bridge – 1779 ................................................................................ 124
Figure 9.6: Princes Bridge, Melbourne – 1888 (wrought iron girder arches) ..........................................124
Figure 9.7: Princes Bridge girder arches................................................................................................. 125
Figure 9.8 Bungambrawatha Creek wrought iron arch Albury, NSW – 1887 ........................................125
Figure 9.9: St Louis Bridge – steel arch bridge 1874 .............................................................................. 126
Figure 9.10: Gladesville Bridge construction, Sydney – 1964 (span 300 m) ............................................127
Figure 9.11: Gladesville Bridge ................................................................................................................. 127
Figure 9.12: Cantilever construction of Sydney Harbour Bridge ............................................................... 128
Figure 9.13: Anchorage system for cantilever construction of Sydney Harbour Bridge ...........................128
Figure 9.14: Hingeless arch ...................................................................................................................... 129
Figure 9.15: Two-hinge arch ..................................................................................................................... 129
Figure 9.16: Three-hinged arch ................................................................................................................. 130
Figure 9.17: Bow string arch ..................................................................................................................... 130
Figure 9.18: Network arch ......................................................................................................................... 130
Figure 9.19: Middle-third rule .................................................................................................................... 132
Figure 9.20: Failure mechanism and plastic moment in an arch .............................................................. 133
Figure 10.1: Example of an FRP footbridge .............................................................................................. 136
Figure 11.1: Cross-section of typical timber bridge deck .......................................................................... 137
Figure 11.2: Timber deck on timber girders .............................................................................................. 138
Figure 11.3: Timber deck on steel members............................................................................................. 138
Figure 11.4: Underside of timber girder bridge with longitudinal bolting plank to improve
distribution of loads ............................................................................................................... 139
Figure 11.5: Nail-laminated timber deck ................................................................................................... 139
Figure 11.6: Spike-laminated timber deck................................................................................................. 140
Figure 11.7: Typical arrangement of SLT plate decks .............................................................................. 141
Figure 11.8: Typical arrangement of SLT T-beam decks .......................................................................... 141
Figure 11.9: Typical arrangement of SLT cellular decks ........................................................................... 141
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Figure 11.10: Typical components of an orthotropic deck bridge ............................................................... 143

Figure 11.11: Typical cross-sections of the ribs used in orthotropic deck bridges .....................................144
Figure 12.1: Termination of approach embankment by retaining wall abutment ......................................145
Figure 12.2: Termination of approach embankment by spill through ........................................................146
Figure 12.3: Spill-through abutment with berm and handrail for access ...................................................146
Figure 12.4: Abutment approach slab ....................................................................................................... 147
Figure 12.5: Typical shapes of cross-section of piers for overpasses or viaducts....................................155
Figure 12.6: Typical shapes of cross-section of piers for waterway bridges ............................................155
Figure 12.7: Typical MSE wall ................................................................................................................... 158
Figure 14.1: Loads to fixed and expansion bearings ................................................................................ 166
Figure 14.2: Rotation at support to be accommodated by bearings .........................................................166
Figure 14.3: Tongue thrust bearing ........................................................................................................... 166
Figure 14.4: Arrangement of bearings in a three-span bridge .................................................................. 168
Figure 14.5: Thermal expansion in a three-span bridge on elastomeric bearings ....................................168
Figure 14.6: Two expansion bearings ....................................................................................................... 169
Figure 14.7: One expansion and one fixed bearing .................................................................................. 169
Figure 14.8: Three-span bridge with fixed span ........................................................................................ 169
Figure 14.9: Continuous spans, one fixed point, one expansion joint ......................................................170
Figure 14.10: Continuous span two fixed ends, one expansion joint ..........................................................170
Figure 14.11: Continuous spans, one fixed pier, two expansion joints .......................................................170
Figure 14.12: Arrangement of bearings on a horizontally curved bridge ....................................................171
Figure 14.13: Effects of longitudinal movements on high-skew bridges .....................................................171
Figure 14.14: Tilting bearing fixed and expansion (with slotted hole) .........................................................173
Figure 14.15: Simple sliding bearing ........................................................................................................... 173
Figure 14.16: Typical sliding bearings – PTFE/stainless steel (top), steel/steel (bottom) ..........................174
Figure 14.17: Rocker bearing ...................................................................................................................... 174
Figure 14.18: Roller bearings ...................................................................................................................... 175
Figure 14.19: Ball and socket bearing in foreground (rocker in background) .............................................176
Figure 14.20: Double knuckle bearing ........................................................................................................ 176
Figure 14.21: Design basis of elastomeric bearings ................................................................................... 177
Figure 14.22: Cross-section of laminated elastomeric bearing with four steel plates .................................178
Figure 14.23: Laminated elastomeric bearing ............................................................................................. 179
Figure 14.24: Mortar pads for elastomeric bearings ................................................................................... 180
Figure 14.25: Pot bearing rubber pad with sealing rings ............................................................................ 181
Figure 14.26: Extrusion of rubber from pot bearing due to lack of effective seal ........................................181
Figure 14.27: Pot stay fixed bearing ........................................................................................................... 182
Figure 14.28: Free floating pot bearing – movement in all directions .........................................................183
Figure 14.29: Pot glide bearing movement in two directions ...................................................................... 183
Figure 14.30: Mortar pad not level reducing rotational capacity ................................................................. 184
Figure 14.31: Pot guide bearing – binding of octagonal pot with side guides .............................................185
Figure 14.32: Collapse of Souvenir Boulevard Bridge during construction ................................................185
Figure 14.33: Watson disc bearings ............................................................................................................ 186
Figure 14.34: RJW spherical bearings ........................................................................................................ 187
Figure 14.35: Maurer Sohne spherical bearings ......................................................................................... 187
Figure 16.1: Connection of approach guardrail to the bridge barrier using thrie-beam ............................195
Figure 16.2: Typical pedestrian handrail ................................................................................................... 199
Figure 16.3: Steel frame noise wall attached to bridge ............................................................................. 200
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1. Introduction
1.1 Scope
The purpose of Part 3 of the Guide is to give an overall appreciation of the bridge types and components that
have been developed over time in response to:
• need
• available materials.
1.1.1 Need
A bridge needs to address requirements such as:

• the transporting of goods and services
• development of flood free routes
• navigational clearances
• longer spans
• construction methods to reduce costs
• reduced construction times.
1.1.2 Available Materials
The materials available have had a direct influence of the type of bridges developed over time:
• Timber – a readily available resource that led to the development of girder and timber truss bridges.
Some timber arches were also constructed with limited success. Spans were limited by the tree sizes and
material properties.
• Stone – readily available and led to the development of the masonry arch bridge.
• Cast iron – low tensile strength meant limited application for use in beams, but high compressive strength
was suited to arches.
• Wrought iron – higher tensile strength led to the development of girder, truss, early cable-stayed and
suspension bridges with comparatively longer spans. The concept of built-up members using angles and
plates introduced flexibility in member sizes.
• Steel – higher quality material compared to wrought iron and being mass produced led to the
development of a wide range of bridge types with increasingly longer spans using rolled and fabricated
sections using riveting, bolting and welding.
• Reinforced concrete – utilised the tensile properties of steel and compressive strength of concrete to
develop a wide range of bridge types.
• Prestressed concrete – utilised the properties of high tensile steel and compressive strength of concrete
to develop a wide range of bridge types precast and cast-in situ.
• Stay cable technology – utilised the development of high capacity prestressing tendons to develop high
capacity stay cables for increasingly longer spans.
• Fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) – emerging materials for infrastructure construction, utilising dominant
characteristics over traditional materials such as low weight and high strength, improved corrosion
resistance, potentially improved durability, ease of transportation and installation, and lower energy
consumption during manufacturing.
Austroads 2018 | page 1

1.2 Guide Structure
The Austroads Guide to Bridge Technology (AGBT) is published in eight parts and addresses a range of
bridge technology issues, each of which is summarised below.
Table 1.1: Parts of the Guide to Bridge Technology
Part Title Content

Part 1 Introduction and • Scope of the Guide to Bridge Technology and its relationship to the bridge design
Bridge Performance standards.
• Factors affecting bridge performance and technical and non-technical design
influences.
• Evolution of bridges, bridge construction methods and equipment and bridge
loadings.
• Specifications and quality assurance in bridge construction.
Part 2 Materials • The full range of bridge building materials including concrete, steel, timber and non-
metallic components.
• Material characteristics including individual stress mechanisms.
Part 3 Typical Bridge • Superstructure and substructure components – namely timber, steel, wrought iron,
Superstructures, reinforced and pre-stressed concrete.
Substructures and • Typical bridge types such as suspension, cable stayed and arched types.
Components
• Bridge foundations.
Part 4 Design • Bridge design process procurement models, specification requirements, design and
Procurement and delivery management processes, design checking and review concepts, the use of
Concept Design standardised components, aesthetics/architectural requirements, standard
presentation of drawings and reports, designing for constructability and
maintenance.
• Service life of the structure and components, mining and subsidence, flood plains,
bridge loadings, and geotechnical and environmental considerations.
Part 5 Structural Drafting • Detailed drawing aspects required to clearly convey to the consultant/construction
contractor the specifics of the project.
• Standards including details required for cost estimating and material quantities.
• Reinforcement identification details.
Part 6 Bridge Construction • Guidance to the bridge owner's representative on site.
• Focuses on bridge technology, high-risk construction processes e.g. piling,
pre-stressing, and the relevant technical surveillance requirements during the
construction phase.
• Bridge geometry, the management of existing road traffic and temporary works.
Part 7 Maintenance and • Maintenance issues for timber, reinforced and pre-stressed concrete, steel,
Management of wrought and cast iron bridges.
Existing Bridges • Maintenance of bridge components including bridge bearings and deck joints.
• Monitoring, inspection and management of bridge conditions.
Part 8 Hydraulic Design of • Waterway design of bridge structures
Waterway • Design flood standards and estimation methods, general considerations in
Structures waterway design and design considerations of waterway structures.
• Design of new bridges for scour, as well as monitoring and evaluation of scour at
existing bridge sites.

2. General Bridge Types and Components
2.1 Classifications of Bridge Structures
Fundamental bridge forms can be classified into various groups based on materials used, structural forms,
support conditions and bridge functions.
2.1.1 Materials
Various materials have been used in bridge construction including masonry, timber, steel, steel composite,
reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete, and other emerging materials such as FRP. Refer to
corresponding sections in this Guide for a brief history of the development of bridges using each material
type.
2.1.2 Structural Types
A wide variety of structural types have been used in bridge construction, including girder, slab, truss,
cable-stayed, suspension and arch bridges. Refer to the relevant sections in this Guide for a detailed
discussion.
2.1.3 Support Conditions
Depending on support condition, bridge structures can typically be classified as simply-supported,

continuous, frame or a combination thereof.
Simply-supported spans
Single- or multiple-span bridges are those where the ends of each girder are supported individually (Figure
2.1). For multiple-span bridges there is a deck joint at each abutment and pier that is undesirable from both a
maintenance and ride quality point of view.
Figure 2.1: Simply-supported spans
Source: D Carter (c2009).
Cantilever with drop-in spans
Bridges with the girders cantilevering from piers and simply-supported drop-in spans result in a statically
determinate structure (Figure 2.2). However, there is an issue with the ongoing maintenance of the joints. In
the past, bridges of this configuration were constructed with half-joints, which have proven difficult to
maintain. Many of the bridges were constructed with inadequate provision to allow jacking of the span to
facilitate bearing replacements.

Figure 2.2: Cantilevered span with drop-in
It should be noted that drop-in spans are now not allowed by some road agencies.
Continuous spans
Continuous spans are more structurally efficient than simply-supported spans in terms of the span length. In
addition there are a reduced number of deck joints that results in reduced long-term maintenance costs
(Figure 2.3). However, this indeterminate structure may induce secondary effects due to temperature
changes and differential settlement of substructures. These effects must be taken into account in the design
of this type of structure.
Figure 2.3: Continuous spans
Frame bridges
In frame bridges the superstructure and substructure are rigidly connected to act as a continuous unit. The
rigid connections between the bridge girder and piers allow bending moment, axial forces, and shear forces
to be transferred.
This structure has been applied in prestressed concrete large-span bridges of up to 260 m (for example, the
Gateway Bridge in Queensland – Figure 6.40). Beside the ability to provide large spans, these bridges have
a number of advantages including not requiring expensive bearings at the supports, better stability of
support, using less materials than continuous girder bridges for large spans, and aesthetics. This bridge
type, however, is more difficult to analyse, design and construct.
A variation of the frame bridge is the portal frame as shown in Figure 2.4, with smaller spans and usually
used in overpasses.
Figure 2.4: Portal frame

2.1.4 Function
Depending on their intended function, bridges can be classified by what they are carrying (e.g. highway,
railway traffic, footpath, cycleway, public service/utility) and the obstacle they are crossing (e.g. a waterway,
another road or railway). The functional considerations significantly influence the choice of the bridge
structural forms, including:
• the clearance requirements (both vertically and horizontally) to avoid impact, e.g. caused by waterway
traffic for river bridges, highway or railway traffic for overpasses
• the type and masses of the loading to be carried, e.g. highway, railway traffic or pedestrian
• the topography and geology of the site, which influence the choice of bridge geometry, substructural type
and foundation.
2.2 Bridge Components
Bridge components are typically grouped into the superstructure, substructure and ancillary bridge
components.
2.2.1 Superstructure
Superstructure describes the part of a bridge other than the supporting foundations and substructure which
spans between the supports and provides the running surface for vehicles and pedestrians. Common types
of bridge superstructure are discussed in Section 3 to Section 10.
Constituent components of the superstructure include bridge decks (Section 11) and deck joints (Section 15).
2.2.2 Substructure
The bridge substructure is that part of the structure which provides support to the superstructure and
transfers loads into the foundation material.
Constituent components of the substructure include:

• abutments, wingwalls, approach slabs, piers, and retaining walls (Section 12)
• foundations (Section 13)
• bearings (Section 14).
2.2.3 Ancillary Bridge Components
Ancillary bridge components include (Section 16):

• traffic barriers
• pedestrian rails
• noise barriers
• protection screens
• utilities
• drainage
• road signs and lighting structures.

3. Timber Bridges
3.1 Historical Background
Typical types of timber bridges include:

• girder bridge
• truss bridge
• stress laminated timber (SLT) bridge decks
• timber/concrete composite bridge decks.
In general, the development and widespread use of timber bridges in the past was a result of a number of
factors, including:
• cheaper relative cost compared to wrought iron and steel
• extensive timber resources available in the lengths required
• high durability of eucalyptus hardwoods–species such as ironbark, tallowwood, grey gum meant a long
service life
• relative high strength of eucalyptus hardwoods compared to other species
• ready availability of timber at a local level reducing transport costs
• timber bridge construction skills were developed locally utilising road agency and local government staff
• ease of maintenance.
A brief historical background on timber bridges is provided in this section. Refer also to Section 3.1 of the
AGBT Part 1: Introduction and Bridge Performance for further background information on timber bridges in
Australia.
3.1.1 Timber Girder Bridges
The timber bridge and in particular the timber girder bridge was the most common form constructed in
Australia and New Zealand up to the early 20th century. The first timber girder bridges were built as early as
the arrival of the initial settlers in NSW (Roads and Traffic Authority 2000). Figure 3.1 shows typical timber
girder bridges used in road and railway applications.
The earliest form of timber log bridges comprised large longitudinal logs topped by smaller transverse logs
with side logs acting as kerbs. In some instances, the decks were covered with soil and turf to provide a
smoother travelling surface. Later the transverse logs were replaced by planks, which further improved the
travelling surface. Construction of timber girder bridges of 10 m span on average was continued until the
1950s when steel production recovered after World War II and prestressed concrete was introduced. The
majority of timber girder bridges were replaced by steel or precast prestressed concrete bridges.
Roads and Traffic Authority (2000) provides further information on the historical development of timber girder
bridges in NSW.

Figure 3.1: Typical timber girder bridges
(a) Road bridge (b) Railway bridge
Source: Roads and Traffic Authority (2000).
3.1.2 Timber Truss Bridges
Timber trusses were constructed in the late 1800s and early 1900s to provide longer spans for major river
crossings where the shorter timber girder bridges were found to be unsuitable for the flood flows and the
forces they generated. Many timber girder bridges were washed away in major floods as a result and there
was a need to develop a bridge type that would provide longer spans for major river crossings (Figure 3.2).
The timber truss provided an economical solution to the problem by utilising local hardwoods for the truss
members.
In the 16th century the architect Palladio constructed timber truss bridges in Europe. The Palladio design
concepts were adopted into the timber trusses constructed in NSW in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
There is some evidence to suggest that the Romans constructed timber truss bridges. Although none
remain, the structural form of a truss is evident in some engravings and carvings.
Figure 3.2: Flood damage to timber girder bridge
Source: Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA) NSW (n.d.).

The further development of truss bridges occurred in the 19th century in America in response to the need to
provide increased span lengths that were beyond the capability of timber trusses and beam spans.
As with the timber girder bridge, the development of the timber truss in Australia became popular, particularly
in NSW. The timber trusses technology was developed in the late 19th century using local timber in response
to the significant cost to import wrought iron materials. Some 40 of these timber truss bridges remain in NSW
and are heritage listed (Figure 3.3 and Figure 3.4).
Figure 3.3: Timber truss – 1882
Source: RTA NSW (n.d.).
Figure 3.4: Timber truss – 1898
Source: D Carter (n.d.).

3.1.3 Stressed Laminated Timber Decks
The Ontario Ministry of Transport in Canada developed the concept of stressed laminated timber (SLT)
bridge decks in 1976 as a method of upgrading deteriorated nail laminated timber decks. The decks had
been built using timber laminates placed on edge and successively nailing them to the previously placed
laminates. Prestressing tendons were placed above and below the deck and stressed to restore the plate
action of the deck.
The concept of constructing a new timber deck by stressing the laminates together rather than nailing them
was the logical outcome of the Ontario development. Stress laminated timber decks have been used in
Canada, USA, Switzerland and Australia.
In Australia, the development of the technology was in response to the need to:
• maintain the existing timber bridge asset until such time as replacement bridges were built
• utilise small end section plantation timber in light of the diminished resource of large end section timber
from old growth forests
• replace timber decks on existing timber and steel truss bridges.
SLT bridge decks have been constructed using both hardwood and softwood timber.
3.1.4 Timber/Concrete Composite Bridges
The concept of a timber/concrete composite bridge was developed in NSW in the 1950s as a research
project to develop alternative types of timber bridge. Research was also carried out on the concept in the
USA.
Bridges that consist of rolled steel joists (RSJ) with timber decks are also in existence in some jurisdictions,
for example Victoria.
3.2 Timber Girders
Typical components of a timber girder bridge are shown in Figure 3.5 and Figure 3.6.
Figure 3.5: Side view of typical timber girder bridge

Longitudinal timber sheeting
Transverse decking
Round girders
Capwales Corbels
(recessed into
pile)
Timber piles

Figure 3.6: Cross-section of typical timber girder bridge at pier
Transverse decking Longitudinal sheeting
Girders
Corbels
Capwales
Timber piles
Braces
Double wales
3.2.1 Superstructure
The superstructure of timber girder bridges usually consisted of round or dressed timber logs as the main
structural members. Girders were required to meet specification requirements in terms of:
• species – the acceptable species were limited
• limits on defects – such as knots, degree of taper, splits, straightness
• diameter – nominal diameter 450 mm (depending on span) with minimum and maximum diameters
specified.
In some girder bridges sawn timber members were used for the outer girders for appearance.
At the piers the girders were supported by corbels (short timber logs) to reduce the span and to provide
some degree of continuity between girders in adjacent spans.
The tops of girders were faced to increase the bearing area for the transverse decking (Figure 3.7). At the
supports, the underside of the girders and top and bottom of corbels were faced to increase the bearing area
at the interface where snipes were created (Figure 3.8).
Figure 3.7: Top surface of girder faced for seating Figure 3.8: Facing of top and bottom of girder and
transverse decking corbel at the pier
Decking
Girder
Corbel
Pier capwale
Source: D Carter (c2009). Source: D Carter (c2009).

Girder diameters varied from one tree to another. To provide a consistent depth at the supports, the girders
were haunched (also referred to as a ‘snipe’). The detail of the haunch is critical to prevent horizontal splits
being initiated as a result of the stress concentration from large changes in angle (Figure 3.9 and Figure
3.10).
Figure 3.9: Top surface of girder faced for seating transverse decking
Potential horizontal split Haunch or

Haunch or snipe
Snipe
with steep haunch
Girder
Corbel
Typical Slope
Typical slope 1:5
Figure 3.10: Timber girder bridge showing girders and corbels
Note: Horizontal split in girder as a result of poor detail at haunch. Angle too steep.

Typical bridge dimensions
Typical timber girder bridges have the following basic characteristics:

• span length – is usually limited by the size of logs available, and is typically within the range of 6 m to
12 m
• girder spacing/number of girders – depending on the bridge width, the number of timber girders typically
is
– 3.7 m wide deck – 4 girders
– a greater number of girders or non-symmetrical girder spacings is generally the result of past bridge
widenings or girder replacement
Typically girder spacings are within the range of 0.75 m to 2.5 m.
• size of deck planks – typically the width of a deck plank is 225 mm and the thickness varies from 75 mm
to 150 mm
• types of running surface include
– deck planks
– running planks
– asphalt/gravel
– timber sheeting
– corrugated steel deck.
3.2.2 Substructure
The substructures of timber girder bridges were usually constructed from driven round timber piles. However,
in some instances round timber columns were supported on timber sills on rock, on concrete footings or
potted into holes excavated into rock (Figure 3.11).
Figure 3.11: Alternative timber piers
Potted in rock
Timber sill in rock or

fixed to concrete footing
To support the girders, sawn timber capwales were recessed into the top of the pile. In this design, the
capwale appeared to have insufficient bearing from the pile and was prone to cause vertical splitting in the
piles at the recesses (Figure 3.12a). As a result, many of these have been replaced with a sawn timber
headstock (Figure 3.12b).

Another repair method used by some road agencies to address the splitting of the pile shown in Figure 3.12a
is to band the pile to close the crack and install a support bracket (Figure 3.13).
Figure 3.12: Effect of capwale recesses cut into pile
Capwale
Cut pile off and replace

capwales with single or
double headstock.
Pile
Concentrated edge loading produces

tension perpendicular to grain – result
splitting and water ingress
(a) Cracking on top of pile due to stress concentration (b) Replacement of capwales with headstock
Figure 3.13: Replacement of capwales with pile band and bracket
Source: Main Roads Western Australia (2010).
Figure 3.14 shows an image of driven round timber piles with the recess at the head of the pile for the steel
band and also the steel shoe for ease of driving into the ground.

Figure 3.14: Timber replacement piles ready for driving with steel shoe and recess for steel band at head
3.2.3 Connections and Fasteners
A connection consists of two or more members joined with one or more mechanical fasteners. Connections
provide continuity to the members as well as strength and stability to the system. There are two basic types
of connections including shear (lateral) and tension (withdrawal) connections (Figure 3.15). The former
transmits forces by bearing stresses developed between the fasteners and the members of the connection.
Some strength can also develop by friction between members if the connection is tight. In the latter
connection type, the mechanism of load transfer is based mainly on the friction developed between the
fasteners and the members.
Figure 3.15: Basic types of connections for timber members
Source: Ritter (1990).

The typical types of fasteners include (Figure 3.16):

• Bolts – the most popular connection type used in timber bridges for shear connection to provide a
relatively high strength. They are also used in tension connections where loads are applied parallel to the
bolt axis. Bolts used for bridge connections are standard machine bolts and should not be confused with
machine screws, which have a much finer thread. Bolts are the only type of fastener that require nuts to
maintain tightness of the connection.
• Lag screws – pointed threaded fasteners with a square or hexagonal head that are placed in timber
members by turning with a wrench. Although they provide a lower lateral strength than a comparable
bolted connection, lag screws are advantageous when an excessive bolt length is required or when
access to one side of a connection is restricted.
• Timber connectors – steel rings or plates placed between members held by a bolt or lag screw. They are
used in lateral connections only and provide the highest lateral strength of all fasteners because of the
large bearing area provided by the connector.
• Nails and spikes – driven fasteners used in timber bridges primarily for non-structural applications. They
are more susceptible to loosening from vibrations and from dimensional changes in the timber caused by
moisture content variations.
• Drift bolts and drift pins – long unthreaded bolts or steel pins that are driven in pre-bored holes. Drift bolts
have a head on one end, but drift pins have no head. In bridge applications, drift bolts and drift pins are
used in lateral connections for large timber members. They are not suitable for tension connections
because of their low resistance to tension loads.
Figure 3.16: Typical types of fasteners used for timber bridges
Source: Ritter (1990).

3.3 Timber Trusses
3.3.1 Timber Truss Types
A number of timber truss types were developed that bore the name of the designer. Figure 3.17 shows the
common timber truss types used.
Figure 3.17: Timber truss types

3.3.2 Timber Truss Members
In the early trusses the timber members were one piece, being cut from a tree log. They included the heart
wood, which is less durable than the true wood. To improve durability and better utilise the timber resource,
the timber members were made up of two pieces of timber referred to as flitches. The timber was heart-free
and sap-free, resulting in high durability members (Figure 3.18 and Figure 3.19).
Figure 3.18: Truss member cut from timber log with heartwood
Sap wood
True wood
Heart wood
Truss member cut from

log with heartwood
Figure 3.19: Truss flitches cut from true wood of timber log
Sap wood
True wood
Heart wood
Truss flitches cut from log

sap wood and heart wood
free
Figure 3.20 to Figure 3.23 show examples of the use of timber trusses in bridge construction.

Figure 3.20: De burgh truss – vertical timber compression members, diagonal wrought iron tension rods
Figure 3.21: Allan truss vertical tension rods, diagonal timber compression members

Figure 3.22: Construction of replacement truss on a heritage bridge
Figure 3.23: Replacement truss
Note: Timber members consist of two separate pieces – flitches.

3.4 Stress Laminated Timber Bridge Decks
An SLT deck consists of timber laminates with pre-drilled holes that are placed on edge to build up the deck
area. The laminates are supplied in a range of lengths that are distributed throughout the deck to develop a
pattern of 1 in 4 butt joints. The orthotropic plate action of the deck depends on the prestressing being
sufficient to ensure that the laminates remain in contact under transverse bending and do not open up. In
addition, prestressing must develop sufficient friction to ensure no vertical slipping of the laminates occurs
(Figure 3.24 and Figure 3.25).
Figure 3.24: SLT deck
Laminates
Butt joints 1 in 4
Predrilled holes typically

Stressing tendons – Predrilled
900 centres holes typically
normally 12 mm diameter 900 mm centres
strand
Figure 3.25: Cross-section of SLT deck
Prestressing strand or high tensile bar
Anchor plate
Barrel wedge or
nut
Laminates typical 145 x 35, 190 x 35 or 245 x 45 depending on span
The laminates consist of kiln-dried timber, which minimises the amount of creep and shrinkage compared to
green timber. The initial prestressing applied is typically 1200 kPa for hardwood and 1000 kPa for radiata
pine. Restressing of the prestressing tendons is required from time to time due to shrinkage and creep. The
minimum prestress to maintain plate action is 700 kPa for hardwood and 550 kPa for radiata pine. Figure
3.26 shows how a wheel loading contributes to transverse bending and transverse shear on laminate timber
decking.

Figure 3.26: Transverse bending and shear effects
Figure 3.27 and Figure 3.28 show the use and installation of SLT decks.
Figure 3.27: Replacement SLT deck on a timber truss. Steel cross girders replace timber cross girders

Figure 3.28: SLT deck on timber beams and girders
3.5 Timber/concrete Composite Bridge Deck
Two timber composite bridges were constructed in NSW in 1955 and remained in service until 2007. The
timber girders were still in sound condition after more than 50 years in service as the concrete deck
prevented moisture from accelerating deterioration of the timber (as occurs with conventional timber
bridges). In the 1990s a new timber/concrete bridge deck ‘Doolan Deck’ was developed by Mr T Doolan. A
load-testing program was carried out by the Roads and Maritime Services (formerly RTA) to develop design
criteria as this type of bridge was not covered by existing bridge design codes.
The bridge deck was constructed in modular form in half widths. Bridges have also been constructed three
modules wide. The bridge deck has been used by the Roads and Maritime Services and a number of
Councils to replace existing standard timber bridges. The modular prefabricated construction offers
advantages in terms of speed of construction.
The composite action between the timber girder and the concrete deck is achieved using steel plates driven
into grooves in the girder and coach screws (Figure 3.29 to Figure 3.32).
Figure 3.29: Side elevation of timber/concrete composite bridge deck
Concrete deck slab composite with girder
Timber girder cast into concrete

at supports

Figure 3.30: Cross-section of half-width timber/concrete composite bridge deck
Figure 3.31: Timber/concrete composite bridge deck – Doolan Deck

Figure 3.32: Timber girder with steel plates and coach screws to develop composite action with the concrete
deck
3.6 Assessment of Existing Timber Bridges
Most existing timber bridges were designed using the working stress approach. It has been observed in
practice that while some timber bridges may satisfy the capacity requirements when using the superseded
working stress timber structures code AS 1720.1-1988, they often fail when assessed using the current
ultimate limit states timber structures code AS 1720.1-2010.
It is specified in AS 5100.7 that the serviceability limit state may be used in the determination of live load
rating for timber bridges. Timber members may be assessed to (superseded) ultimate limit states timber
structures code AS 1720.1-1997 or alternatively to AS 1720.1-1988.
The majority of traditional timber bridge designs utilise systems that do not provide a high degree of
composite action or continuity between components. Structural systems are susceptible to the effects of
repeated loads and the structural response changes with time. In most cases, the behaviour of timber beam
spans can be approximated as simply-supported. The effective length of a span is highly dependent upon
the corbel arrangements, including the length of the corbel, the number and location of girder to corbel
connections, and bolt tightness. Due to the fact that all of these are variable, it is appropriate to model the
worst case, which assumes that there is no continuity afforded by the corbels, and no negative bending
moments. If a simplified method gives inadequate strength, a more refined analysis (including an analysis of
the connections) should be conducted.
Refer to the AS 5100.9 for detailed design requirements for timber bridges.

4. Steel Bridges
Typical types of steel bridges include:

• steel girder, with different structural forms and composite steel girders and concrete slab
• steel truss, with different truss configurations.
The development of wrought iron technology in the 19th century provided a suitable material to construct the
early metallic girder bridges. The use of metallic girder bridges increased further with the development of the
steel industry from the late 19th century.
The growth of the steel industry in the 20th century resulted in the construction of continuous rolling mills that
produced lengths of plate, I-beams, angles and channels up to 12 m in length. The availability of these steel
products reduced the fabrication costs compared to wrought iron members. The increase in the strength of
steel resulted in increased span lengths compared to wrought iron. In addition, the material properties of
steel were more consistent compared to wrought iron.
The development of high tensile steel in the mid-20th century further increased the span lengths possible for
metallic girders using welded plate and box girders. Some of the early long span wrought iron bridges were
of box girder configuration. Figure 4.1 shows the Britannia Bridge, in Wales, which is a wrought iron box
girder bridge designed by Robert Stephenson. The bridge crosses the Menai Strait and was completed in
1850.
Figure 4.1: Britannia Bridge
Source: Bennett (1999).

As for girder bridges, the development of wrought iron technology in the 19th century provided a suitable
material to construct the early metallic truss bridges (Figure 4.2). The use of metallic truss bridges increased
further with the development of the steel industry from the late 19th century. The use of steel truss bridge
technology continued until the mid-20th century but was phased out in the 1960s with the development of
prestressed concrete, welded plate web and steel box girders for longer spans.
In Australia, the earliest wrought iron truss was constructed in 1867 in NSW. Wrought iron trusses were also
constructed in Victoria and South Australia. The first evidence of these trusses in New Zealand was in the
early 1880s.
Figure 4.2: Riveted steel truss – 1903
4.2 Steel Beams and Girders
Beam and girder bridges come in a range of structural forms including (Figure 4.3):
• Through girder – consists of two main girders with the deck supported in-between by cross girders
adjacent to the bottom flanges. Decks may be timber, buckle plates with concrete infill, composite or non-
composite reinforced concrete.
• Deck girder – consists of two main girders with the deck supported by cross girders adjacent to the top
flanges. Decks may be timber, buckle plates with concrete infill, composite or non-composite reinforced
concrete.
• I-beam/universal beam – consists of number of girders that support a composite or non-composite
concrete deck. The I-beams may be either welded or rolled sections with spans up to 20 m.
• Welded plate girders – I-section large fabricated girders with spans up to 50 m.
• Trough girders – welded open top section with a composite reinforced concrete deck with spans up to
60 m.

• Box girders – welded closed section with a composite reinforced concrete deck with spans up to 80 m.
Figure 4.3 illustrates examples of some types of steel bridge construction.
Figure 4.3: Types of steel bridges
Source: Department of Main Roads (1976).
Girder bridges come in a range of span configurations to suit particular site situations and design details as
discussed below.
4.2.1 Wrought Iron Girder Bridges
The production of wrought iron was a labour-intensive process and as a result the mechanical properties
were highly variable even from the same ironworks. Wrought iron was made in batches or charges of about
200 kg and as a result the size of sections produced was limited by the process. See AGBT Part 2: Materials
for details of wrought iron as a material.

Wrought iron girders were fabricated by riveting plates and angles to form a built-up section. The girder webs
consisted of plates spliced by riveting and stiffened by angles. The top and bottom flange plates also
required splicing length of web plates (Figure 4.4 and Figure 4.5).
Figure 4.4: Components of a riveted wrought iron girder
Figure 4.5: Riveted wrought iron girder

4.2.2 Rolled Sections
Taper flange beams
The earliest rolled steel I-sections were designated as taper flange beams, the thickness of the flanges
varying from the maximum at the web to the minimum at the edge. The largest section rolled was 610 x
190 mm.
The beams were used widely in bridges of up to 12 m spans with composite and non-composite reinforced
concrete decks. The capacity of the beams was increased by the addition of welded cover plates to the
bottom flange.
Composite action between the beams and a concrete deck was achieved by welding square bars, channels
or angles to the top flange to act as shear connectors.
The use of taper flange beams (Figure 4.6) was replaced with the introduction of universal beams in the
1970s.
Figure 4.6: Taper flange beam span
Universal beams
The currently available rolled sections are universal beams that have parallel flanges. The sections come in
a range of section properties for the same overall section dimensions by varying flange and web thicknesses.
The maximum section depth is 610 mm.
Composite action between the universal beams and the concrete deck is achieved by welded stud shear
connectors on the top flange.

Universal beams are available in 300 and 350 grade steels. A typical universal beam span is illustrated in
detail in Figure 4.7.
Refer also to Section 8.3 of AGBT Part 2: Materials for details concerning brittle fracture in bridge steels.
Figure 4.7: Typical universal beam span
Further information on rolled beams is available from steel manufacturers’ websites.
Welded beams
Manufacturers typically produce proprietary welded beams with section depths up to 1200 mm.
Plate web girders
The term ‘plate web’ refers to members with a continuous web as opposed to the open lattice web girders
used in the 1800s.
Originally, plate web girders were built up by riveting plates and rolled angles together to form an I-section
(Figure 4.35).
With the development of welding technology, plate web girders are now generally fabricated by welding
flange and web plates to form an I-section to design-specific requirements. The full length of web and flange
plates is fabricated by butt welding discrete lengths of plate (Figure 4.8).

Figure 4.8: Welded plate web girder
The welding process is normally automated using a self-propelled welder. The welding is carried out using a
continually fed wire electrode submerged under a continuously fed granular flux – submerged arc welding
(Figure 4.9). The web and flange plates are usually supported on a rotating jig (frame support) to allow
welding of the web/flange in the vertical down position. The flange to web welds are continuous fillet welds.
Figure 4.9: Submerged arc welding
The welding can also be carried out using a static automatic welder with the girder plates being fed to two
welding heads at the prescribed speed to achieve the required weld (Figure 4.10). The flanges and web are
tack welded to ensure the correct location prior to welding. The process requires two passes by the girder
with one flange/web connection being carried out each time. The girder has to be inverted after the first weld
to allow the weld to be performed in the vertical position. The term given to this welding device is a ‘plating
machine’.

Figure 4.10: Plate web girder fabrication
Self propelled
automatic welding
machine
Girder plates held in position in a

jig and tack welded prior to fully
welding
4.2.3 Trough Girders
Trough girders are used as main members instead of using multiple plate web girders. Trough girders are
fabricated using similar fabrication techniques to those used for plate web girders. However, trough girders
have wide bottom flange plates and two web and top flange plates. The top of the trough is open (Figure 4.11).
Figure 4.11: Hawkesbury River Bridge trough girders

Trough girders are used for shorter spans compared to box girders. The open trough reduces the amount of
top flange steel and provides better access for welding and application of protective coatings. However,
temporary bracing must be used to provide lateral stability of the top flange during lifting, transport, erection
and under the dead load of the wet concrete deck. The in situ concrete deck provides the lateral stability to
the top flange when cured (Figure 4.12 and Figure 4.13).
Figure 4.12: Steel trough girder bridge cross-section
Figure 4.13: Steel trough girder span

Fabrication of trough girders is also carried out using jigs and automatic welding machines. The flange-to-web welds
are full-penetration welds as compared to fillet welds used for plate web girders (Figure 4.14 to Figure 4.16).
Figure 4.14: Trough girder fabrication
Haunch in deck slab to allow for

variations in camber between girders
Stud shear connectors
Deck
Temporary lateral Shear connectors

bracing
Full penetration welds

(welded from both sides)
Figure 4.15: Butt weld – flange plate
Figure 4.16: Flange/web full-penetration weld

4.2.4 Box Girders
Box girders are also used as main members for spans up to 80 m. They have also been used to form the
superstructure members on cable-stayed bridges. Box girders are fabricated using similar fabrication
techniques as for trough girders. Web-to-flange connections are also full-penetration welds.
The use of box girders offers the following advantages over I-girders:
• high torsional rigidity which is of particular benefit for curved bridges
• wider section widths are possible
• the versatility to use a rectangular or trapezoidal cross-section.
Figure 4.17 illustrates the increased torsional resistance of a closed section compared to an open I-section.
For the section considered, the closed section has approximately 450 times the torsional resistance of the
open section for the same cross-sectional area.
Figure 4.17: Comparison of torsional stiffness

20
20
970
12 24
20 20
Torsional resistance R = 2.9 x 109 mm4 Torsional resistance R = 6.5 x 104 mm4
Tortional resistance R = 2.9 x 109mm4 Tortional resistance R = 6.5 x 104mm4
Rclosed / Ropen = 466
Figure 4.18 illustrates fabrication of a typical box girder section, and Figure 4.19 shows the internal view of
an actual box girder.

Figure 4.18: Box girder fabrication
Stud shear connectors
Deck
Flange plates
Full penetration
welds
Web plates
Figure 4.19: Interior of box girder showing bracing (foreground), diaphragm (background) and longitudinal
stiffeners

4.2.5 Composite Action
Composite action is achieved in steel/concrete bridges by providing a connection between steel members
and the in situ concrete deck to ensure they act as one section (Figure 4.20).
The composite action in girder bridges has been achieved by the use of stud shear connectors since the
1970s. The stud shear connectors are usually 20 or 24 mm diameter. The length of the shear connector
should be at least four times the diameter.
The welding of the shear connectors is an automatic process. The shear connector is plunged into molten
steel created by the welding machine resulting in a fusion weld. Each connector comes with a flux collar to
protect the solidifying steel. Specifications require that a percentage of connectors be bent through 45
degrees at the time of fabrication as a check on the welding process (Figure 4.21).
Figure 4.20: Composite concrete bridge deck
Figure 4.21: Random bend test of fusion weld
Random bend test
Fusion weld
Flange plate
4.3 Steel Truss Bridges
4.3.1 Truss Structural Concepts
A truss can be defined as a deep beam with sections of the web removed leaving horizontal, diagonal and
vertical members that form the truss (Figure 4.22).

Figure 4.22: Deep beam with sections removed to form truss
A truss is a structure built up by the triangulation of members (Figure 4.23). The points at which the
intersection of members occurs are referred to as nodes or panel points. Loads are applied at nodes and
transferred through the truss members as axial compression or tension forces.
Figure 4.23: Truss members
The upper horizontal member is the top chord – in compression for simply-supported spans. The lower
horizontal member is the bottom chord – in tension. The remaining members are either verticals or diagonals
– some in compression, some in tension depending on the truss configuration.
The intersection of members at node points is achieved by the use of gusset plates to allow sufficient
clearance for connections (Figure 4.24).
Figure 4.24: Node point – intersection of members in a quasi-pinned truss
Gusset plate
Node

In pure pinned trusses the members intersect at a pin at the node point (Figure 4.25 and Figure 4.26).
Figure 4.25: Intersection of members in a pure pinned truss
Figure 4.26: Pure pinned truss
Two lines of trusses connected by transverse members at the nodes form a bridge span. The bridge deck is
supported on the transverse members. To provide lateral stability to the truss the top chord is braced laterally
and diagonally. The bracing is also used to resist wind loads to the truss. At the entry into the truss, the
portal formed by the principals and end lateral brace is stiffened by the addition of the portal brace (Figure
4.27).

Figure 4.27: Truss span components
Knee brace
Lateral brace
Top chord
Principal
Wind brace
Portal brace
Vertical
Deck stringer
Diagonal
Cross girder Bottom chord
Truss member redundancy
Unlike girder bridges with multiple main members, bridge trusses by comparison have limited redundancy. If
one member fails in a girder bridge the loads are redistributed via the deck to other girders. However, in the
instances of a truss member failing the structural integrity of the truss is compromised, as the triangulation of
forces is lost.
The failure of a principal, top chord or bottom chord is more serious in terms of the loss of structural integrity
as these members form the basic truss action. The failure of an internal diagonal, although serious, may not
result in a catastrophic collapse.
The loss of a principal results in the bottom chord being subjected to bending moments with the maximum
occurring at the first node (Figure 4.28).
Figure 4.28: Loss of principal – bending of bottom chord at first node

Through-truss and under-truss
A truss form is defined by the location of the road deck relative to the truss. Most road truss bridges were
built as ‘through-truss’ bridges where the road deck is supported near the level of the bottom chord and
overhead bracing is provided between the top chords. If no bracing is provided over the roadway between
the top chords, the truss is referred to as a ‘pony truss’ or ‘half through-truss’. In some instances the road
deck was constructed at the level of the top chord and was defined as an ‘under-truss’ or ‘deck-truss’ bridge
(Figure 4.29 and Figure 4.30). The bridges were designed with 3 m lanes, having no edge distance and
therefore being very narrow.
Figure 4.29: Truss configuration
Figure 4.30: Steel under-truss bridge
The disadvantage of through-truss bridges is that they are susceptible to vehicular impact damage from
errant and over-height vehicles (Figure 4.31 and Figure 4.32). Instances have occurred where serious
structural damage to members required load limiting the bridge until expensive member repair and/or
replacements had been carried out. In addition it is not practical to widen a through-truss bridge because of
the limitation of the spacing of the trusses. However, on some through-truss bridges an extra lane was added
by attaching brackets to the outside of the cross girders to support the deck stringers.

In an under-truss bridge the deck is supported on the top chord. The deck forms part of the bracing of the top
chord.
An under-truss span is deeper overall when traffic heights are included and were mainly used over deep
crossings where clearances for flood flows and stream navigation were not an issue.
Figure 4.31: Damage to vertical through-truss member from vehicle impact (temporary timber member in place)
Figure 4.32: Severe damage to bracing of through-truss bridge caused by over-height vehicle

4.3.2 Steel Truss Types
The development of truss bridges led to the design of numerous truss types, many bearing the name of the
designer (Figure 4.33).
Figure 4.33: Typical truss types
Through Howe truss Through Pratt truss
Through Whipple truss Through Warren truss
Through Baltimore truss K - truss
Source: Based on Department of Main Roads (1976).
4.3.3 Member Configuration
In the early truss bridges, the members consisted of plates, angles, tees and channels.
Where built-up members were required, various components were riveted together to form the section
(Figure 4.34 and Figure 4.35). To provide lateral stability, lacing of various types was added in the form of
diagonal plates (Figure 4.36).

Figure 4.34: Truss member configurations on early bridges
Top chord – riveted

Top Chord – riveted
plates
platesand
andtee irons
tee irons
Build-up girder – riveted

Built–Up Girder – riveted
plates
platesand
andangles
angles
Principal – riveted plates and channels with

riveted diagonal lacing on bottom face
Source: D. Carter (c2009).
Figure 4.35: Built-up riveted wrought top chord

Figure 4.36: Riveted built-up truss members using channels and lacing
With the development of rolled steel sections, the need to fabricate built-up truss members was no longer
required and, as a result, fabrication costs were reduced (Figure 4.37 to Figure 4.40).
Figure 4.37: Built-up truss member using rolled channel and welded plates

Figure 4.38: Truss member – rolled channel section and welded plates
Figure 4.39: Wrought iron lattice truss – 1874

Figure 4.40: Wrought iron lattice truss – 1891
4.3.4 Truss Connections
Pins
The connection of members at nodes in some early wrought iron trusses was by way of a single pin
compared to the large number of rivets or bolts that were used subsequently. Each member had a forged
eyelet at each end that fitted onto a large diameter pin at each node in the truss (Figure 4.41).
This arrangement had a number of disadvantages including a lack of redundancy as the loads were carried
by one element and inspection of the pin for corrosion was difficult as the surface of the pin was not visible
unless the members were removed. Removal of a pin or a member was problematic compared to later
trusses that had riveted or bolted connections.

Figure 4.41: Pinned truss connections
Rivets
Most early metallic trusses were of riveted construction (Figure 4.42). The rivets were classified as ‘shop’ or
‘field’. Current guidelines on the assessment of the capacity of rivets take into account whether the rivets
were shop or field. Shop rivets are deemed to be of higher capacity based on the level of control of the
process. The earliest rivets were wrought iron but were eventually replaced with steel.

Figure 4.42: Field riveting
Source: State Library of NSW (n.d.).
Bolts
The high labour costs of riveting and the development of low cost, mass-produced bolts led to it being
replaced by bolting as the most common connection method in truss construction (Figure 4.43).
Figure 4.43: Bolted girder splice

Welding
The development of welding technology resulted in some steel trusses being constructed with welded
connections. However, bolting remained the most common form of connection.
4.3.5 Steel Truss Bridge Decks
Timber decks
The decks on early wrought iron and steel truss bridges consisted of transverse decking timbers supported
by longitudinal timber stringers spanning between the cross girders at each node point. In NSW longitudinal
timber sheeting was added to improve ride quality.
Timber decking although lighter than concrete required comparatively high maintenance.
Buckle plate decks
One type of deck used consisted of wrought iron plates that were pressed into a dish shape to provide an
arching action as seen in the buckle plate decks (Figure 4.44). The buckle plates were supported by the
longitudinal stringers spanning between cross girders (Figure 4.45).
The deck infill consisted of gravel or breeze-coke concrete. The latter is a low strength concrete (around
10 MPa) consisting of cement as the binder and partially combusted coal as a lightweight aggregate.
Figure 4.44: Buckle plate deck

Figure 4.45: Part section of a buckle plate deck
Deck
DeckStringer
stringer
Buckle Plate
Buckle plate
Breeze coke concrete
Note: Buckle plates have also been used in the reverse orientation sagging between girders.
Steel trough decks
Some early steel trusses also used steel trough decking to support unreinforced concrete infill. The Sydney
Harbour Bridge has this type of deck.
Reinforced concrete decks
The reinforced concrete decks on steel trusses were either non-composite or composite.
The non-composite decks were cast on the deck stringers but with no connection to them. Location of the
deck relies on friction between the concrete and the stringers. In bridges with high impact loads, movement
of the deck slabs has occurred as a result of uneven approaches or differential deck slab heights.
The composite decks were cast with shear connection between the deck and the deck stringers in the form
of welded channels, angles or bars. The composite action locks the deck to the stringers mechanically and
ensures the composite action provides increased stiffness and strength.
The early concrete decks were characterised by a lack of secondary reinforcement in the longitudinal
direction. This has resulted in some decks exhibiting extensive cracking.
4.3.6 Steel Protective Coatings
It should be noted that many steel truss bridges were coated with lead-based paints, particularly red lead and
white lead primers, which are toxic. The removal and disposal of these coatings requires strict adherence to
OHS and environmental regulations to manage the associated risks. Individual road agencies have
requirements for the management of lead-based coatings. Expert advice should be sought to carry out
testing to identify if existing coatings contain lead. Additional information on protective coatings is provided in
the AGBT Part 2: Materials.

4.3.7 Truss Design Basis
The existing steel truss bridges were designed before the development of computer-based structural
analysis.
The trusses were designed assuming all connections were pinned, i.e. the effects of the stiffness of
connections and bending induced by any eccentricities at connections were ignored.
Riveted, bolted or welded connections are not a pure pin and therefore some degree of fixity of the
connection exists. This situation under the original design live loads is generally not an issue. However, with
the increase in legal loads over the years the existing steel trusses are being subjected to live load stresses
above the original design levels. Under this situation any structural assessment carried out of these bridges
should include the second-order effects.
The degree of fixity developed in connections can have significant impact on the fatigue life of members. For
example, instances have occurred where the deck stringer to cross girder connection detail has resulted in
significant negative bending stresses occurring that were not considered in the original design. As a
consequence fatigue cracking of deck stringers can occur (Figure 4.46).
Figure 4.46: Fatigue crack in truss span stringer

4.3.8 Structural Assessment of Trusses
The structural assessment of an existing steel or wrought iron truss should include the factors discussed
below.
Modelling
Frame elements can be used to model truss bridges. Consideration needs to be given as to whether a 2D or
3D model is used. A 2D model is appropriate for preliminary analysis. However a 3D model is recommended
for detailed analysis.
Model calibration
For more complex trusses, such as lattice trusses, it is recommended that strains in particular members be
measured under a known load to enable the calibration of the computer model.
Consideration should also be given to measuring strains in members in general that analysis indicates are
highly loaded to confirm actual stresses.
Material properties
The first step in considering material properties is to determine if the material is wrought iron or steel.
Reference to original drawings may provide information on the material used for individual members. The
year the bridge was constructed may also provide a guide. Bridges built post-1900 are likely to have been
constructed with steel.
Some historic material information is available from steel manufacturers in Australia and New Zealand.
However, information on wrought iron and pre-1920 steels is limited. In addition, the variability of the
properties of the early materials means that adopting material information or test results from one bridge to
another is unreliable.
Two options are available in regard to material properties:

1. Adopt the properties as set out in AS 5100.1
This may result in under-estimating the bridge load capacity due to the use of characteristic strength
(rather than average strength) and capacity reduction factors.
2. Carry out material testing
The testing may include
a. chemical analysis and examination of micrographs of small samples removed from the bridge
b. in situ and laboratory hardness testing
c. removal of samples to carry out tensile testing.
Note that the use of hardness tests to provide an accurate indication of the yield stress of wrought iron has
proved unreliable. Hardness tests on wrought iron should only be used for comparative purposes as part of
the overall materials investigation that includes tensile testing, micrographs and chemical analysis.
Note also that the reliance on limited test results must have a statistical basis i.e. minimum number of test
results. The aim is to estimate the actual characteristic strength. Capacity reduction factors must also be
estimated.
For more information on testing of materials refer to AGBT Part 2: Materials.

Dynamics
The dynamic behaviour of the bridge under load should also be considered both by simulation on the
computer model and field monitoring. A number of existing trusses exhibit dynamic behaviour that results in
the dynamic load allowance exceeding the recommendations of AS 5100.2.
Connections
The bridge assessment should include connections including any second-order effects from eccentricities of
one joining member to the other.
In the case of older riveted trusses the actual edge distance of rivets should be confirmed on site. Variations
between the original drawings and the as-built in regard to edge distance of rivets has been observed on a
number of bridges.
Measure-up and verification of member sizes
For older trusses it is recommended that a ‘measure-up’ be carried out to confirm the physical dimensions of
the as-built truss. In addition the cross-sectional dimensions of members should be measured as they may
be at variance with plan dimensions.
Fatigue
A fatigue analysis should be carried out of the main members and also connections and secondary members
such as deck stringers. Fatigue-prone details need to be identified and analysed.
4.4 Special Types of Steel Truss Bridges
4.4.1 Lift Span Trusses
Lift span truss ridges were constructed where the practicality and cost of raising the bridge and approach
levels to provide navigational clearance left no other option but to provide an opening bridge. The use of
trusses in lift spans resulted in lighter mass to be lifted compared to girder spans. The capacity and cost of
the lifting machinery was reduced accordingly.
The form of lift span used was either vertical (Figure 4.47) or bascule, where the span is lifted by rotating at
one support (Figure 4.48).

Figure 4.47: Vertical lift span – 1800s
Figure 4.48: Bascule lift span – steel truss

4.4.2 Moveable Bridges
Early moveable bridges were constructed with the span rotating about a central pier to facilitate the passage
of vessels. This type of bridge provided an opening for both directions of travel (Figure 4.49 and Figure 4.50).
Figure 4.49: Horizontal swing span – 1874
Figure 4.50: Horizontal swing span showing fendering system to protect the central pier from ship impact

4.5 Steel Bridge Design Issues
Steel bridge design issues have been included in this Guide to provide an understanding of design
parameters that relate particularly to steel bridges that are relevant to the observation and inspection of in-
service performance. Buckling and fatigue are not usually associated with concrete bridges.
In designing any steel girder the designer, in addition to calculating global flexural, shear, bearing and
torsional stresses, must consider the following:
• web buckling at supports and locations of concentrated loads
• local buckling of compression flanges (at midspan for simply-supported spans and also at supports on
continuous spans)
• lateral stability
• fatigue
• dynamics.
Each of these design issues is addressed in AS/NZS 5100.6. However, some comment on the background
of each is given below.
4.5.1 Web Buckling
The web of a girder in bending is subjected to both vertical and horizontal shear forces as well as variable
axial force from bending (Figure 4.51).
Figure 4.51: Forces in web
This combination of forces causes diagonal tension and compression stresses. In a steel girder the diagonal
tension stress is not the problem as it is in a concrete girder, because of the comparatively higher tensile
strength of steel. However, the diagonal compression stress could be large enough to cause the web to
buckle.
This buckling can be prevented either by making the web relatively thick, compared to its depth, or by
attaching stiffening to a thinner web. Theoretically, diagonal stiffeners would be suitable. In practice,
stiffeners are either set vertically (transversely) or, if additional stiffening is required, a combination of vertical
and horizontal (longitudinal) stiffeners is used.
Longitudinal stiffeners are normally only used in girders with deep webs and are located at a specific height
from the compression flange. A longitudinal stiffener is very efficient in increasing the resistance of the web
to buckling.

4.5.2 Local Buckling of Girder Flanges
Local buckling of a flange is the failure of the compression flange of a girder caused by the out-of-plane
buckling of a small portion of the flange.
A large flange width-to-thickness ratio increases the possibility of local flange buckling (Figure 4.52).
Figure 4.52: Local compression buckling – top flange
Limiting the width/thickness ratio of the flange to a specific value normally prevents local buckling of a girder
flange. If this requirement is not met, the full bending strength of the girder may not be achieved.
4.5.3 Lateral Stability
Lateral-torsional buckling is an instability phenomenon that results in the lateral displacement of the girder
flange of a beam with simultaneous twisting of the beam.
Lateral instability may occur when the width of the beam flange is small relative to the span and there are no
intermediate lateral restraints along the beam, or the intermediate lateral restraints along the beam are
inadequate because they are too far apart or the restraints are not sufficiently stiff.
If a beam is I-shaped, simply-supported and restrained at the ends so that both flanges cannot move
laterally, its top flange in the midspan region that is in compression would buckle in its weak direction, out of
its plane, if the web did not prevent it. However, if the force in the compression flange is large enough, it will
tend to buckle in the only direction that it is free to move, that is, laterally. On the other hand the bottom
flange, being the tension, tends to remain straight. Since the two flanges and the web actually represent one
rigid unit, buckling, if it occurs, can only take place in the manner shown in Figure 4.53.

Figure 4.53: Lateral torsional buckling
AS/NZS 5100.6 allows for lateral buckling by limiting the allowable compression bending stress depending
on the ratio of span to width of the compression flange.
For composite construction, where the compression flange is restrained laterally by the shear connectors,
the full allowable compression bending stress can be used for the compression flange. However, the girder
should be checked for lateral buckling for stresses induced when the concrete deck is poured and before it
has stiffened enough to support the beam laterally.
If temporary bracing is required, in some cases it can be provided by the deck formwork system.
4.5.4 Bracing
As illustrated in Figure 4.17, I-girders have a low torsional resistance compared to closed sections. Therefore
bracing is required after girder erection to ensure lateral stability of the compression flange. The composite
deck does not provide lateral stability until the concrete obtains the required strength.
In continuous spans the bottom flange at the supports is in compression and is susceptible to distortional
buckling as opposed to lateral torsional buckling that can occur within a span (Figure 4.54 and Figure 4.55).

Figure 4.54: Buckling modes I-girder
Compression
Tension
Compression
Tension Tension
Lateral torsional buckling midspan

Distortional buckling at supports continuous spans
Bracing is required to provide lateral stability to the top flange during construction. At the supports bracing is
required to provide lateral stability for the bottom flange and to tie the girders together. This is generally
achieved using cross girders at piers and abutments.
Figure 4.55: Buckling of top chord of a truss due to overloading

4.5.5 Cross Girders
Cross girders are constructed at piers and abutments. The cross girders can be constructed from steel,
reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete.
Typical steel cross girders are shown in Figure 4.56. For reinforced and prestressed concrete cross girders,
holes are cut in the girder webs to allow continuity of the reinforcement or tendons.
Figure 4.56: Cross girder at pier
Stringer
Main
Cross girder
girder
4.5.6 Stiffeners
Stiffeners are characterised by the function they perform, as discussed below.
Load-bearing stiffeners
Bearing stiffeners are provided at supports and at other points where a concentrated load is applied to
distribute the force through the web and prevent local web buckling. Load bearing stiffeners and part of the
web are designed as columns, bearing stresses and buckling being the design criteria (Figure 4.57 and
Figure 4.58).
Bearing stiffeners increase the area available for bearing support and reduce the shear force on the
web/flange connection.

Figure 4.57: Load-bearing stiffeners
Intermediate web stiffeners
Vertical stiffeners are used to prevent web buckling along the beam (Figure 4.58).
Longitudinal plate stiffeners
Longitudinal plate stiffeners are used to stiffen the compression flange. They usually are used in the bottom
flange over the supports where high compressive stresses occur. They are usually in the shape of a T
(Figure 4.58).
Longitudinal web stiffeners
Longitudinal web stiffeners are used to stiffen webs adjacent to a compression flange (Figure 4.58).
Transverse plate stiffeners
Transverse plate stiffeners (web stiffeners) are used to stiffen compression flanges. They usually are located
in the bottom flange over the supports where high compressive stresses occur. They are orientated normal
to the girder axis (Figure 4.58).

Figure 4.58: Stiffeners
4.5.7 Fatigue
General
The action of live load on a bridge causes fluctuating stresses, hence failure by fatigue has to be
investigated. Members that are subjected to fluctuation of stress may fail as a result of fatigue, and this
failure may be caused by loads that are much lower than those which would be necessary to cause failure
under a single application.
The dynamic behaviour of the bridge under live loads needs to be assessed. Dynamic behaviour has the
potential to dramatically increase the number of cycles of stress compared to the individual load cycles
induced by live loads. This may reduce the fatigue life of the member.
Fatigue failure is a progressive failure over a period of time that is started by a plastic movement within a
localised region. Although the average unit stresses across the entire cross-section may be below the yield
point, a non-uniform distribution of these stresses may cause them to exceed the yield point within a small
area and cause plastic movement. This eventually produces a minute crack. The localised plastic movement
further aggravates the non-uniform stress distribution and further plastic movement causes the crack to
progress.
Fatigue cracks are usually initiated at points of high stress concentration. These stress concentrations may
be caused by or associated with bolt or rivet holes, weld imperfections (including undercut, lack of fusion,
and inclusions), stray arc fusions, defects in materials, and local and general changes in geometry of
members. The cracks usually propagate if loading is continued.
Formulae for calculating the allowable fatigue stress range for various construction details are given in
AS/NZS 5100.6. Various structural connections have undergone cyclic load testing to determine their fatigue
classification. The classification enables the designer to determine the service life for the particular detail.
Parent metal, welds and fasteners are designed so that the maximum range of stress does not exceed the
allowable stress range for the stress situation and the number of cycles being considered. Allowable stress
ranges for fatigue should not be increased for the group loadings given in AS 5100.2.
As designing to avoid fatigue is basically eliminating possible stress raisers, careful consideration should be
given to details that involve cutting and welding.

Avoiding fatigue
The following are some measures used by bridge designers to avoid fatigue problems:
• stiffeners not being welded to tension flanges
Tests have shown that stiffeners stopped short of the tension flange by a specified distance do not
significantly affect the effectiveness of the stiffener and avoid a transverse weld on the tension flange. In
addition, the gap between the bottom of the stiffener and the bottom flange allows the protective coating
to be applied. However, the fatigue effects on the short section of the web as a result of any out-of-plane
bending need to be also assessed. Instances of fatigue cracking in this area have occurred (Figure 4.59).
• providing a transition where different thicknesses of flange plates occur at a splice to ensure a smooth
flow of stress (Figure 4.60)
• cutting the corners of a stiffener at the web/flange connection to avoid welding across the web/flange
weld (Figure 4.61)
• analysing areas of a member where stress reversals may occur e.g. points of contraflexure in continuous
beams
In these cases the stresses in compression and tension may be low. However, the range of stress may
be sufficient to impact on the fatigue life of the member.
• radiographic or ultrasonic examination of butt welds to ensure there are no internal unacceptable defects
that would reduce the fatigue life of the connection by causing stress raisers from where fatigue cracks
could originate
• designing connections for fatigue in accordance with AS/NZS 5100.6 for the appropriate joint classification
and the expected number of loading cycles over the design service life (Grundy & Boully 2004).
Figure 4.59: Fatigue in web Figure 4.60: Transition of flange plates of different
thickness
Web stiffener
Fatigue prone area. Web can bend laterally
Source: D Carter (c2009). Source: Department of Main Roads (1976).
Figure 4.61: Corner cuts to avoid weld intersections
Corner cut
Web stiffener
Web to flange weld

As an example, the stringer shown Figure 4.62 was subjected to large compressive stresses and tensile
stresses due to negative bending moment at the cut out as a vehicle moved along the deck. The wide range
of stresses result in fatigue cracks.
Figure 4.62: Fatigue crack caused by stress raiser at corner
Wheel load here produces positive moment

midspan and negative moment at the
support. Resulting in horizontal tensile
Wheel load here produces stresses at cut out
compressive stresses at cut out
Wide range of stresses at cut out from

horizontal tension to vertical
compression. Result fatigue crack
4.5.8 Dynamic Behaviour
The issue of dynamics has become a critical design consideration as a consequence of bridges becoming
lighter and more flexible as a result of the use of higher strength steels and more refined design methods.
The excitation of bridges is caused by the interaction between heavy vehicle suspensions and the bridge
dynamic characteristics. In some instances vibrational resonance can occur which can significantly increase
stresses in the bridge and reduce its fatigue life. In such cases bridge users, including pedestrians, may
experience discomfort.

5. Reinforced Concrete Bridges
Refer to Section 3.7 of AGBT Part 1: Introduction and Bridge Performance for a detailed discussion of the
historical background on reinforced concrete bridges.
5.2 Precast and Cast-in Situ
Reinforced concrete bridge components can be either precast (in a factory or on-site facility) or cast-in situ
using formwork and false work to support the wet concrete. The option to use cast-in situ construction
depends on the bridge type involved. For a single short span bridge it would be more economical to use
cast-in situ construction compared to precasting a small number of members. The decision on the
construction method to adopt will depend on site-specific requirements/constraints including:
• access
• construction area
• location
• height of construction
• haulage distance
• availability of concrete supply
• construction over water or land.
The advantages of precasting over cast-in situ construction include:

• Production of the members can proceed concurrently with site work resulting in a reduction in the overall
construction time for a project.
• Precast members are constructed in factory conditions on a repetitive daily cycle resulting in a greater
potential for increases in productivity and quality.
• Curing times can be decreased by the use of steam curing compared to moisture curing.
• Steel formwork can be used to achieve cost savings in the production of standard cross-section
members.
The types of structures suitable for cast-in situ construction include:

• slab
• T-beam
• inverted U-beam
• box culvert.
5.3 Slabs
Reinforced concrete slabs were used in the early bridges for short spans (Figure 5.1). The slabs were either
solid or voided and either cast-in situ, built-up of precast elements or of composite construction comprising
precast elements with in situ concrete filling.
Cast-in situ slab bridges are typically built for 6 m to 15 m spans. For spans up to about 8 m, solid reinforced
concrete slabs with depths up to 60 cm may be adopted. Voided reinforced concrete slabs, with depths up to
80 cm may be adopted for spans of about 8 m to 15 m.

Solid composite slab decks may be adopted for 8 to 15 m spans. These consist of precast units with various
shapes such as inverted-T or symmetrical I-section placed side-by-side and stressed together transversely
after the in situ filling.
Figure 5.1: Reinforced concrete slab
Appendix A provides additional information on reinforced concrete slabs.
5.4 T-beams
Reinforced concrete T-beams were introduced to provide a more structurally efficient cross-section
compared to a slab. T-beam bridges were usually cast-in situ.
T-beams were typically used from the 1930s onwards as the development of reinforced concrete bridges
progressed (Figure 5.2). The bridges are characterised by:
• a lack of shear reinforcement compared to current design requirements
• a lack of secondary reinforcement to control shrinkage and thermal cracking
• plain reinforcing bars i.e. no raised ridges as on current deformed steel reinforcement.

Figure 5.2: Reinforced concrete T-beam bridge
Appendix A provides additional information on T-beam bridges.
5.5 Inverted U-beams
Inverted U-beam multi-member decks have been used extensively by some road agencies (Figure 5.3). The
members were precast and the deck built up by bolting the legs of the units together. These decks were
classified structurally as articulated plates as rotation of adjacent members occurred. Later designs used
transverse stressing to develop orthotropic plate action by making the built-up deck act as one structural
member (Figure 5.4).
Figure 5.3: Inverted U-beam – bridge deck
Source: VicRoads (n.d.).

Figure 5.4: Inverted U-beam – articulated plate action
5.6 Box Culverts
Reinforced concrete rectangular box culverts (Figure 5.5) are typically used where:
• the waterway area required does not warrant a bridge
• the height of the road formation above the natural surface is not sufficient to construct a bridge
• a number of openings are required over an area such as a floodway or on a flood plain where the depth
of flow is low.
In the past culverts were constructed cast-in situ. However, today most culverts are constructed of precast
culvert sections typically 1200 mm long. The invert slab that supports the precast units is usually constructed
cast-in situ.
Figure 5.5: Box culvert
Source: ARRB Group (n.d.).

6. Prestressed Concrete Bridges
Conventional prestressed concrete bridges using high-strength steel materials to improve serviceability and
durability have been used since the 1950s. Refer to Section 3.7 of AGBT Part 1: Introduction and Bridge
Performance for detailed information on the historical background on prestressed concrete bridges.
6.2 Concepts of Prestressing
According to the American Concrete Institute (ACI) Committee on Prestressed Concrete, prestressed
concrete is structural concrete in which internal stresses of predetermined magnitude and distribution have
been introduced so that the stresses resulting from given external loadings are counteracted to a desired
degree. In reinforced concrete members the prestress is commonly introduced by the steel reinforcement.
The ultimate purpose of prestress is to provide desirable strains and stresses in the component and
counterbalance undesirable strains and stresses.
Figure 6.1 and Figure 6.2 provide an example of the stress distribution across a concrete section due to
external bending moment and concentric or eccentric prestressed force, respectively. In both cases, the
effect of the prestress force results in a compressive stress state throughout the concrete cross-section –
which is desired for concrete material. The eccentric prestress force provides better stress distribution.
In Figure 6.1, the external moment induces a tensile stress at the bottom and a compressive stress at the top
extreme fibres of the beam. The concentric prestress force induces a constant compressive stress across
the depth of the beam’s cross-section. The prestress force can be determined to obtain desired resultant
stresses which are compressive at the bottom extreme fibre and within the concrete compressive strength
limit for at the top extreme fibre.
Figure 6.1: Stress distribution across a concentrically prestressed concrete section
Source: Xanthakos (1994).

Eccentric tendons provide two stress components on the beams cross-section, including an axial
compressive force which induces constant axial compressive stress across the depth of the cross-section,
and a bending moment which induces the stresses which are of the opposite sign to the stresses due to the
external moment. The desired resultant stresses can be obtained by adjusting the eccentricity of the tendons
and the prestress forces.
Figure 6.2: Stress distribution across an eccentrically prestressed concrete section
Source: Xanthakos (1994).
Figure 6.3 shows some examples of the tendon layout for bridge superstructure to counter the load effects in
simply-supported girders (a – d) and continuous girders (e), as follows:
• eccentric straight tendons (a)
• linear transformed tendons at one transformed point (b)
• linear transformed tendons at two transformed point (c)
• parabola profile (d)
• linear transformed profile for negative bending moments at supports and positive bending moments at the
midspan sections (e).
The advantages of shifting up the tendons near the ends of the beam include increasing shear capacity of
the sections near the support where the shear due to external loads is usually high, and reducing the
possibility of cracks to occur during the manufacturing process at these sections, where the bending moment
due to self-weight of the beam is small.
Refer to Section 3.4 of AGBT Part 2: Materials for a detailed discussion on prestressing steels and
accessories, and Section 15 of AGBT Part 6: Bridge Construction for prestressing procedures.

Figure 6.3: Tendon layout for bridge superstructures
Source: Chen and Duan (2000).
6.3 Pre-tensioning and Post-tensioning
Prestressed concrete members are classified by method of manufacture that is either pre-tensioning or post-
tensioning. Pre-tensioned members can only by precast while post-tensioned members can be either precast
or cast-in situ.
In the pre-tensioning method, a number of strands are tensioned over a casting bed and steel reinforcement
placed and moulds fixed in place. The concrete is then placed and cured (usually by steaming) to obtain the
specified strength before releasing the strands from the casting bed, to enable the total force in all the
strands to be transferred from the bed to the members (Figure 6.4). Pre-tensioning members usually have
the straight or linear transformed tendon profile as in Figure 6.3 (a to c). For strands, special types of
anchors are usually used near the ends of the strands to better spread the prestress forces to the concrete,
in addition to the bond between the strands and the concrete. In contrast, for wires the forces are transferred
to the concrete usually by the bond between the wire and concrete. Depending on the design purpose, some
lengths at the ends of the tendons are usually debonded to obtain a better resultant stress state.
In the post-tensioning method, the member is formed, steel reinforcement placed, prestressing anchorages
fixed and ducts inserted over the full length of the member. The concrete is poured and cured (moist or
steam) and when the specified strength is obtained the strands are stressed (Figure 6.5). Tendon profiles
can be straight, linear transformed or parabolic.

Figure 6.4: Pre-tensioning process
Stressing Bed
Stressing bed
Tension strands
Anchor
Pour & cure members
Release force onto members
Figure 6.5: Post-tensioning process
Formwork
Pour member with ducts
Cure and remove formwork
Stressing jack Strands
Insert strands and stress

6.4 Losses of Prestress
AS 5100.5 requires that the loss of prestress be accounted for at the sections under investigation in the
design and capacity assessment of prestressed concrete members. Prestress losses may occur immediately
at transfer or over time, as discussed below.
6.4.1 Immediate Loss of Prestress
The immediate loss of prestress is estimated by adding the calculated losses of prestress due to the
following factors:
• elastic deformation of concrete at transfer
For post-tensioning, no loss due to elastic deformation occurs if the tendons are simultaneously
tensioned.
• friction in the jack, the anchorage and the duct (post-tensioning only)
• during anchoring (post-tensioned members only), when the prestressing force is transferred from the
tensioning equipment to the anchorage
• other considerations, including
– deformation of the forms for precast members
– difference in temperature between stressed tendons and the actual stressed structures during heat
treatment of the concrete
– changes in temperature between the time of stressing the tendons and the time of casting the
concrete
– deformations in the construction joints of precast structures assembled in sections
– relaxation of the tendon before transfer.
6.4.2 Time-dependent Loss of Prestress
The total time-dependent loss of prestress is estimated by adding the calculated losses of prestress due to
the following factors:
• shrinkage of the concrete – due to drying of concrete and shrinkage, strain occurs in concrete which
causes the tendons to lose stretch, resulting in the loss of prestress
• creep of the concrete – due to permanent prestress force causing a compressive stress at the level of the
strands resulting in a creep strain in the member
• tendon relaxation – creep in tendons occurs when the stresses in the tendons are greater than half of the
yield stress, resulting in a loss of prestress
The choice of prestress steels may help to reduce the loss of prestress due to relaxation, such as wires
usually have less creep than strands. In addition, creep in prestress steel takes place mostly during the
early days after transfer and entirely stops after about 15 days. As a result, overstressing the prestress
steel about 10% above its initial stress and then releasing it to the initial stress could significantly reduce
the loss due to relaxation.
• other considerations, including
– losses due to deformations in the joints of precast structures assembled in sections
– losses due to the effects of any increase in creep caused by frequently repeated loads.
Refer to AS 5100.5 for the detailed methods to determine these prestress losses.

6.5 Planks/Deck Units
Prestressed concrete multi-plank bridge decks were developed as the standard bridge type for spans up to
20–22 m. Planks are usually manufactured in precasting yards by pre-tensioning. The bridge type replaced
the timber girder bridge as the design for short-span bridges.
Early prestressed plank bridges included a range of cross-sections including inverted-T units, rectangular
sections with and without voids (Figure 6.6 and Figure 6.7). The types of connection between planks varied
between designs depending on the design basis of the deck made up by the individual planks (Figure 6.8)
Figure 6.6: Typical solid prestressed concrete plank
Figure 6.7: Typical voided prestressed concrete plank
Figure 6.8: Typical plank connection

In the case of inverted-T units the planks were placed side by side, transverse reinforcement threaded
through holes in each member, reinforcing steel was supported off the top of the planks and infill concrete
placed to form a virtual solid slab deck (Figure 6.9).
Figure 6.9: Inverted-T plank deck
Rectangular planks were also placed side by side. Generally the planks were tied together by inserting
reinforcing steel for short spans or by transverse stressing using high-tensile bars in holes in each member.
A composite reinforced concrete overlay or an asphaltic concrete wearing surface was applied to the planks
(Figure 6.10). Rectangular planks are solid for shorter spans and voided for longer spans to reduce the
mass.
Figure 6.10: Part of typical prestressed concrete plank deck
Problems with aligning the holes in adjoining planks to insert the stressing bars and subsequent grouting led
some authorities to abandon the transverse stressing of plank decks. However, there have been some
issues with longitudinal cracking associated with the articulated plate behaviour of the non-transverse
stressed design. Planks are usually manufactured in precasting yards by pre-tensioning (Figure 6.11).

Figure 6.11: Prestressed concrete planks
Transversely stressed deck unit bridges are a common type used in Queensland (see Figure 6.12). These
units have the following features:
• prestressed voided deck units with a 597 mm width typical
• flat vertical surface, e.g. no shear key
The gap between two adjacent units is filled with mortar.
• transverse stressing bars are used to tie the units in the bridge lateral direction
These bars are typically 29 mm McAlloys bars, pre-tensioned with bolt and nuts.
• no concrete slab overlay, e.g. only an asphalt layer is used as the wearing surface
• upright precast kerb units or cast-in-place kerbs
• used mainly in Queensland with different design eras, between 1960s to 1990s
• span range is usually 8–22 m, although spans up to 30 m have been used where traffic conditions
required the fastest possible construction methods.
Standard drawings of deck units are available from the Queensland Department of Transport and Main
Roads (TMR) website.

Figure 6.12: Transversely stressed deck unit bridges used in Queensland
Source: TMR (n.d.).
6.6 I-girders
Prestressed concrete I-girders were initially developed to provide standard sections suitable for use over a
range of spans from 20–35 m. The decks are cast-in situ using removable formwork or precast concrete
formwork slabs (Figure 6.13). The I-girders are usually precast, pre-tensioned members (Figure 6.14).
However, post-tensioned members (Figure 6.15) have been used and either manufactured in a casting yard
and then post-tensioned or cast on site and then post-tensioned. Four standard precast prestressed
concrete I-girders were developed as shown in Figure 6.16.
Figure 6.13: Typical I-girder bridge deck

Figure 6.14: Standard pre-tensioned I-girders for skew bridge
Figure 6.15: Precast post-tensioned I-girder

Figure 6.16: Standard I-girders
Source: AS 5100.5.
A special type of I-girder is the broad flange I-girder which was developed in the 1970s and adopted by some
authorities for spans around 20 m. The broad flange girders were placed and infill concrete placed between top
and bottom flanges. Cross girders were poured at approximately 5 m centres and transverse prestressing
tendons inserted and stressed to form a grillage deck. A disadvantage of the design was the labour costs
involved in constructing the in situ infill between the flanges of adjacent girders (Figure 6.17 and Figure 6.18).

Figure 6.17: Broad flange girders
Figure 6.18: Broad flange girder deck
T-girders are also a variation of I-girders which were developed in the 1970s and adopted by some
authorities for spans around 20 m. The girders were used both as T-girders and inverted-T girders.
For the T-girders the top flanges supported the cast-in situ concrete deck obviating the need for formwork.
Cross girders were poured at approximately 5 m centres and either reinforced or transversely stressed to
form a grillage deck (Figure 6.19).
For inverted-T girders, permanent formwork sheets were placed between the top flanges to support the cast-
in situ concrete deck. Similarly cross girders were poured at approximately 5 m to form a grillage deck
(Figure 6.20). Note that the asbestos cement sheets were used as permanent formwork at the time.
Nowadays, these asbestos-containing materials require careful management and specialist handling if likely
to be disturbed.
Figure 6.19: T-girder deck

Figure 6.20: Inverted-T girder deck
6.7 Trough Girders
Trough girders were developed as a more efficient section compared to I-girders (Figure 6.21). The sections
accommodated an increased number of prestressing strands to achieve an increase in strength. The closer
spacing of trough girders resulted in simpler, cheaper deck formwork by using proprietary timber sheets as
compared to the wider spacing of I-girders (Figure 6.22 and Figure 6.23).
Figure 6.21: Trough girder section

Figure 6.22: Typical trough girder bridge
Figure 6.23: Typical 27 m span trough girder bridge

6.8 Super T-girders
Standard super T-girders (Figure 6.24 and Figure 6.25) were developed from trough girders in response to
the:
• need to address the occupational health and safety issues associated with the construction of bridges
with spaced members that required the construction of infill formwork to pour the in situ deck
The risk of accidents with the gaps in the deck area after the members were placed was considered
excessive and required an alternative approach.
• need for standard girders for spans up to 45 m with required sections to accommodate the increase in
design live loads.
Super T-girders are usually precast in a factory or a casting yard near the bridge site. As a result, good
quality control can be enforced.
Figure 6.24: Super T-girder
Figure 6.25 provides examples of standard sections of Super T-girders specified in AS 5100.5. Refer to
AS 5100.5 for the complete set of standard sections.
The girders are spaced to provide a nominal 20 mm gap between the top flanges, which is sealed prior to
pouring the deck concrete.
There are two types of super T-girders:

• open top flange – permanent formwork, in the form of timber sheet, is used to span between the webs of
the girder (Figure 6.26 and Figure 6.27)
• closed top flange – no permanent formwork required (Figure 6.28).

Figure 6.25: Standard precast prestressed concrete super T-girder
Source AS 5100.5.

Figure 6.26: Typical super T-girder bridge deck – open top flange
Figure 6.27: Part section of super T-beam deck – open top flange
Figure 6.28: Standard precast prestressed closed flange super T-girder
Source: AS 5100.5.
6.9 Prestressed Concrete Voided Slab
Prestressed concrete voided slabs (Figure 6.29) are constructed cast-in situ for simply-supported and
continuous spans up to 50 m where there is a need to minimise the superstructure depth and where the
construction height makes the use of temporary falsework feasible. The cantilevered slab can be reinforced
concrete or post-tensioned. The torsional rigidity of voided slabs makes them suitable for curved bridges.

The section has the flexibility to be used for single-lane ramps or wide bridges by varying the number of
voids. The section also has the flexibility to be adapted to complex road geometry.
Figure 6.29: Prestressed concrete voided slab
6.10 Box Girders
Prestressed concrete box girders are used for longer spans, from 40 m up to 300 m. Depending on the depth
of the box, the bridge cross-section may comprise a single ‘rectangular’ cell, two cells or multiple cells.
Figure 6.30 shows an example of a two-cell and Figure 6.31 a multiple-cell cast-in situ prestressed box girder
bridge. The spacing between the webs can be taken as twice the depth of the cross-section. Structural
depth-to-span ratios are 0.045 for simply-supported spans, and 0.04 for continuous spans. The high torsional
resistance of the box girder makes it particularly suitable for curved alignment such as curved bridges or
freeway ramps.
Figure 6.30: Cross-section of a two-cell box girder bridge
Figure 6.31: Cross-section of a cast-in-place simply-supported box girder bridge

6.10.1 Span Arrangements
Prestressed concrete box girders are used in various bridge types including simply-supported, cantilever with
drop-in spans, continuous girders, rigid-frame and cable-stayed bridges.
Simply-supported
This bridge profile usually features a constant cross-section, with 30–45 m spans and a depth-to-span ratio
of 0.045–0.055. Typical bridges consist of a single-span or multiple-spans of equal length (Figure 2.1).
Cantilever with drop-in spans
This structural type typically consists of three spans with two cantilever spans adjoining by a drop-in span
(Figure 6.32a). The cantilever girders may be rigidly connected with the piers or simply-supported.
Continuous
Constant cross-sections are usually used for smaller spans (Figure 2.3) or spans using an incremental
launching construction method (Section 6.10.4). A parabolic shape of the soffit of the girder is typically used
for longer spans (Figure 6.32b).
Continuous box girder bridges typically consists of two spans of equal length or three spans with an
end-to-internal-span ratio of 0.6–0.8. For more than three-span bridges, the internal spans are of equal
length. The girders may be rigidly connected to the piers (Figure 6.32c) or simply-supported.
Figure 6.32: Prestressed concrete box girder bridges: structural types
6.10.2 Typical Cross-sections
The cross-section of longer-span box girders may comprise a single cell (Figure 6.33) or multiple cells
(Figure 6.34) with vertical or inclined webs (Figure 6.35). Depending on the bridge profile, the cross-section
may have varying depths and varying bottom widths, with the smallest dimensions at midspan and the
largest dimensions at the pier section, as commonly seen in continuous bridges (Figure 6.35). Varying depth
is usually used for spans greater than 50 m by providing a curved soffit (parabolic profile) or haunches.

Prestressing tendons can be located in the webs or externally and anchored at concrete anchor blocks.
There is a move towards the use of external tendons because they are accessible for inspection and can be
replaced if required. The void around an internal tendon is cement grouted for corrosion protection. External
tendons are ungrouted.
Figure 6.33: Single-cell box girder with internal prestressing tendons – alternative external tendons shown
dotted
Figure 6.34: Twin-cell box girder
Figure 6.35: A twin-cell box girder with varying depth and bottom flange thickness
Note: Dash lines indicate the change in thickness of the bottom flange at the pier cross-section.
The following design considerations can be used as a guide for determining the form and initial dimensions
of the cross-section:
• Typical span-to-depth ratios for constant depth girders are between 18 and 22. For continuous bridges
with varying depth, the depth at the pier section is about 1/20 span and the depth at the midspan section
is 1/40 span.
• If the depth of the box is less than 2 m, the access for stressing operations inside the box is likely to be
difficult. Therefore, the minimum economical span for box girder bridges is
25–30 m.
• The webs of the box section can be vertical or inclined with the latter having better aesthetics but more
difficult to form when used in combination with varying depths. Web thicknesses are determined mainly
by shear considerations. Typically, a minimum thickness of 250 mm is used when no internal tendon
ducts are installed within the web thickness and 300 mm in other cases.

• The width of the bottom slab changes along the span depending on the slope of the web and the varying
depth of the section. The thickness of the bottom slab can vary from the thinnest at the midspan section
to the largest at the pier section, which can be determined by the design compression force.
• Haunches are usually used at the intersection of the bottom slabs and the webs to provide sufficient
space for accommodating the required number of tendon ducts at midspan.
• The distance between the webs at their intersection with the top slab is determined by achieving a
reasonable balance between the moments at this location.
Various construction methods have been used for prestressed concrete box girder bridges, including:
• cast-in situ on falsework/shoring
• precast progressive construction
• span-by-span construction
• segmental construction, including incremental launching, balanced cantilever, and cable-stayed bridges.
Refer to Section 18 of AGBT Part 6: Bridge Construction, for a detailed discussion on these construction
methods.
Key design considerations for prestressed box girder bridges constructed by segmental methods which are
largely dependent on the construction method to be implemented, are discussed in the following sections.
6.10.3 Progressive Constructed Bridges
Prestressed concrete box girders can be constructed by segmental construction for simply-supported and
continuous spans. The segments are precast, transported to site (Figure 6.36) and erected on shoring or
suspended from overhead trusses. Prestressing tendons are inserted and the segments stressed together.
The options for the joint between segments are:

• segments separated with a 100–150 mm with a cast-in situ concrete joint
• segments abutting with a dry or glued joint. To provide intimate contact between the segments at each
joint, segments are match-cast against the previously poured segment.
Figure 6.36 Precast segments for box girder construction
Note: Variable depths for parabolic shape.

6.10.4 Incrementally Launched Bridges
For sites where the construction height makes the use of shoring unfeasible, box girders can be constructed
using the incrementally launched method (Figure 6.37). Individual segments are cast on the approaches and
stressed to the previously cast segment. The girder is then launched forward one segment and the process
repeated (Figure 6.38). The girder is usually placed on temporary bearings and is lowered to permanent
bearings when the launching is completed. Precast segments can also be used for this construction method.
Figure 6.37: Incrementally launched prestressed Figure 6.38: Typical construction sequence for
concrete box girder incrementally launched prestressed concrete box girder
Source: RTA NSW (n.d.). Source: Department of Main Roads (1986).
During the launching process, a section of the girder may be subjected to both positive moment (when the
section passes the midspan location), or negative moment (when it passes a pier). In addition, a large
launching moment (at the base of the cantilever) and a large deflection at the tip of the cantilever may be
induced when the girder approaches the next support. Several solutions have been implemented to reduce
the launching moment and deflection, including use of a lightweight launching nose, temporary piers, or
temporary pylon with stayed-cables.

The incrementally launched construction method is generally suitable for long viaducts with multiple spans of
equal length of up to 100 m. Box cross-section is preferred due to the torsional stability requirements during
launching. The total length of the bridge can be up to 1000 m while the length of a segment is usually 15–40
m or (1/4–1/3) span length. Launching from both abutments may be considered if the total length of the
bridge is larger.
This construction method has the following advantages:

• Good quality control for concrete, as the casting operations occur at one location at the bridge approach
so that it can provide the same condition at a precast yard.
• Falsework/shoring are not required, which makes this method suitable for sites with difficult access under
the bridge such as high bridges or in urban conditions.
• No large and heavy construction equipment such as cranes and gantries is necessary.
Several limitations need to be taken into account for the use of this method, including:
• Alignment of the bridge must be straight or the curvature must be constant.
• The girder usually has constant depth throughout the length of the bridge, which makes longer spans
uneconomical.
• A slightly higher cross-section and more temporary prestress steel are required during the construction
process, due to both positive and negative bending moments occurring during launching.
• A large area behind the abutment is required for the casting operations.
• It is necessary to lift the bridge off the temporary bearings, and place it on the permanent bearings when
launching is complete.
• Very careful control of geometry during casting is required.
During launching, reversing bending moments are induced in each section of the girder as it passing from
supports to midspan. Therefore, prestressed tendons are required at both top and bottom fibres of the cross-
section. These tendons, usually contained within the top and bottom slabs are straight, to apply axial
prestress force to the cross-section. As the launching is segmental, tendons for a subsequent segment must
be spliced to the tendons of the previous segment by using couplers. Transformed tendons may be used as
permanent tendons to counteract the load effects of the final bridge or temporary tendons to counteract the
bending effects during launching. Temporary tendons are removed when launching is complete.
6.10.5 Balanced Cantilever Constructed Girder Bridges
Balanced cantilever construction has been considered as one of the most efficient methods for the
construction of prestressed concrete box girder bridges. This construction methods have the following
advantages:
• It is suitable for sites where the construction height or urban area conditions or navigation requirements
make the use of shoring unfeasible.
• It is suitable structural forms include box or open girder cross-sections with varying depths.
• Given an appropriate span arrangement, the prestressed tendons can be used for bending moments
induced in both the construction stage and the final bridge form which have similar structural
configurations (Figure 6.44), therefore the number of temporary tendons used in the construction stage
can be reduced.

After the pier head on top of the permanent pier is completed, segments are cast-in situ or erected using
precast segments and stressed in pairs to alternating sides of the pier. These pairs of segments are
designed in such a way as to maintain balance over the pier. The process is continued until the cantilevers in
the centre span are close enough to pour a closing segment to make the complete span (Figure 6.39 –
Figure 6.43). The side spans cannot be completed by balanced cantilevering as the side spans are usually
equal to 0.6 to 0.8 of the internal span. Therefore a closing segment needs to be used to reach the
abutment. This segment can be constructed by various techniques, in which use of falsework is the most
common technique to be implemented with reasonable site conditions.
The pier head usually has a length of 10–12 m depending on the required length of the formwork to be used,
while the closing segment is about 1–2 m long. The length of the intermediate segments is determined based
on the capacity of the formwork traveller, usually within 3–8 m.
The most common methods to resist the out-of-balance forces due to construction loads on the cantilevers
include:
• monolithic connection to the pier if the final structure has the same connection
• permanent or temporary double bearings and vertical temporary post-tensioning
• a simple prop/tie down to the permanent pile cap
• a prop against an overhead gantry if one is mobilised for placing segments or supporting formwork.
Figure 6.39: Mooney Mooney balanced cantilever construction – 220 m central span

Figure 6.40: Gateway Bridge, Brisbane – 260 m centre span
Source: TMR (n.d.).
Figure 6.41: Typical construction sequence for balanced cantilever construction – 1
Notes:
• Segment 1 – Pier head.
• Segment 2 – Cast and stressed to pier head.
• Segments 3-21 – Cast and stressed to cantilever alternating each side of pier.

Notes:
• Segment 21 – Cast and stressed to cantilever approaching abutment.
• Segment 22 – Closing segment cast between cantilevers.
• Continuity tendons installed and stressed in centre span to convert the two balanced cantilever beams into one
continuous member.
Notes:
• Segments 23, 24, 25 cast on falsework to extend girder to abutment.
• One end fixed to abutment the other becomes the expansion end.
Figure 6.44 shows the envelopes of bending moments in the main construction stages, including balanced
construction, at the time of casting the closing segment, and the complete bridge.
Post-tensioning tendons are designed to carry loads induced in the construction stages as well as when the
bridge is under operation. An example of a typical post-tensioning layout is shown in Figure 6.45. Due to the
similarity in the bending moment diagrams in both the construction stage and final stage, the tendons used in
the construction stage can be retained for the final structure. Additional tendons are installed to carry vehicle
loads, such as the tendons B shown in Figure 6.45, which are midspan tendons installed across the closure
joint and anchored on internal bottom blisters. Post-tensioning tendons may be anchored on the face of the
segments or on internal anchor blisters.

Figure 6.44: Envelopes of bending moments in different construction stages
Figure 6.45: Typical layout of post-tensioning internal cables

6.10.6 Segmental Cable-stayed Bridges
For larger spans, prestressed girders can be used for cable-stayed bridges (Figure 6.46) constructed using
the balanced cantilever method which is similar to the method used for prestressed concrete box girder
bridges outlined in Section 6.10.5. The depth of the box girder is based on the spacing of the stay cables and
is generally shallower than for girder bridges constructed using the balanced cantilever construction method.
Refer to Section 7 for further details on design considerations for cable-stayed bridges.
Figure 6.46 Glebe Island Bridge – cable-stayed balanced cantilever construction
The stage construction process for box girder cable-stayed balanced cantilever bridges is shown in Figure
6.47. The construction process starts with building the pylons to provide the first pylon stay anchorage points
and the starting deck segment at the pylon cast. Subsequent segments are constructed in the same
sequence as the balanced cantilever method used for the girder bridges. In addition, temporary stays may be
used to carry the construction loads prior to installing the permanent stays.

Figure 6.47: Prestressed concrete cable-stayed box girder bridge construction using the balanced cantilever
method
1. Constructed pier towers. Construct successive segments alternating each side of pier, stressing
each time. Attach stay cables. Repeat process.
2. Construct remaining segments and attach stay cables. Pour centre closing segment and stress.
Pour segments at abutments.

7. Cable-stayed Bridges
The use of stay cables goes back as far as ancient times when Egyptian boats were built as cable-stayed
structures.
The concept of supporting a bridge deck with cables from the top of one or two piers was developed as far
back as the 1600s where chain stays were used to support timber bridges. In the 1700s C J Loscher
designed a 32 m span cable-stayed bridge using timber stays.
In 1873 the Albert Bridge was constructed in London using chain stays with a central span of 220 m. The use
of cable-stayed bridges faded with the development of suspension bridges. The development of high-
capacity prestressing tendons for prestressed concrete using high-strength strands and wires resulted in the
advancement of stay-cable technology. This led to a renewed interest in cable-stayed bridges. The first
modern cable-stayed bridge was the Stromsund Bridge constructed in Sweden in 1955.
Anzac Bridge is the largest cable-stayed bridge in Australia (Figure 7.1) crossing Johnstons Bay linking
Sydney city and the suburbs to the west. Completed in 1995, the bridge has a main span of 345 m and a
total length of over 800 m, comprised of two 120 m towers and 128 stayed cables supporting the reinforced
concrete deck. The bridge was constructed using the balanced cantilever method with 10 m segments.
Figure 7.1: Anzac Bridge
Refer to Section 3.6 of AGBT Part 1: Introduction and Bridge Performance for more information on the
historical background on cable-stayed bridges.

7.2 Advantages of Cable-stayed Bridges
Cable-stayed bridges offer a number of advantages over other types:

• reduced superstructure depth resulting in span/depth ratios as high as 120
• reduced mass as a result of the reduction in superstructure depth
• high degree of redundancy in the event of a cable being damaged without compromising the structural
integrity
• low maintenance cost, ease of replacement of stays
• increased stiffness compared to a suspension bridge
• the flexibility to use precast or cast-in situ concrete or prefabricated steel members
• the use of balanced cantilever construction to provide speed of erection and obviate the need for
falsework or shoring
• enhanced appearance of the bridge site.
7.3 Cable-stayed Bridge Components
The main structural components of a cable-stayed bridge include cables, girders and towers or pylons which
form overlapping triangles (Figure 7.1). These members are under predominantly axial forces, with the
cables under tension and both the pylon and the girder under compression. The main functions of each
component are as follows:
• cables – are the most important elements of a cable-stayed bridge
Anchored at the upper part of the tower, cables provide intermediate supports for the girder and carry the
load transferred from the girder and transfer it to the towers (Section 7.3.1).
• girders – support the bridge deck on which the traffic is travelling (Section 7.3.2)
• towers – are usually free-standing and transfer loads from cables and girders to the foundation
(Section 7.3.3).
Intermediate piers may also be used to reduce the effects of uplift forces on the girders (Figure 7.10c).
7.3.1 Cables
Cable arrangements
The cables can be arranged in any one of four typical arrangements in either a single plane or two planes
(Figure 7.2):
• Radiating – cables are anchored at the same location on the top part of the tower. Due to the limited
space on the top part of the tower, only a small number of cables can usually be used at either side of the
tower. Consequently, the girder usually has larger stiffness to carry larger bending moments due to traffic
loads.
• Harp – cables are arranged in parallel and anchored at different locations along the top part of the tower.
The number of cables can be increased compared to the radiating arrangement. This arrangement,
however, may not be appropriate for very large spans which require very high towers to provide effective
cable inclination angles.
• Fan – is the ‘hybrid’ between the radiating and harp arrangements, in which cables are distributed along
the top part of the tower in pairs. The inclination angles can be varied to provide more effective structural
forms for very large spans. This arrangement is the most popular in modern cable-stayed bridges with
very large spans using a large number of cables.

• Star – cables are anchored on the girder with close spacings or at the same location. This cable
arrangement is not appropriate for very large spans which require very high towers.
Figure 7.2: Cable arrangements
Source: Podolny and Scalzi (1986).
The number of cables is determined based on the spacing between the stays or the length of girder
segments which requires that a stay always falls in the same location within a segment. For spans of 200–
300 m, the spacing can be 20–70 m for steel girders and 15–25 m for concrete girders. For spans larger than
500 m in recent significant cable-stayed bridges, smaller spacings have been used, e.g. 8–12 m for steel
girders and 6–10 m for concrete girders. The number of cables is increased when using smaller spacings,
however, the local bending moment induced on the girder is smaller which results in a reduced stiffness
required for the girder and a reduced self-weight, thus enabling a longer span to be achieved.
Cable types
The types of materials used for stays are the same as used for prestressing:
• high tensile bars – used singularly or in multi-bar cables
• high tensile wire – used in multi-wire cables typically 7 mm diameter
• high tensile strands – used in multi-strand cables 12.7 mm or 15.2 mm diameter.
The anchorages used for stays are similar to those used for prestressing tendons consisting of an anchor
head for the wires or strands and an anchor plate. Single-bar stays have a protective coating applied and are
exposed to the atmosphere.
For multi-bar, wire and strand stays the typical method used for corrosion protection is to encase them in
steel or polyethylene pipe and cement grout them.
For strand stays an alternative method of corrosion protection is to use galvanised strands individually
sheathed and waxed. The strands are then encased in an outer polyethylene pipe filled with wax for added
corrosion protection (Figure 7.3).
Wire rope has also been used for stay cables on pedestrian bridges.
Recent developments have seen the use of carbon fibre stay cables, which have the benefit of being light,
corrosion resistant and with high fatigue strength.

Figure 7.3: Stay cable using strands protected by polyethylene pipe and wax
Individual galvanised strands

sheathed and waxed in
polyethylene pipe
Strands encased in an
outer polyethylene
pipe filled with wax
Cable forces
One of the most important aspects of a cable-stayed bridge is to ensure the force in each stay is as specified
throughout all phases of the construction. For example changes occur in the stay forces of a prestressed
concrete bridge due to the effects of creep and shrinkage. Thermal effects at each stage must also be
considered. These effects must be closely monitored during construction and the appropriate adjustments
made to the cable forces and the vertical alignment as the works progress. For large bridges, specifically
designed computer software is used to monitor the construction as it progresses to enable adjustments to
the cable forces and the vertical alignment of the bridge.
The cables are fitted with an adjustable anchor at one end and a fixed anchor at the other (Figure 7.4).
Figure 7.4: Installation of stay cables

Cable vibration
Excessive cable vibration has occurred on a number of cable-stayed bridges and has necessitated remedial
measures to reduce the amplitude of the vibration to avoid the risk of damage.
The most common mechanisms that cause cable vibration include:

• vortex shedding
• galloping
• parametric excitation by the interaction of the deck and pier with the cables
• wind and rain.
To overcome the vibration problem, supplementary wires or viscous dampers have been installed across
adjacent cables on a number of bridges to change the vibration characteristics by damping vibrations in
adjacent cables because of the varying lengths (Figure 7.5). Friction dampers as shown in Figure 7.6 have
also been used in modern cable-stayed bridges.
Figure 7.5: Supplementary wires added to dampen vibrations
Supplementarycross
Supplementary cross wires
wires or
or
viscous damper
Viscous dampers
Figure 7.6: Components of a friction damper assembly
Source: Crouch and Dock (2011).

7.3.2 Girders
Compared to continuous girder bridges, the girders of the cable-stayed bridge require significantly less
stiffness, and therefore, depth. The depth-to-span ratio may be as small as 1/200 to 1/100 compared to
1/40–1/20 in prestressed concrete box girder bridges (Section 6.10.2).
The most common forms of girders are cast-in-place or precast prestressed concrete girders (Section 7.5)
and steel girders (Section 7.6).
7.3.3 Towers
Towers may also be referred to as pylons. The base of the towers may be fixed or hinged. The basic tower
shapes are shown in Figure 7.7, including:
• A (or tuning fork)
• H
• inverted Y.
The towers are the most visible elements of a cable-stayed bridge. Therefore, aesthetic considerations in
tower design are very important. The selection of the tower shape should take into account other factors
such as the cable arrangement and structural form of the girder.
Steel towers were used in early cable-stayed bridges. Concrete towers have been used in most recent
constructions due to the fact that the tower is a compression member that allow the utilisation of the concrete
in compression.
Figure 7.7: Tower shapes
Source: Podolny and Scalzi (1986).

7.4 Structural Types of Cable-stayed Bridge
Various structural forms have been used for cable-stayed bridges including single-span, double-span,
three-span and multiple-span.
7.4.1 Single-span
This type of cable-stayed bridge may have one or two towers sitting on the abutments and a
simply-supported girder span. The towers can be fixed or hinged at the base. The back cables are anchored
to an externally-anchored system. This design is used for small-span vehicular bridges or pedestrian bridges
(Figure 7.8).
Figure 7.8: Single-span cable-stayed bridge
7.4.2 Double-span
This bridge type typically comprises one tower fixed at the base. The spans may have equal or different
lengths with a ratio of 0.3–1.0. An equal number of stayed cables are usually used on each side of the tower
(Figure 7.9).
Figure 7.9: Double-span cable-stayed bridge
7.4.3 Three-span
This span arrangement is the most common form for cable-stayed bridges. Different structural forms may be
used, including a single back cable at the end spans (Figure 7.10a), multiple cables at end spans
(Figure 7.10b), or combined with intermediate piers to enhance the stiffness of the system (Figure 7.10c).
The ratio between the length of the end span and middle span is usually within 0.42–0.45, or
0.18–0.33 when a single back cable is used on the end spans. The economic inclined angle of the back
cable is about 45 degrees. For internal cables, the inclined angles are within 22–24 degrees.

Figure 7.10: Three-span cable-stayed bridge
7.4.4 Multiple-span
This bridge type typically comprises multiple spans of equal lengths. Intermediate piers may be used to
increase the stiffness of the system (Figure 7.11).
Figure 7.11: Multiple-span cable-stayed bridge

7.5 Prestressed Concrete Cable-stayed Bridges
Prestressed concrete cable-stayed bridges with a single plane of cables typically use a box girder to provide
the required torsional rigidity (Figure 7.12). The depth-to-span ratios are usually between 1/120 and 1/100 for
bridges with a single cable plane.
For double plane bridges the superstructure typically consists of a deck spanning between two girders
supported by vertical stays (Figure 7.13a) or a box girder supported by inclined stays (Figure 7.13b). The
depth-to-span ratios are usually between 1/200 and 1/100.
Refer to Section 6.10.6 for further discussion on prestressed concrete box girder cable-stayed bridges
constructed by the segmental method.
Figure 7.12: Box girder cable-stayed bridge – single plane of cables
Single plane of cables
Box girder
Figure 7.13: Girder deck cable-stayed bridge – double plane of cables
Figure 7.14 shows a prestressed concrete box girder cable-stayed bridge, and Figure 7.15 a cable-stayed
bridge under construction.

Figure 7.14: Prestressed concrete box girder cable-stayed bridge
Figure 7.15: Cable-stayed bridge construction

7.6 Steel Cable-stayed Bridges
The configuration of steel cable-stayed bridges is similar to prestressed concrete bridges in that for a single
plane of cables a steel box girder is typically used for torsional rigidity. For two planes of cables, a girder
deck with a composite concrete deck or an orthotropic plate deck is used (Figure 7.16 and Figure 7.17). The
economic span length of steel cable-stayed bridges is between 150 m and 450 m. Greater spans have also
been used, such as the Tatara Bridge in Japan which has a span of 890 m, and the Russky Bridge in Russia
with a span of 1104 m.
Figure 7.16: Example of a cable-stayed bridge with steel girders
Note: Units are in centimetres.
Figure 7.17: Typical steel plate girder and steel box girder decks used for cable-stayed bridges
Source: Miller (2007).
7.7 Cable-stayed Pedestrian Bridges
Cable-stayed pedestrian bridges regularly use a range of superstructure types, including:

• rolled steel beams with a composite concrete deck
• plate web girders with a composite concrete deck
• prestressed concrete girders with a composite concrete deck
• single-cell steel box girder with a steel or composite concrete deck.

8. Suspension Bridges
The suspension bridge concept (Figure 8.1) goes back thousands of years when vines, bamboo, and natural
fibres were used to make ropes to build footbridges over streams. People either walked on the vines or on
timbers placed directly on the cables.
The development of the modern suspension bridge began in the 19th century with the production of wrought
iron followed by steel.
Figure 8.1: Typical suspension bridge
Compression Compression
Hangers
Hangars
Tension
Source: Based on Miller (2007).
The early 19th century suspension bridges used wrought iron link chains for the suspension cables. The
Menai Bridge, Wales (1826) with a main span of 176 m was constructed using 16 cables made up of over
900 link bars (Figure 8.2). This bridge is still in use today with several major upgrades including replacement
of the wrought iron chains by steel chains, and deck strengthening. The Clifton Bridge over the Avon Gorge,
UK, was built in 1864 and spans 214 m.
Figure 8.2: Menai Bridge

More details on the historical background to suspension bridges can be found in Section 3.5 of AGBT Part 1:
Introduction and Bridge Performance.
8.1.1 Modern Suspension Bridges
The term ‘modern suspension bridges’ is used to differentiate these bridges from the primitive suspension
bridges where wrought iron chain were used as the main cables in the mid-18th century.
The mass production of steel led to the development of the modern suspension bridge. Early examples
included the George Washington Bridge (1931), which used parallel wire cables as opposed to rope-strand
cables (Figure 8.3). The main span of this bridge is 1100 m.
Figure 8.3: George Washington Bridge – 1931
The most infamous suspension bridge ever built was the Tacoma Narrows Bridge constructed in 1940. The
design was considerably more slender and therefore lighter than previous suspension bridges. As a
consequence of the lighter construction the bridge suffered from dynamic instability under wind loads. This
instability led to the collapse of the bridge from excessive twisting of the deck under a wind speed of 70 km/h
(Figure 8.4). As a result of the failure the design of all subsequent suspension bridges gave careful
consideration to the dynamic behaviour of the deck under wind excitation.

Figure 8.4: Tacoma Narrows Bridge failure
As modern materials and suspension bridge technology developed, span lengths increased to nearly
2000 m. An example of a modern suspension bridge is the Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, Japan (1998), which has a
1991 m main span (Figure 8.5).
Figure 8.5: Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, Japan – 1998

Other examples of well-known bridges include the Golden Gate built in 1937 in the USA with a main span of
1280 m and the Great Belt Bridge built in 1998 in Denmark with a 1624 m main span.
8.1.2 Suspension Bridges – Australia and New Zealand
There are a limited number of road suspension bridges in Australia and New Zealand. The majority of those
remaining are of historic significance. The most extensive use of suspension bridges was for pedestrians.
Three of the most significant suspension bridges are:

• The bridge over the Fitzroy River at Rockhampton, Qld, 1881. Spans incorporate or use 4/70.7 m cables
with wrought iron eye links (Figure 8.6).
• Hampden Bridge over the Kangaroo River, Kangaroo Valley, NSW, 1898. The span of 77.1 m uses steel
wire cables (Figure 8.7).
• The Walter Taylor Bridge over the Brisbane River at Indooroopilly, Qld, 1936. It has a span of 183 m and
uses steel cables with a hybrid truss/suspension (Figure 8.8 and Figure 8.9).
Figure 8.6: Opening of Fitzroy River Bridge – 1881
Source: Queensland Government (n.d.).

Figure 8.7: Hampden Bridge Kangaroo Valley
Figure 8.8: Walter Taylor Bridge

Figure 8.9: Walter Taylor Bridge cable anchorage
8.2 Advantages of Suspension Bridges
Suspension bridges offer a number of advantages over other types:

• longest span ranges, i.e. reduced number of piers and bridge deck joints
• reduced superstructure depth resulting in span/depth ratios as high as 350
• reduced mass as a result of the reduction in superstructure depth
• the use of balanced cantilever construction to provide speed of erection and obviate the need for
falsework or shoring
• enhanced aesthetics of the bridge site.
8.3 Suspension Bridge Components
Figure 8.10 presents a typical structural configuration of a suspension bridge system, in which the main
structural components comprise main cables, stiffening girder, main towers and anchorage blocks.

Figure 8.10: Main components of a suspension bridge
8.3.1 Cables
The main cables comprise a group of parallel-wire bundled high-strength steel cables which support
stiffening girders/trusses by the hangers, and transfer loads to towers. The main cables usually have a
parabolic shape. Figure 8.11 shows an example of a parallel-wire strand cable which consists of 7 mm
diameter galvanised wires protected by a polyethylene tube. Different types of cable cross-sections have
been used in the well-known bridges as presented in Table 8.1.
Figure 8.11: Suspension bridges: parallel-wire strands

Table 8.1: Suspension bridges: typical types of suspension cables
Cable types Section Description Used in well-known bridge
Brooklyn
Wires are hexagonally bundled
Parallel wire strand Great Belt East
in parallel
Akashi Kaikyo
Six strands and a core strand

Strand rope St Johns
made of a number of wires
Wires are stranded in several Little Belt

Spiral rope layers mainly in opposite lay Tancarville
direction Wakato
Deformed wires are used for Kvalsund

Locked coil rope the outside layers of spiral Emmerich
rope Älbsborg
8.3.2 Towers
The main towers are the vertical components which support the main cables and transfer bridge loads to
foundations. In the bridge’s longitudinal direction, the towers may be fixed or hinged at the base. Combined
with the tower’s stiffness, the tower can be classified as rigid, flexible or rocker (Figure 8.12).
In the bridge transverse direction, different tower shapes have been used, including truss, portal frame, and
combined, to provide two saddles for the main cables. The tower shafts can be vertical or inclined with the
centreline of each shaft coinciding with the centreline of the corresponding main cable. Table 8.2 shows
some examples of tower shapes used in well-known suspension bridges.
Figure 8.12: Suspension bridges: tower types – bridge longitudinal direction

Table 8.2: Suspension bridges: tower types – bridge transverse direction
Truss Portal Combined truss and portal

Tower shape
Used in bridge Akashi Kaikyo Great Belth East Golden Gate
8.3.3 Stiffening Girders
Stiffening girders/trusses are the longitudinal components which carry the moving vehicle loads and
distribute the loads to the main suspension cables via the hangers. The girders can be built from steel or
prestressed concrete in the form of I-girders, trusses, and box girders. I-girders are usually used in small-
span bridges while for long-span suspension bridges, trusses or box girders are typically adopted, due to the
requirement for aerodynamic stability.
Figure 8.13 presents several examples of the stiffening girder’s cross-sections adopted in well-known
suspension bridges.

Figure 8.13: Suspension bridges: examples of girder cross-section
Severn Bridge, UK
Tsing Ma Bridge, Hong Kong
Akashi Kaikyo Bridge, Japan
Messina Straits Bridge, Italy

8.3.4 Anchorages
Anchorages comprise mass concrete blocks, which anchor main cables and act as end supports of a bridge.
The main components of an anchorage structure include the foundation, anchor block, bent block to support
the splay saddles, supporting frames, cable anchor girders, and protective housing. Two types of anchorage
have been used for suspension bridges, including gravity and tunnel systems (Figure 8.14). The former is
more popular which resists the tension of the main cables by the mass of the system, therefore massive
concrete blocks are usually used. The latter system transfers the tension of the main cables directly to the
ground, thus it is more compact than the gravity system, however it requires appropriate geotechnical
conditions.
Figure 8.14: Suspension bridges: examples of cable anchorages
Notes: (a) Gravity anchor, as used in Akashi Kaikyo Bridge; (b) Tunnel-type anchor, as used in George Washington
Bridge.

8.4 Structural Forms of Suspension Bridges
Various structural forms of suspension bridges have been used, depending on the number of spans, types of
girder articulation, suspension systems and cable anchoring (Figure 8.15).
Figure 8.15: Structural forms of suspension bridges
Source: Based on Chen and Duan (2000).

9. Arch Bridges
The beginnings of arch bridges can be traced back to the Romans who constructed circular masonry arch
bridges over 2000 years ago. Six Roman bridges remain in Rome today including Ponte Sant’Angelo 136
BC. Figure 9.1 is typical of this type of early construction.
Figure 9.1: Roman arch bridge
As an arch transmits loads to the supports via compression it was ideally suited to the use of stone, which
has low tensile strength and is unsuitable for beam spans. The high compressive stresses in a masonry arch
provided bending resistance up to the point where the bending stress exceeded the compressive stress.
When this occurred the integrity of the arch was compromised.
The semicircular arch had a limited span. For multi-span bridges, each arch could be built independently but
required wide piers to accommodate the support for each arch. The semicircular arch also caused a
considerable constriction of the waterway (Figure 9.2).

Figure 9.2: Semicircular arch
Segmental masonry arches were constructed by the Romans and others with a profile that is the segment of
a circle. This profile allowed increased span lengths and caused less of a constriction to the waterway
(Figure 9.3).
Figure 9.3: Segmental arch profile
As masonry arch bridge technology developed, elliptical and parabolic profiles were introduced which
resulted in further increased spans and lower profiles (Figure 9.4).
Figure 9.4: New London Bridge construction – 1831

The first metallic arch bridge was constructed from cast iron at Coalbrookdale in England in 1779 (Figure 9.5).
Figure 9.5: Coalbrookdale Cast Iron Bridge – 1779
Source: Austroads (2001).
The development of wrought iron in the 1700s led to the construction of many arch bridges (Figure 9.6,
Figure 9.7 and Figure 9.8).
Figure 9.6: Princes Bridge, Melbourne – 1888 (wrought iron girder arches)

Figure 9.7: Princes Bridge girder arches
Figure 9.8 Bungambrawatha Creek wrought iron arch Albury, NSW – 1887
The production of steel in the 1800s led to the construction of early steel arch bridges (Figure 9.9).

Figure 9.9: St Louis Bridge – steel arch bridge 1874
9.2 Modern Arch Bridges
Modern arch bridges are constructed from steel or reinforced concrete. The bridges typically consist of a
series of parallel arch ribs that are connected together.
9.2.1 Concrete Arches
Concrete arches are constructed cast-in situ or by using precast segments. Both methods require the
construction of falsework to support the formwork or to support the precast segments until the arch action is
mobilised.
The Gladesville Bridge in Sydney used moveable falsework to support the precast arch segments for each of
four ribs. When the arch units for a rib were in place, the arch was raised off the falsework by inflating jacks
placed between a number of the arch segments. The jacks were then cement grouted. The falsework was
then moved sideways and positioned for the construction of the next arch rib (Figure 9.10 and Figure 9.11).

Figure 9.10: Gladesville Bridge construction, Sydney – 1964 (span 300 m)
Figure 9.11: Gladesville Bridge
9.2.2 Steel Arches
Steel arch bridges are constructed in a similar manner to concrete arches. Prefabricated members are bolted
or welded to form the arch profile supported on falsework. The arch members can be plate web girders,
tubular members, box girders or an arch truss.
Steel arches have an advantage over concrete arches in regard to the reduced mass to be supported by the
falsework to facilitate the construction and the size of the permanent foundations.

Steel arch bridges can be constructed using the cantilever method where each half of the arch is built by
cantilevering out from each side to be joined at midspan. The Sydney Harbour Bridge was built in this way
using steel cables anchored in rock to support each cantilever (Figure 9.12 and Figure 9.13).
Figure 9.12: Cantilever construction of Sydney Harbour Bridge
Figure 9.13: Anchorage system for cantilever construction of Sydney Harbour Bridge

9.3 Arch Classification
9.3.1 Fixed Arch
Figure 9.14 illustrates a fixed arch in which there are no hinges. The arch supports are rigidly fixed to the
foundation and therefore moments are developed as well as vertical and horizontal components of the arch
thrust. The fixed arch is very rigid but can only be used where suitable founding material exists.
Figure 9.14: Hingeless arch
Source: Highland Borough (c2008).
9.3.2 Two-hinge Arch
Figure 9.15 illustrates a two-hinge arch with bearings at the supports that allow rotation. The only forces at
the supports are the vertical and horizontal components of the arch thrust.
Figure 9.15: Two-hinge arch
9.3.3 Three-hinged Arch
Figure 9.16 illustrates a three-hinged arch with bearings at the supports and a hinge at the crown to allow
rotation. This arch is suitable where ground movements are anticipated such as in an earthquake-prone
location. The three-hinged arch is considerably less rigid compared to other arch types and experiences
comparatively larger deflections.

Figure 9.16: Three-hinged arch
9.3.4 Bow String or Tied Arch
Figure 9.17 illustrates a bow string or tied arch in which the arch is tied via a tension member between the
supports. The horizontal force is restrained within the arch and no horizontal forces are transmitted to the
foundations other than longitudinal forces generated by live loads.
Figure 9.17: Bow string arch
9.3.5 Network Arch
A network arch is a special type of tied arch where the hangers are inclined and cross each other at multiple
intersections (see Figure 9.18). Due to this arrangement, the structure acts like a truss, with only axial
compressive and tensile forces. As a result, bending moments and shear forces are very small in network
arch bridges.
Figure 9.18: Network arch
Source: Based on Highland Borough (c2008).

9.3.6 Deck Support
The deck on an arch bridge can be either above, within or below the arch rib. The configuration will
determine if the supporting members are in compression (struts), as in Figure 9.15, or in tension (hangers),
as in Figure 9.16 and Figure 9.17. Arches of the latter two types have limited scope for any future widening
of the roadway.
9.3.7 Arch Structural and Aesthetic Options
The arch designer has a number of options in regard to the relationship between the arch rib and the deck.
The deck may be slender with closely spaced hangers or struts, or have relatively deep deck edge beams
supported by widely spaced hangers or struts. The bow string arch is more suited to the latter design.
With wider spaced hangers or struts there is the option of designing a steel arch rib as a series of straight
segments as opposed to a continuous curve. This simplifies the fabrication of the arch rib members.
The deck on an arch bridge can either be supported by tension members as in Figure 9.17 or by
compression members as in Figure 9.15.
9.4 Arch Bridge Assessment and Current Practice
9.4.1 Masonry Arch Bridges
Historically, the line of thrust method was used in the last century. This method involved deriving a line of
thrust which could be contained within the middle third of the arch rib whilst maintaining equilibrium with the
applied loading. A no-tension criterion was used to assess the structure, as follows (Equation 1).
𝑃𝑃 6𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 1
− ≥0
𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏𝑑𝑑 2
where
𝑒𝑒 = eccentric distance from the centreline of loading = d/6 (middle third rule)
𝑃𝑃 = applied load
𝑏𝑏 = thickness of a block (Figure 9.19)
𝑑𝑑 = width of the block

Figure 9.19: Middle-third rule
Source: Harvey (1986).
This method was considered extremely conservative, as the whole arch would not collapse when the first
crack is induced in the arch.
Another method, the plastic theorems and the mechanism method, was developed by Heyman (1981) by
determining the plastic moment at the plastic hinges. Depending on the structural form of the arch, the
number of the plastic hinges required to form a mechanism varies. The plastic moment at the hinges is
determined as follows (Equation 2).
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 (1 − 𝑋𝑋)(1 + 𝑋𝑋)2 2

𝑀𝑀𝑃𝑃 =
4 (3 − 𝑋𝑋)2
where
𝑀𝑀𝑃𝑃 = plastic moment
𝑃𝑃 = applied load
𝐿𝐿 = arch span
𝑋𝑋 = defines the position of 𝑃𝑃 (Figure 9.20)

Figure 9.20: Failure mechanism and plastic moment in an arch
Source: Heyman (1981).
The finite element method has become the most popular for modelling masonry arch bridges using
two-dimensional plane strain and three-dimensional shell and solid models and linear or non-linear solvers.
9.4.2 Steel and Concrete Arch Bridges
Various three-dimensional finite element computer programs are available for the analysis of arch bridges
using linear or non-linear solvers. Two-dimensional plane strain models or three-dimensional shell and solid
models can be adopted.

10. Pedestrian Bridges
Pedestrian bridges (also called a footbridge, pedestrian overpass, or pedestrian overcrossing) provide a
complete separation of pedestrian and vehicular traffic and make it easier and safer for pedestrians to walk
to a variety of destinations such as schools, shopping centres and public transport. Pedestrian bridges are
built in the following situations:
• overpassing roads/railways
• adjacent to a road or railway bridge without a walkway facility
• in parks and recreational areas to cross creeks, water bodies or valleys
• as elevated boardways in wetland areas for pedestrians and cyclists.
Several road jurisdictions have provided guidelines for the selection and prioritisation criteria for pedestrian
bridges, such as Roads and Maritime Services (2012).
Various considerations should be included in the design proposal for a pedestrian bridge, namely:
• design options
• statutory and planning framework
• community and stakeholder consultation
• environmental impacts.
Refer to Austroads (2009) for further details on the requirements for pedestrian and cycling paths.
10.1 Materials and Structural Forms
Pedestrian bridges can be constructed in any one of the following materials and structural forms:
• Timber
– laminated girder with timber deck
– stress laminated deck
• Concrete
– reinforced concrete slab
– reinforced concrete girders with reinforced concrete deck slab
– prestressed concrete slab
– prestressed concrete I-girders or trough girders with a reinforced concrete deck slab
• Steel
– rolled steel girders with composite reinforced concrete deck
– fabricated steel girders with composite reinforced concrete deck
– steel box girder with composite reinforced concrete deck
– steel box girder with a coated steel deck
• Carbon fibre composites
– pultruded sections
– hybrid beams/sandwich construction
– modular components.

10.2 Pedestrian Bridge Types
Usually having small to medium spans, pedestrian bridges can be constructed as lighter structural forms
compared to road or railway bridges in any one of the following types:
• arch (masonry, concrete) – Section 9
• simply-supported slab (concrete) – Section 5.3
• simply-supported or continuous girder (timber, steel, concrete) – Section 3.2, Section 4.2, Section 5 and
Section 6
• truss span (timber, steel) – Section 3.1.2 and Section 4.3
• suspension (steel, concrete) – Section 8
• cable-stayed (steel, concrete) – Section 7.
Some other forms of pedestrian bridges include:

• Simple suspension bridge (also called rope bridge), swing (in New Zealand), suspended, hanging and
catenary. These bridges are used for pedestrians in outdoor recreational locations such as tree-top trails
and stream crossings. The bridge is supported entirely from anchors at either end and has no towers or
piers. The deck of the bridge follows the downward and upward arc of the load-bearing cables, with
additional light ropes at a higher level used to form a handrail.
• The moon bridge is a highly arched masonry or concrete pedestrian bridge used to cross water bodies or
narrow creeks. This type of bridge was designed to allow pedestrians to cross canals while allowing the
passage of barges beneath.
• The boardwalk is a constructed pedestrian walkway along an oceanfront (oceanway), riverside (riverwalk)
or a walking path and trail over bogs and wetlands and above fragile ecosystems. Boardwalks are usually
built with wood boards to provide the travelling surface and timber logs are used for posts and stringers.
10.3 Pedestrian Bridge Main Components
In an urban environment, the following typical components should be designed for a pedestrian overpass:
• bridge structures including bridge span, abutment and pier with associated foundations
• stairs
• lifts
• pedestrian fences
• protection screen.
Refer to the relevant jurisdiction for the detailed requirements for these components. Austroads (2009)
provides further information on the requirements for pedestrian and cycling paths.
10.4 Design Issues
10.4.1 Design Requirements
The design requirements for pedestrian bridges are set out in AS 5100.2, including:
• design loads, including uniform loads, crowd loading, concentrated loads due to vehicles mounted the
walkway, maintenance and inspection vehicles
• maintenance loads in accordance with AS 1657
• dynamic behaviour requirements such as limiting the maximum vertical acceleration, and preventing the
possibility of excitation of lateral movements by pedestrians since pedestrian bridges are usually of low
mass and damping and used by crowds of people that are particularly susceptible to vibrations.

10.4.2 Special Considerations
In addition to the design requirements set out in AS 5100.2, a number of design issues warrant special mention:
• Disabled access – The need to provide disabled access can result in long ramps (switch back or spiral) that
require a considerable area of land. In some instances the most economical solution is to provide lifts.
• Barriers – Where the bridge is a pedestrian/cycleway facility, 1200 mm high handrails are required.
• Dynamic behaviour – The dynamic behaviour of a number of pedestrian bridges has required the
installation of damping measures to alleviate pedestrian concerns with dynamic deflections. The dynamic
behaviour of a bridge needs to be carefully assessed. In some instances as a contingency, provision of
attachments for damping equipment has been included in the original design.
• Safety screens – As a consequence of a number of incidents on bridges over motorways where objects
have been thrown, safety screens are now installed on many pedestrian bridges.
• Lateral restraint – The requirement to provide a minimum lateral restraining force to a pedestrian bridge is
of paramount importance. Instances have occurred where over-height vehicles have dislodged the bridge
deck from its supports.
• Vertical clearance – Some authorities require that the vertical clearance of a pedestrian bridge must be
greater than that of nearby road bridges to reduce the possibility of impact from over-height vehicles.
• Aesthetics – Pedestrian bridges, particularly overpasses are usually located at the locations where
aesthetic considerations are essential such as schools, shopping centres and other public facilities. In
many instances, pedestrian bridges stand out and significantly improve the site appearance.
10.5 Proprietary Fibre Reinforced Polymer Pedestrian Bridges
The first fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) pedestrian bridge in Queensland was built at Sandy Creek in
Nanango in 2003. Since then, FRP pedestrian bridges and walkway structures have been built throughout
Australia, including the Bowman Parade pedestrian bridge in Brisbane, an 850 m long Mackay Bluewater
Environment Trail in Mackay City Council, and the Cameron Rocks fishing platform on the Brisbane River, to
name a few.
FRP pedestrian bridges usually have a one-piece modular design for spans ranging from 10 m to 14.5 m.
These bridges are low weight, easy and inexpensive to install, and have low maintenance costs. Other
advantages include corrosion resistance, pest/vermin resistance and long life expectancy. Figure 10.1 shows
an example of a modular FRP pedestrian bridge built in Queensland.
Figure 10.1: Example of an FRP footbridge
Source: BAC Technologies Pty Ltd (2016).

11. Bridge Decks
Materials used for bridge decks on old and existing bridges consist of either timber, concrete or steel. The
most common type of bridge deck construction is cast-in-place reinforced concrete. Other deck types include
precast deck panels, prestressed cast-in-place decks, post-tensioned concrete panels, filled and unfilled
steel grid, and steel orthotropic decks. The selection of a bridge deck type mainly depends on the type of
superstructure.
A summary of bridge deck types and associated superstructure types is provided in Appendix A.
11.1 Timber Decks
11.1.1 Plank Decks
Timber plank decks in the past were used on timber and steel girders (Figure 11.1). The main decking
timbers were usually laid normal to the main supporting members (Figure 11.2 and Figure 11.3). However,
examples exist on some early timber bridges where the decking was laid at 45 degrees to the main
members.
Figure 11.4 shows the underside of a timber girder bridge with longitudinal bolting plank to improve load
distribution.
In some states, longitudinal sheeting/running planks are laid over the decking to provide a smoother running
surface and for cyclist safety.
Figure 11.1: Cross-section of typical timber bridge deck
Timber sheeting
typically 250 x 75
Timber decking typically 225 x 125
Timber girders Steel girders

Figure 11.2: Timber deck on timber girders
Figure 11.3: Timber deck on steel members

Figure 11.4: Underside of timber girder bridge with longitudinal bolting plank to improve distribution of loads
11.1.2 Laminated Timber Decks
Laminated timber decks consist of a series of sawn lumber laminations that are placed on edge and nailed
together on their wide faces to form a continuous deck (Figure 11.5). Lumper laminations are usually
continuous (full length) between the supports with no butt-joints. The bridge width can be adjusted by the
number of lumber laminations. Single or multiple-span bridges may be constructed using a series of simple
spans. An asphalt wearing surface with a geotextile fabric or membrane is typically used.
Figure 11.5: Nail-laminated timber deck
Source: Pierce and Prin (2013).

These bridge deck systems are relatively inexpensive and are known to have quick installation times.
Nail-laminated timber deck bridges are well suited to rural, low-volume roads. They are less suitable for high-
volume roads where the repetitive traffic loads may cause the nails to loosen, resulting in lamination
movement and excessive asphalt pavement cracking.
The spike-laminated deck is another type of laminated timber deck (Figure 11.6). The deck consists of a
series of lumber laminations prefabricated into partial-width deck panels. These deck panels are placed side-
by-side between supports and interconnected with transverse stiffener beams.
Figure 11.6: Spike-laminated timber deck
Source: Wacker and Smith (2001).
11.1.3 Stressed Laminated Timber Decks
Section 3.4 discussed the basic considerations with SLT decks. Typical types of SLT decks include plate
(Figure 11.7), T-beam (Figure 11.8) and cellular decks (Figure 11.9).
SLT plate decks are most effectively used for spans up to 6 m or for decks spanning between cross girders
on truss or arch bridges where barrier rails can be connected directly to cross girders rather than depending
upon connection to the deck.
SLT T-beam decks should be simply-supported only, and they are more effectively used for spans exceeding
10 m.
SLT cellular decks may be either simply-supported or continuous, and are most effectively used for spans
exceeding 10 m. Cellular decks are not suitable for bridges where flooding of the superstructures is possible
due to the fact that moisture may become entrapped within the cellular voids.
Maximum spans for SLT T-beam and cellular decks may be limited by the available length of material for the
webs. It is currently difficult in Australia to obtain laminated veneer lumber (LVL) in lengths greater than 12 m
or Glulam in lengths greater than 18 m. Despite lengths up to 60 m being manufactured in parts of Europe,
transportation of these lengths to Australia is difficult.
Refer to AS 5100.9 for detailed design requirements for SLT decks.

Figure 11.7: Typical arrangement of SLT plate decks
Source: AS 5100.9.
Figure 11.8: Typical arrangement of SLT T-beam decks
Source: AS 5100.9.
Figure 11.9: Typical arrangement of SLT cellular decks
Source: AS 5100.9.

11.2 Concrete Decks
The earliest concrete bridge decks were on T-beam spans where the top flanges of the T-beams performed
a dual function being part of the structural member as well as the deck (Section 5.4).
The introduction of rolled steel sections and prestressed concrete girders led to the development of concrete
decks spanning between the main structural members (Section 4.2 and Section 6.6).
Concrete bridge decks constructed prior to 1940 were non-composite as they were not connected to the
supporting members. The development of composite action between the beam and the deck utilised the
structural combined strength of the two respective materials. Many early concrete decks only had minimal
secondary reinforcement to resist drying and thermal shrinkage. As a result the decks were prone to cracking
parallel to the direction of the main reinforcement i.e. normal to the bridge centreline.
For short-span bridges the introduction of precast reinforced concrete led to the development of
multi-member bridge decks, such as inverted-U sections where the members forming the deck obviated the
need for a structural deck slab.
Early short-span reinforced concrete bridge decks were flat or voided slabs. For longer spans, reinforced
concrete T-beams were used.
11.3 Decks for Prestressed Concrete Members
The introduction of prestressed concrete led to the development of multi-member pre-tensioned bridge decks
made up of planks and beams of various cross-sections. Some designs used a composite cast-in situ
concrete deck as the running surface. Other designs used an asphaltic overlay as the running surface.
Prestressed concrete girders in the form of I-girders, trough girders and super T-girders use a composite
reinforced concrete deck (Section 6.6 to Section 6.8).
For box girder bridges constructed by span-by-span, balanced cantilever, cable-stayed or incrementally
launched methods the deck is formed by the top flange. Refer to Section 6.10 for further discussion. The
same situation exists for voided slab girders (Section 6.9).
11.4 Decks for Wrought Iron Bridges
Early wrought steel bridges used timber decks or low strength concrete infill on wrought iron buckle plates
spanning between the girders.
11.5 Decks for Steel Bridges
11.5.1 Concrete Decks
Decks for early steel truss and rolled girder bridges consisted of non-composite concrete decks i.e. there
was no connection between the supporting steel members and the concrete deck (Section 4.2.2 and
Section 4.3.5).
All concrete decks on modern steel bridges are designed to act compositely with the supporting members
(Section 4.2.5).

11.5.2 Steel Orthotropic Decks
Orthotropic steel decks in the form of multiple troughs are also used on modern steel bridges. These decks
have been used for almost all types of steel bridges including plate girder, box girder, arch, truss, cable-
stayed and suspension. An orthotropic steel deck usually comprises a thin steel deck plate stiffened by a grid
of longitudinal ribs intersected with transverse ribs or floor beams (Figure 11.10). The ribs may be welded or
bolted to the steel plate.
Two basic types of ribs have been used including open-rib and closed-rib in which closed-ribs are more
common for steel bridge decks. Open ribs may be flat plates, angles, T or half beams (Figure 11.11a), while
closed-ribs may be formed using bent or rolled steel plates (Figure 11.11b).
Orthotropic deck bridges have a number of advantages over other types of steel bridges such as a lower
mass, ductility, thinner or shallower sections, and rapid installation.
Figure 11.10: Typical components of an orthotropic deck bridge

Figure 11.11: Typical cross-sections of the ribs used in orthotropic deck bridges

12. Major Bridge Substructure Elements
12.1 Abutments and Wing Walls
Bridge abutments consist of a support structure that transmits forces from the superstructure to the
foundations. Abutments have the added function of providing a transition of the support of the road approach
embankment to the bridge deck. As a result abutments are also subjected to loads from the embankment
(earth pressure) and from the effects of traffic loads on the embankment (live load surcharge).
There are two basic schemes for the termination of an approach embankment at an abutment, as
follows:
• Retaining wall – where the approach embankment is retained by a vertical wall and
associated wing walls to retain the side batter slope (Figure 12.1).
• Spill-through – where the approach embankment is allowed to spill forward through the
abutment structure which is substantially buried by the embankment (Figure 12.2). The
forward slope of the embankment can be the natural slope of the material, or it can be
steepened by stone pitching, rock fill or other means of batter stabilisation. Where the front
and side slopes of the embankment will be subjected to stream flow and possible scour an
adequate means of batter protection must be provided. This can be in the form of grout
injected synthetic mattresses, rock filled wire baskets referred to as gabions, rock riprap or
other forms of batter protection. The need for scour protection should be assessed as part of
the waterway design.
Figure 12.1: Termination of approach embankment by retaining wall abutment

Figure 12.2: Termination of approach embankment by spill through
12.1.1 Access for Inspection
To provide safe access for the inspection and maintenance of the abutment and bearings, a berm with a
handrail should be provided at the front face of the abutment (Figure 12.3). In addition, stairs with handrails
should be provided on the side batter slope where access along the toe of the embankment is not available.
Figure 12.3: Spill-through abutment with berm and handrail for access

12.1.2 Approach Slabs
A number of road agencies use approach slabs to improve the ride quality onto the bridge and to reduce the
live load surcharge loading to abutments. However, during construction, compaction equipment will impose
live load surcharge, which must be accounted for in the design.
The approach slabs are typically 3 m long and are supported at the abutment on a nib on the rear face of the
curtain wall. A strip bearing is used to provide rotation (Figure 12.4).
Figure 12.4: Abutment approach slab
Approach slab 3 metres long
Rubber bearing and locating

Abutment curtain wall pin cast into abutment
Headstock
Approach slabs have also been designed with the support buried at the abutment and the slab at a grade to
the road surface. Table 12.1 sets out details of typical abutment types.
Table 12.1: Typical abutment types
Abutment type Comments Diagram

Cantilever For heights greater than
retaining wall approximately 5 m the
dimensions for this type of wall
become excessive.
The mass of the soil on the
footing or pile cap counters the
earth pressure forces for
stability.
Sliding stability must be
provided by the material in front
of the footing or by the use of a
shear key on the underside of
the footing.
The abutment may be founded
on rock or piles.


Counterfort wall The front wall is stiffened by
abutment counterfort blades, which
extend back to an anchor beam.
The labour costs to set up the
formwork can make this type
comparatively expensive.
The abutment may be founded
on rock or piles.
The mass of the soil on the
anchor beam counters the earth
pressure forces for stability.
Sliding stability to be assessed.
Propped One abutment propped off the
abutment other rigid abutment or both
abutments propped off each
other.
The earth pressure and live load
surcharge forces are distributed
to the foundations and through
the superstructure. The
horizontal capacity of the
bearing and fixtures needs to
make allowance for unknown
effects such as uneven
distribution of loads. The rear
wall of the abutment should be
designed to transmit the loads
as a contingency measure.
Thermal effects need to be
carefully assessed.
Tie-back Used in the past but has the
abutment disadvantage in regard to
access to assess the condition Tie (protected in plastic
of the ties. High-tensile steel or steel tubing)
bars have been used as ties. A
design issue is the effect of the
consolidation of the approach fill
on the capacity of the bar
Anchor beam or dead-man placed below existing surface (not in filling)
subjected to possible bending.
In some bridges the length of
ties has been > 10 m.
Anchored Use when abutment is on rock
abutment and is required to be fixed and
suitable for the use of rock
anchors. The rock anchors
consist of a grouted and free
length and are stressed to
provide full fixity.
Rock anchor
Spill-through Piles may be vertical or

abutment – alternatively vertical and raked
buried trestle forward or raked forward and
on piles backward alternatively. For
vertical piles the earth pressure
forces are resisted by bending
of the pile. For raked piles the
earth pressure is resisted by
bending and axial force
depending on the angle of rake.


Spill-through Suitable for high abutments to
abutment – reduce the earth pressure
buried tapered forces by reducing the area of
columns on the headstock supports. The
piles taper on the column increases
the moment capacity with depth.
Spill-through Suitable for high abutments to

abutment – reduce the earth pressure
buried tapered forces by reducing the area of
columns on the headstock supports. The
footings taper on the column increases
the moment capacity with depth.
Stability against overturning and
sliding becomes a design
criterion. Anchor bars into rock
from the footings may be used
to resist overturning moments.
Spill-through The pre-consolidation of the
abutment on embankment is an important
high issue. The potential exists for
consolidated large forces to be transferred to
embankment the piles if the embankment
subsequently settles –
drawdown forces. The
application of a low-friction
coating on the piles can be used
to reduce the down drag forces.
Where the existing material
below the embankment is soft
there is a potential for
consolidation also with the Source: Department of Main Roads (1976).
potential for additional down
drag forces. There is also the
potential for the embankment
surcharge to cause a horizontal
movement inducing additional
bending in the piles and rotation
of the abutment.
Sill abutment Where reinforced soil walls are
on reinforced required to retain the
soil wall embankment on all faces, the
abutment may consist of a sill
footing founded on consolidated
backfill. Some authorities prefer
to seat the abutment sill on piles
in case the reinforced soil wall
settles. This is of particular
importance to continuous
bridges.
12.1.3 Design Considerations
For retaining walls and abutments, several design considerations should be taken into account.
Design requirements
AS 5100.3 sets out the provisions for the design of retaining walls and abutments. These requirements include:

• loads and actions, comprising various types such as earth pressure, live load surcharge, water pressure,
loads induced by differential soil movements
• load combinations, in associated with strength, stability and serviceability limit states with corresponding
load factors
• design for strength for both structural and geotechnical capacities
• design for stability, to prevent the structure as a whole and each of its elements including foundations
from instability due to overturning, uplift or sliding
• design for eccentric and inclined loads, to account for the possibility of very high edge stresses and a
reduced contact area between the retaining wall or abutment footing and the ground as a result of load
eccentricity
• design for serviceability, by controlling or limiting settlement, horizontal displacement and cracking
• design for durability, comprising the considerations given to the possibility of deterioration of structural
components of foundations and soil-supporting structures in aggressive environments, to achieve the
intended design life.
Other considerations
• Structural design and detailing of concrete and steel retaining walls and abutments are in accordance
with AS 5100.5 and AS/NZS 5100.6 as appropriate. For other materials, the requirements of the relevant
authority will apply.
• Tensile stresses are not allowed in masonry and unreinforced concrete retaining walls and abutments.
• Full depth vertical contraction joints with suitable compressible jointing materials are required for long
concrete retaining walls and abutments to control discriminate shrinkage cracking.
• Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement to control shrinkage and temperature effects.
• Materials and construction requirements in accordance with AS 5100.5 and AS/NZS 5100.6 or the
relevant authority’s technical specifications.
• Effective drainage to be provided behind retaining walls and abutments to permanently relieve water
pressures.
12.2 Piers
Piers consist of a support structure that transmits forces from the superstructure to the foundations.
However, compared to abutments, piers are subjected to lateral forces particularly from stream flow and
flood debris.
12.2.1 Types of Piers
The variations between different types of piers relate to any one of the following:
• construction constraints
• construction method
• cost
• aesthetics
• vertical and horizontal loads
• bridge articulation – simply-supported, continuous, location of expansion joints
• degree of interaction with the superstructure – pinned or integral
• foundation details – spread footing, driven or cast-in-place piles, depth to rock, depth of water

• degree of fixity (fixed or pinned) at the top or bottom of the pier

• stability
• stiffness
• height.
The requirement to address the above criteria will dictate the type of pier the designer adopts. Table 12.2
shows details of a number of pier types used.
Table 12.2: Typical types of bridge piers used
Pier type Comments Diagram Image

Timber girder Driven timber piles, timber
bridge capwales, bracing and
wales.
Timber truss Driven timber piles, timber

span capwales, timber bracing
and wales.
Trestle Simplest form of pier with a

(columns with headstock and driven piles
a headstock) that extend above natural
surface level.
Piles:
• single row of piles
• reinforced concrete or
prestressed concrete or
steel
• outer piles may be
raked.
Single column Cantilevered headstock.
on piles Column: circular or
rectangular with square or
semi-circular ends cast-in
situ.
Concrete pile cap.
Piles:
• single or multiple rows Source: D Carter (n.d.).
prestress concrete.
• vertical and/or raked
depending on lateral
loads.


Single column Cantilevered headstock.
on spread Column: circular or
footing rectangular with square or
semi-circular ends cast-in
situ.
Founding material to be
stable to prevent scour.
Two columns Headstock and columns

on piles form a frame.
Columns: circular, square
or rectangular cast-in situ
or precast prestressed
segments.
Concrete pile cap.
Piles:
prestressed concrete
• single or multiple rows
of piles
• piles vertical and/or
raked depending on
lateral loads.
Two columns Headstock and columns
on spread form a frame.
footing Columns: circular, square
or rectangular cast-in situ
or precast prestressed
segments.
With or without cantilevered
headstock.
Wall pier on Wall widens to form

piles headstock.
Column rectangular with
square or semi-circular
ends cast-in situ.


Separate Columns are free standing
columns on with no headstock. The
piles or spread height of the piers is limited
footing by the cantilever action of
the columns, transverse
stiffness of the
superstructure and the
bearing arrangement.
Piles:
of piles
loads.
Separate Columns are built integral
columns with superstructure. The
framed in (on cross girder acts as a
piles or spread headstock. Concrete pile
footing) cap or footing.
Piles:
of piles
loads.
Post– Column segments consist
tensioned of precast solid or hollow
precast sections that are post-
segmental tensioned to the pile cap or
columns footing. This concept can
be used on a range of pier
types including square and
rectangular shapes. The
main advantage is the
speed of erection and for
sites with limited access.
Wall piers To provide stability of high

framed in piers the designer may
longitudinally post-tension the
superstructure to the
columns of adjacent piers
to develop longitudinal
frame action.


Braced frame For high piers bracing of
the columns may be
required.
The bracing may be post-
tensioned.
In the example shown the
columns were fixed at the
base and pinned via
bearings at the top.
Separate In the example shown the

columns separate columns are tied
stressed to by transverse post-
superstructure tensioning. In addition the
superstructure is post-
tensioned to the columns.
The piles were 100 m to
rock and framing of the
piers was required.
Integral with For major balanced

superstructure cantilever bridges the piers
and superstructure are
made integral to facilitate
the construction process.
Splayed For high piers subjected to

columns high flood loads splayed
columns can be used to
increase the pier stability.
Piles with single/double pile
cap.
Vee pier Used for aesthetics.


Caissons Cast iron and wrought Iron Wrought iron
caissons were used on cylinder
bridges constructed in the
late 1800s.
Wrought iron cylinders
were used in the upper
section subjected to Cast iron
flexure. Cast iron cylinders cylinder below Source: D Carter
used below the point of the point of fixity (c2009).
fixity (maximum bending
moment).
Masonry Used in older bridges prior
to the use of reinforced
concrete.
Materials: stone or bricks.
12.2.2 Typical Cross-sections
The cross-sections of the piers may vary depending on the number of factors as discussed in Section 12.2.1,
as well as whether the piers are used in an overpass or a waterway bridge.
Viaduct or overpass bridges usually use pier shapes that provide aesthetics while they ensure the required
clearance and sight (Figure 12.5). On the other hand, piers used in waterway bridges are usually located within
the waterway, therefore have hydrodynamic shapes to facilitate the fast passage of floodwater (Figure 12.6).
Figure 12.5: Typical shapes of cross-section of piers for overpasses or viaducts
Figure 12.6: Typical shapes of cross-section of piers for waterway bridges

12.2.3 Pier Protection
Different levels of protection have been specified in AS 5100.2 which requires that:
• For road traffic collisions, the relevant authority shall determine the minimum ‘no protection’ clearance of
a pier/column from the roadway.
• For pedestrian bridges, piers/columns shall be either located at a safe distance or protected from
collision.
• For railway traffic collisions, bridges over railways shall have a clear span between abutments. Otherwise
an alternative load path or deflection walls or heavy construction columns/piers shall be provided.
Depending on the location of the pier within the road corridor, several road jurisdictions also set out specific
requirements for pier protection.
When assessing the need for protection of bridge supports for collision from road traffic, risk assessment and
determination of protective measures carried out in accordance with Clauses 11.1 and 11.2 of AS 5100.1
may result in one of the levels of protection discussed below.
No protection
Bridge supports located at a distance greater than the clear zone width, measured from the nearest face of
the bridge supports to the edge of the traffic lane (taking into consideration batter slope, design speed and
design traffic count) do not need to be designed for collisions from road traffic if adequate sight distance has
been provided. New bridge designs should take this into consideration.
Road safety barriers
Flexible or semi-rigid barriers may be provided to protect occupants of errant vehicles in the vicinity of bridge
supports where the bridge supports are located within the clear zone and there is sufficient space to
accommodate the barrier’s dynamic deflection and vehicle roll allowance. These barriers shall be designed in
accordance with AS/NZS 3845.1.
Under these circumstances, bridge supports shall be designed for the collision load specified in AS 5100.2.
The collision load may be assumed to vary linearly from the full load when the bridge supports are located at
a lateral distance equal to the clearance required for the barrier to deflect from the edge of the nearest travel
lanes, to zero load when the bridge supports are located a distance equal to the clear zone width from the
edge of the nearest travel lanes.
Rigid barriers
Where rigid barriers are provided, the barriers shall be structurally and geometrically designed in accordance
with AS 5100.1 for an appropriate performance level. The barriers shall be crashworthy, ground-mounted
and structurally independent. The bridge supports do not need to be designed for collision from road traffic.
Refer to Standardised Bridge Barrier Design (Austroads 2013) for a detailed discussion of bridge support
protection barriers.
12.3 Retaining Walls
Retaining walls are structures that provide support to a bank of earth, often stabilising a slope. They can be
used in conjunction with other structural elements to assist in providing road access over or under a bridge.
Table 12.3 summarises typical retaining wall types. Refer to Section 12.1.3 for the general design
considerations.

Table 12.3: Retaining wall types
Retaining wall type Comments Diagram

Masonry Used for older construction and
consisted of stone or bricks.
Masonry – proprietary Numerous systems are available

using precast hollow blocks with infill
concrete and reinforcement.
Supported by a reinforced concrete
footing.
Mass concrete Used for low walls up to 1.5 m high.
Crib wall Utilises open precast blocks that

interlock to build up the wall. The wall
is filled with free draining material and
earth backfill to allow water to spill
through at each level reducing the
earth pressure compared to solid
walls.
Cantilever – reinforced The height dictates if a cantilever wall

concrete is economical with increasing
thickness and size of the footing for
stability (overturning and sliding).
The projection of the footing and side
of the fill can be designed to suit.
Tied cantilever – For high walls the use of a tie back

reinforced concrete and deadman in the backfill reduces
the thickness of the wall and size of
footing.
Tie back and

deadman anchor
Reinforced soil walls Consists of precast wall elements that

are tied to the backfill using metallic
or non-metallic strips to develop the
resisting force through friction.

12.4 Mechanically Stabilised Earth Walls
Mechanically stabilised earth (MSE) walls are soil-reinforced structures constructed by using reinforcements
to stabilise soil. This structure can be used for retaining walls and bridge abutments.
MSE walls consist of a well compacted granular backfill with reinforcing meshes made of ribbed steel strips,
geogrid or geo-synthetic strip reinforcement (Figure 12.7). Reinforcing meshes are attached to a wall face to
form a coherent gravity mass that is internally stable. The wall face may comprise precast segmental
concrete blocks, panels or geo-cells that can tolerate some differential movements. In many types of MSE
walls, each vertical fascia row is inset, thereby providing individual cells that can be infilled with topsoil and
planted with vegetation to create a ‘green’ wall.
Figure 12.7: Typical MSE wall
In Australia, the MSE system is designed in accordance with AS 4678 to support the loads from the
abutments as specified in AS 5100.3. Refer to the relevant road agency for specific requirements for design,
manufacture and construction of MSE walls for use in bridge abutments and associated retaining walls.

13. Bridge Foundations
13.1 General
Bridge foundations transfer loads from piers and abutments to the ground. The support capacity of the
foundation is derived from the base support in the case of spread footings, or base support and/or skin
friction in the case of piles.
Spread footings are a type of shallow foundation which are usually used on suitable soil or rock where scour
is not an issue. These foundations may be built using various material types such as masonry, in situ and
precast concrete, reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete.
On the other hand, pile foundations are usually of a deep foundation type which comprise various materials
and structural forms such as timber, precast concrete (reinforced concrete, prestressed, square, octagon
sections), cast-in situ (bored, continuous flight auger), steel H, and others.
A caisson is a special type of deep foundation and is usually used for large-span bridges in difficult soil
conditions.
13.2 Typical Foundation Types
Details of foundation selection are set out in Section 9 of AGBT Part 4: Design Procurement and Concept
Design. Table 13.1 presents a summary and provides details of a range of typical bridge foundations.
Table 13.1: Foundation types
Foundation
Comments Diagram Image
type
Spread Used on suitable soil or rock
footings where scour is not an issue.
May be anchored to the
founding material.
Timber piles Round piles preservative

treated. Used to replace
existing timber piles on
timber bridges or for
temporary support for
construction.

Foundation
type
Reinforced Used for friction piles or end
concrete piles bearing piles. Can be used
– precast for long piles by splicing.
Usually square section.
Reinforced A hole is drilled to rock and Tremmie pipe

concrete piles the overburden supported by
– a permanent or temporary
cast-in-place steel casing. A rock socket is
(bored piles) drilled into the rock to Permanent
provide the bearing and casing
flexural capacity required.
The reinforcing cage is
placed and the concrete Overburden
poured with the pile full of
water using a tremmie pipe.
In some instances the pile is
poured in the dry but only if
the amount of water seepage Rock socket
is minimal.
Diaphragm Similar concept to cast-in-

walls place piles except that a
rectangular excavation is
made for each section of
wall. The overburden is
stabilised by a bentonite
slurry prior to placement of
reinforcing cage and
concrete.
Prestressed Used for friction piles or end

concrete piles bearing piles. Can be used
for long piles by splicing.
Usually octagonal section.
Steel H piles Used for end bearing piles.

Can be used for long piles by
splicing or welding. Ideal for
driving through a thin hard
stratum with softer material
underneath. Reinforcing
plates welded to flanges at
toe.

Foundation
type
Roads and Used where high moment
Maritime capacity is required in the top
composite – part of the pile but need to
concrete and drive through thin hard
steel H pile stratum.
Concrete pile
Stub of H-pile cast into the
concrete pile section.
Used for end bearing piles.
Reinforcing plates welded to
flanges at toe.
Splice level
Steel H pile
Composite Used in friction/end bearing

tubular steel piles in dense sands as a low
and concrete displacement pile to obtain
piles the required depth.
Reinforced concrete is Reinforced
placed in the upper portion of concrete section
the tube for flexural capacity. in steel tube
Due to long-term corrosion of
the tube, particularly in
marine environments, the
Open ended
upper tube is assumed to be
non-structural. steel tube
section plugged
with sand
Fender piles Used to protect bridge piers

from vessel impact in
navigable waters. The fender Fender piles and
piles are used to support walls or rails
walls or rails. The fender
system may consist of a
number of interconnected
fender piles.
Fender systems line the
navigation channel as well as
flaring out on each approach.
Continuous Non-displacement pile used

flight auger in situations adjacent to
piles another structure or utility
where no disturbance or
vibration is required.
A hole is drilled with a
continuous flight auger.
Concrete or cement grout is
pressure injected through the
auger’s hollow tube as the Source: Keller Holding (2016).
auger is withdrawn.
The reinforcing cage placed
into the concrete or grout.

Foundation
type
Screw piles Steel tube with welded
helical flutes. Not used often
on bridges. Flexural capacity
usually an issue. Have been
used on temporary work.
Ground Used to anchor a pier for

anchors stability or to anchor an
abutment to provide a fixed
point in the bridge.
A ground anchor can consist
Anchor head
of a single high tensile bar or
a number of strands.
Free length
The bonded length is
grouted. The free length
consists of greased strands
or bars sheathed in
polyethylene tube. Bonded length
Ground anchors use anchor grouted
heads or plates similar to
prestressing tendons. The
ground anchors are stressed
by elongating the free length.
13.3 Design Considerations
AS 5100.3 sets out the requirements for the design of a structure’s foundations, which have been prepared
in recognition that geotechnical engineering design principles differ from structural engineering design
principles. This standard requires the designer to use geotechnical engineering methods appropriate to the
foundation problem at hand, together with appropriate characteristic values and factors, when deriving
economical and safe solutions. In addition, it requires that engineering judgement be applied to justify the
sound rational design methods outlined in other sources such as texts, technical literature and other design
codes to supplement the design requirements of this standard.
This section outlines the general design considerations for the most common types of bridge foundations
including shallow footings and pile foundations.
13.3.1 Shallow Footing
A shallow footing is one that is founded at shallow depth and where the contribution of the strength of the
ground above the footing level does not influence the bearing resistance significantly. Similar design
considerations for retaining walls and abutments as discussed in Section 12.1.3 should be taken into account.
Specific requirements for the design of shallow footings include:

• footing depth and size
• design for geotechnical strength, including overall stability, ultimate bearing failure and failure by sliding
• design for structural strength, to consider structural failure as a result of differential vertical and horizontal
displacements
• design for serviceability limit states
• consideration for tilting, to take into account the situations such as eccentric loads, inclined loads,
non-uniform soil conditions and overturning moments.

13.3.2 Pile Foundations
The minimum requirements for the design, construction and testing of piled foundations are set out in
AS 5100.3. Covered in this standard are axially and transversely loaded displacement and non-displacement
piles installed by driving, jacking, screwing or excavating with or without grouting. This standard also refers to
AS 2159 for additional information that is not covered in AS 5100.3.
Piles are designed as structural columns with the degree of end fixity and lateral support appropriate to the
surrounding soil conditions and the behaviour of the structure. The effects of scour in removing lateral
support should be considered. Unless approved otherwise by the relevant authority, piles subjected to lateral
loads or bending moments must be designed to provide a design resistance greater than or equal to the
maximum serviceability and ultimate design action effects for a distance at least 2 m below the point where
lateral support commences.
The following considerations are taken into account:

• strength requirements, to assess the pile capacity against geotechnical and structural effects
Relevant strength reduction factors should be applied.
• serviceability, to control settlement, horizontal displacement and cracking to ensure that the foundation
remains serviceable over the design life
The stiffness of the ground and structural elements, and the sequence of construction should be taken
into account when estimating the settlement and horizontal displacements.
• durability, to take into account the exposure of the pile foundation to aggressive environments
• structural design and detailing, with consideration given to precast reinforced concrete, prestressed
concrete, cast-in-place and steel piles
• construction requirements, with consideration given to pile spacings, edge distance and embedment of
piles into the pilecap
• testing, including static, dynamic and integrity testing of piles to assess pile capacity and quality. Refer to
Section 9.3.2 of AGBT Part 4: Design Procurement and Concept Design for a discussion on pile testing.
13.4 Scour Assessment
Scour occurs at bridge foundations as the result of the erosive action of flowing water, excavating and
carrying away materials from the bed and banks of streams and from around the bridge piers and abutments.
Scour is a major cause of damage to bridge piers and abutments and even bridge failures in many instances.
In addition, flood events often accelerate the scour actions and as a result, significant bridge damage has
been caused by excessive scour after flooding. In most cases, scour is not easily noticeable in underwater
conditions.
In addition to the countermeasures implemented to mitigate the scour effects at scour or flood-prone bridge
sites, a wide variety of technologies have been used to monitor scour actions such as magnetic sliding collar,
tilt meter arrays, and time domain reflectometry. These technologies provide data on the changes in the
waterway or information on bed movements during flood events and early warning of damage. Based on the
data collected, long-term trends can be assessed.
Refer to AGBT Part 8: Hydraulic Design of Waterway Structures for further discussion on bridge scour
assessment.

14. Bridge Bearings
This section presents information on bearing function, design considerations and descriptions of typical types
of bridge bearings. Refer to Section 19 of AGBT Part 6: Bridge Construction for information on supply and
installation, as well as construction issues of common types of bridge bearings. Refer also to Section 6.9.3 of
AGBT Part 7: Maintenance and Management of Existing Bridges for information on failure modes of various
bridge bearing types and suitable rehabilitation and strengthening treatments.
14.1 Bearing Function
The function of a bridge bearing is to transmit variable forces from the superstructure to the substructure of a
bridge and at the same time allow free movement and rotation in the other directions so that large restraint
forces are not developed.
Bridges are subjected to numerous influences that cause different loadings and resulting movements. The
movements can be temporary or permanent in the form of deformations, rotations or displacements caused
by one or more of the following:
• changes in temperature
• vehicular traffic including static and dynamic effects
• creep and shrinkage of concrete
• braking loads
• vehicular and ship impact
• wind loads
• flood loads including debris and stream flow
• loads caused by vertical and horizontal alignment – curvature and gradient effects
• differential temperature between the top and bottom of a curved box girder causing torsional rotation of
the box
• earth pressure loads transmitted from abutments
• mining subsidence
• earthquake loads
• differential settlement of supports.
A bridge needs to be designed to transmit the loads from the superstructure to the substructure and to the
foundations. It also has to accommodate the resulting deformations, rotations and displacements.
These requirements are achieved by the use of bridge bearings except in instances where the superstructure
and substructure are integral.
The designer as part of the bearing design process needs to consider the following:
• replacement – method of removal, jacking loads and locations
• the range of movement and criteria for resetting the bearing in the event the actual movement exceeds
the capability of the bearing

• the use of halving joints limits access to the bearing and should be used with caution
A method of replacing the bearings should be included on the design drawings.
• earthquake design – AS 5100.4 sets out the requirements for minimum support dimensions for bearings
e.g. minimum overlap of girder with a headstock
• transverse bearing alignment – it is imperative that the bearings at a support are on the same level and
transverse axis so that when the bridge deck rotates it will act similar to a door with a number of hinges. If
one bearing is out of alignment, a very large vertical force will be generated when the deck rotates as a
result of a live load deflection. Instances have occurred where the mortar pad under the bearing has been
crushed where a bearing is out of alignment. There is also a risk of damage to the bearing as a result of
overloading.
14.2.2 Types of Bearings
The types of bearings are classified by the function they perform.
Fixed bearings
Fixed bearings, in addition to supporting vertical loads from dead and live loads, must be able to:
• transmit the longitudinal horizontal forces from braking, acceleration, earth pressure at abutments,
earthquake etc. to the substructure with no horizontal longitudinal displacement
• transmit the transverse forces normal to the bridge from wind, stream flow, flood debris, traffic barrier
loads, centrifugal forces from bridge curvature effects, earthquake, vessel impact, over-height vehicle
impact etc., with no horizontal transverse displacement (Figure 14.1)
• provide the rotational capacity to accommodate member deflections (Figure 14.2).
Expansion bearings
Expansion bearings, in addition to supporting vertical loads, must be able to:

• transmit horizontal forces normal to the bridge
• accommodate the anticipated longitudinal horizontal displacements caused by thermal expansion and
contraction, shortening of members due to elastic deformations in prestressed concrete, creep,
shrinkage, movements in the substructure caused by mining subsidence, earthquakes, settlement
(Figure 14.1)
• provide the rotational capacity to accommodate member deflections (Figure 14.2).
The provision for the sliding movement should be conservative. Instances have occurred where actual
shrinkage and creep movements have been larger than allowed for in the design with the result that the
expansion bearing has run out of movement.
Tongue thrust bearings (horizontal load bearings)
Thrust bearings are designed to carry horizontal loads only (Figure 14.3). The bearings are designed to
accommodate movement and rotation generally in the longitudinal direction along a bridge while resisting
horizontal loads normal to the bridge.
Thrust bearings are used where the magnitude of transverse loads is excessive for the size of bearing
required for other functions. Thrust bearings are often used to resist flood and seismic loads. They are also
used to guide the longitudinal movements where free-sliding bearings (no restraint in the horizontal plane)
are used.

Figure 14.1: Loads to fixed and expansion bearings
Centrifugal forces
Fixed
Traffic barrier impact

forces Braking and Expansion
accelerating
Earth Pressure Wind, stream flow, flood debris, vessel impact,

vehicle impact
Figure 14.2: Rotation at support to be accommodated by bearings
Deflection under dead

and live load
Figure 14.3: Tongue thrust bearing
Source: Gabauer (1972).

Options for fixed and expansion bearings
The designer has the option to locate the fixed and expansion bearings to suit the type and length of the
bridge. By judicial selection of the location of fixed and expansion bearings, the designer is able to determine
where movements will occur and of what magnitude. These decisions will affect the forces transmitted to
particular piers and the amount of movement thereat.
14.2.3 Components of Bearings
The principal components of a bearing include:

• a top plate anchored or bolted to the underside of the superstructure and a bottom plate anchored to the
substructure, both plates serving to distribute the concentrated loads
• a roller, or a nest of rollers, or a plane sliding surface such as sheet lead, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
sheet, steel plate, or an elastomeric pad capable of horizontal shear, to allow relative horizontal
movement between the substructure and the superstructure
• a rocker, or a cylindrical or spherical sliding surface such as stainless steel and PTFE, or an elastomeric
pad capable of sustaining rotation, or a material such as concrete or elastomer which is confined in all
directions, to allow relative rotation about a horizontal axis between the substructure and the
superstructure.
14.2.4 Interaction between Bearings and Substructure
The distribution of longitudinal forces through a simply-supported bridge is a function of the bearing
characteristics and the relative stiffness of each of the piers.
For example in a bridge with elastomeric bearings the forces transmitted to the piers as a result of thermal
contraction or expansion can only be determined by an analysis that takes into account the stiffness of
bearings and the piers. For the same displacement, a shorter pier will be subjected to a greater bending
stress compared to a tall pier of the same cross-section, i.e. a very flexible pier will bend more easily than a
short pier when subjected to the same force.
In the example in Figure 14.4 and Figure 14.5 the simply-supported spans are subjected to an increase in
temperature:
• The expansion in Span 1 towards Pier 2 causes the expansion bearing (E) at Pier 1 to shear.
• Pier 1 deflects as a result and in so doing shears the first expansion bearing (E) at Pier 2.
• The expansion in Span 3 towards Pier 2 causes the second expansion bearing at Pier 2 to shear and also
deflects Pier 2.
• The expansion in Span 2 towards Pier 2 also shears the first expansion bearing at Pier 2.
• Abutments A and B are fixed (F).
• The second bearing at Pier 1 is fixed (F).
The amount each pier deflects is a function of the relative stiffness of the bearings and the individual piers.
The compounding effect of the expansion movement throughout the bridge and the effects on the piers and
bearings need to be analysed.

Figure 14.4: Arrangement of bearings in a three-span bridge
F E F E E F
Span 1 Span 2 Span 3
Abutment A Pier 1 Pier 2
Figure 14.5: Thermal expansion in a three-span bridge on elastomeric bearings
Expansion of each span
14.2.5 Bearings for Simply-supported Spans
Option 1
Fixed and expansion bearing in each span. The arrangement of fixed and expansion bearings can be such
that at any one pier there can be one of the following:
• two expansion bearings (Figure 14.6)
• one expansion and one fixed bearing (Figure 14.7).
Bearings installed at abutments can be fixed or expansion depending of the overall arrangement.

Figure 14.6: Two expansion bearings
Figure 14.7: One expansion and one fixed bearing
Option 2
Spans with fixed bearings at each end. Depending on the length of the bridge, the designer may elect to
have fixed bearings at each end of selected spans to provide longitudinal stability to the bridge by the frame
action. This may be required in long bridges or where the pier columns are tall and relatively slender (Figure
14.8).
Figure 14.8: Three-span bridge with fixed span
14.2.6 Bearings for Continuous Spans
For continuous spans the length of the bridge and positioning of the fixed point determines the type of
bearing to be used to accommodate the anticipated movements.
The fixed-point bearing (denoted by F in Figure 14.9, Figure 14.10 and Figure 14.11) will be required to resist
all longitudinal forces applied to the bridge deck. In addition it will need to resist the transverse forces
transferred to the abutment.
The number and location of bridge deck expansion joints (denoted by Exp in Figure 14.9, Figure 14.10 and
Figure 14.11) will depend on the length of the bridge. This will determine the capacity of movement required
for the expansion bearings.
The expansion bearing movement (denoted by E in Figure 14.9, Figure 14.10 and Figure 14.11) will increase
the further the distance from the fixed point. In addition, the expansion bearings will need to resist the
transverse forces at each pier and provide lateral restraint and guidance for the movements of the bridge.
The longitudinal forces transmitted to the piers will be a function of the sliding friction on the sliding surface of
the expansion bearings.
Figure 14.9, Figure 14.10 and Figure 14.11 illustrate a number of continuous span arrangements.

Figure 14.9: Continuous spans, one fixed point, one expansion joint
F E E E E E E E Exp
Figure 14.10: Continuous span two fixed ends, one expansion joint
F E E Exp F E E E F
Figure 14.11: Continuous spans, one fixed pier, two expansion joints
Exp E E E F E E E E Exp
14.2.7 Bearings for Horizontally Curved Bridges
For a horizontally curved bridge, the alignment of each bearing should provide adequate movement and
rotational capacities for the actual direction of movements and rotations of the superstructure. For a
prestressed concrete bridge, for example, the movement of prestress and creep is typically tangential to the
curvature of the bridge (or along longitudinal axis) while the movement due to temperature and shrinkage
effects is in a direction towards the fixed pier.
Curved bridges can be guided either radially from a fixed bearing, or tangentially to the curvature of the
bridge (Figure 14.12). For bridges with a constant curvature, the bearings are usually arranged in a
tangential alignment.

Figure 14.12: Arrangement of bearings on a horizontally curved bridge
14.2.8 Bearings for Skewed Bridges
The effects of skew on the performance of a bearing need to be carefully considered.
For simply-supported spans the interaction between the bearing and the pier stiffness changes significantly
on high-skew bridges i.e. skew angle > 200. The pier stiffness in the longitudinal direction is significantly
increased compared to the stiffness normal to the pier centreline.
For spans fixed at one end and free at the other the bridge deck moves longitudinally. However, the pier
being very stiff in that direction deflects normal to its axis. As a result the bearings are subjected to
transverse horizontal forces as the deck tries to rotate. If the bearing fixtures are unable to sustain this load
and fail, crushing of the mortar pad under the bearing will occur with the result that the deck will rotate and
possibly drop. Instances of this have occurred requiring replacement of the bearings, and jacking operations
to restore the deck to the correct level (Figure 14.13).
The tendency of the deck to rotate on high-skew bridges can be minimised by installing expansion bearings
at each end of the span that halves the movement at each pier. However, overall structural stability and
lateral restraint issues must also be addressed.
The use of circular elastomeric bearings in the instance of high-skew bridges will also assist in minimising
the effect as the stiffness of the bearing is the same in all directions, which will reduce the forces transferred
to the piers compared to rectangular bearings.
Figure 14.13: Effects of longitudinal movements on high-skew bridges
Deck movement
Deck rotates
Pier deflection

14.2.9 Bearings Subjected to Uplift
Wherever practical, the form, articulation and span lengths of a bridge structure should be selected to ensure
that bearings are subject to a compressive force under all loading conditions. Where uplift occurs at
bearings, separate hold-down devices, rather than designed bearings to resist uplift forces should be
provided.
In particular, rubber should not be allowed to go into tension and sliding surfaces should not be allowed to
separate. This would allow dust, grit and other abrasive or corrosive materials to enter and affect the sliding
surface.
Uplift can be accommodated by pot or mechanical bearings. While elastomeric bearings are not designed to
resist uplift forces, pot and spherical bearings are designed so that they are not subject to uplift at the
serviceability limit state. The design of uplift bearings must conform to AS 5100.4.
14.2.10 Effects of Crossfall
If girders are placed normal to the deck crossfall the deflection of the girder will have a vertical and a
horizontal component. The horizontal displacement may cause the centre of gravity to shift to the point
where the girder becomes unstable. The design of the temporary bracing should take this into account, if
applicable.
Where super T-beams are designed to be placed with the top flange of the beam matching the deck
crossfall, the bearings should be placed horizontally and consideration given to having the bearing centreline
vertically in line with the centre of gravity of the beam to ensure beam stability during erection. The design
should compensate for crossfall by either:
• providing a tapered plate between the beam and the bearing (preferred), or
• providing a tapered recess in the bottom of the beam for the bearing.
14.3 Typical Bearings in Older Bridges
The types of bearings used in existing bridges vary widely and include those discussed below.
14.3.1 Simple Rocker Bearings
Simple rocker bearings consist of steel/steel plates with the lower plate machined to a curved profile to
provide rotational capacity. For fixed bearings a vertical pin is inserted into each plate. For expansion
bearings the same arrangement is used except that an elongated hole is machined in the lower plate to
provide a movement capacity. Over time the steel/steel interface corrodes resulting in lack of movement
often leading to distress of the supporting concrete from the restrained forces (Figure 14.14).
Their performance relies on the accurate alignment of the bearing on a pier to ensure the ‘door hinge’ action
is possible. Instances have occurred where the bearings did not line up which led to severe distress of the
supporting mortar and fixtures due to the crushing load when the girders deflected.

Figure 14.14: Tilting bearing fixed and expansion (with slotted hole)
Corrosion at interface an issue
Expansion
Fixed
14.3.2 Simple Sliding Bearings
Simple sliding bearings are the crudest form of bearings which consist of a layer of lead or bronze between
two steel or concrete surfaces. This type of bearing results in high friction due to ingress of dirt and corrosion
of the steel surfaces over time. The high friction forces developed may cause distress to the supporting
member (Figure 14.15). In addition, lead sheet can extrude over time due to vibration and thermal
movement, which lowers the girder slightly and may cause distress to other superstructure members.
Figure 14.15: Simple sliding bearing
Lead or bronze layer

Member
14.3.3 Sliding Bearings
Sliding bearings are generally of low profile and used in long-span structures where significant longitudinal
movements occur. They usually consist of a polished stainless steel plate sliding against a PTFE layer
bonded to a steel backing plate (Figure 14.16).

Figure 14.16: Typical sliding bearings – PTFE/stainless steel (left), steel/steel (right)
Source: Transit New Zealand (2001).
The sliding bearing copes only with horizontal movements, but it is usually mounted on a low-profile
elastomeric pad that copes with any rotational movements. A simple steel-on-steel sliding bearing used on
some older bridges is depicted in Figure 14.16. This type provides for rotational movement but generally has
a high friction coefficient. Other steel-on-steel sliding bearings are composed simply of flat plates with no
specific provision for rotational movement. In some steel sliding bearings, a thick graphite-impregnated sheet
is inserted between the plates. A further type of sliding surface used in the past was graphite-impregnated
bronze.
14.3.4 Hinge Bearings
These consist of a pin support that provides for rotation only and are commonly used in hinged arches.
14.3.5 Rocker Bearings
Rocker bearings consist of an upper and lower casting with matching semi-circular bearing surfaces where
the pin support sits. They are commonly used on older steel girder and steel and wrought iron truss bridges
(Figure 14.17). Rocker bearings provide for rotational movement in the longitudinal direction. They do not
allow for any horizontal movement.
Figure 14.17: Rocker bearing

14.3.6 Roller Bearings
Roller bearings come in different forms with either a single roller or a series of smaller rollers. Single roller
bearings allow both rotation and longitudinal movements of the supported beams but multiple roller bearings
require specific provision to allow rotation as well, which complicates the details. Neither type is now in
common use. A rocker bearing above the roller/s provides the rotational capacity (Figure 14.18).
The single roller designs include a central guide plate bolted to the bottom bearing plate that matches a
recess machined around the circumference of the roller. A toothed rack and part gear at either end of the
roller provides additional guidance for the roller. The setting up of the roller normal to the direction of
movement of the bridge was absolutely critical to ensure tensile stresses did not occur along the axis of the
roller as a result of binding in the guides. In one instance the roller fractured in service as a result of this
situation.
The movement capacity of a roller bearing can also be an issue particularly in prestressed concrete bridges
due to shortening of members due to creep. A remote monitoring system should be set up to record the
range of movement relative to the available movement in each direction from the baseline position.
Figure 14.18: Roller bearings
14.3.7 Ball and Socket Bearings
Ball and socket bearings consist of an upper casting with a socket and lower casting with a ball to provide
rotational capacity (Figure 14.19). For fixed bearings the lower casting is bolted to the pier. For expansion
bearings the bottom surface of the lower casting is curved to provide movement capacity by the rocking
action on a flat plate bolted to the pier. These are commonly used on steel girder and steel truss bridges.
The range of movement on a ball and socket expansion bearing should be monitored to ensure the potential
does not exist for the centreline of the ball to extend past the edge of the curved lower plate. The bearing
would become unstable should that situation occur.

Figure 14.19: Ball and socket bearing in foreground (rocker in background)
14.3.8 Double Knuckle Bearings
Double knuckle bearings consist of two pins separated by some distance to enable rotation of a central
casting containing the two pins to provide the required movement. They are commonly used on steel and
wrought iron trusses (Figure 14.20).
Figure 14.20: Double knuckle bearing

14.4 Typical Bearings in Modern Bridges
14.4.1 Elastomeric Bearings
Elastomeric bearings are made of natural rubber. They are widely used to support prestressed planks,
girders and troughs and steel girder spans up to 40 m. This type of bearing is the most commonly used at
present. The bearing is designed to cope with rotational and horizontal movements in all directions. The
bearing is either a single rubber layer, or is laminated from thin steel plates separated by rubber layers
bonded together by vulcanising. Some elastomeric bearings contain one or more lead cylinders embedded
within the rubber and steel plates. They look the same in service as conventional elastomeric bearings.
Thicker outer plates are designed to accept locating dowels or bolts, and may be either external or, more
usually, enclosed in rubber. The edges of the plates are also enclosed by rubber.
Elastomeric bearings have good rotational capacity and this feature combined with an effective method of
anchoring, (rotation still possible) via friction or dowels through the bearing, provides a system that can be
used in a wide range of applications. Rotation in elastomeric bearings occurs by unequal vertical strains
causing a change in thickness over the area of the bearing.
Fixed bearings
For fixed bearings the horizontal movement is restrained by the use of steel dowels that extend from the
superstructure, through holes in the bearing to the substructure. Alternatively, the superstructure can be fixed
to the substructure by separate fixtures to provide restraint.
Designers must ensure the bearing used is consistent with that in the mathematical model (restraint and
fixity).
Expansion bearings
Horizontal movement in an elastomeric bearing occurs by the shearing of the rubber such that the top of the
bearing moves relative to the bottom of the bearing. Restraints should be provided to ensure the bearings do
not ‘walk out’.
Design basis
The design of elastomeric bearings is based on a limit on the combined effects of compressive strain, shear
strain and rotational strain (Figure 14.21).
Figure 14.21: Design basis of elastomeric bearings
Compressive strain
Shear strain
Rotational strain

The proper performance of an expansion elastomeric bearing is contingent on sufficient friction being
developed between the bearing and the top and bottom interface material. If the friction is inadequate the
bearing will ‘walk out’ over time as successive shearing movements occur at the top, and the bottom of the
bearing moves to reset the bearing to the vertical. It is for this reason that the use of neat epoxy resin on
bearing support is not permitted.
It should be noted that elastomeric bearings are designed for the serviceability limit state.
Elastomeric bearings may be installed on an incline, provided that the following criteria are met (AS 5100.4):
• The strip, plain pad or laminated elastomeric bearing is mechanically restrained on both the top and
bottom faces.
• The shear deflection of the bearing caused by the application of the self-weight of the superstructure is
less than the smaller of the half shear deflection capacity of the bearing or 6 mm. Where the bearing is
inclined about both axes, the shear deflection should be taken as the vector sum of the longitudinal and
transverse deflection.
Inclined elastomeric bearings may also be used in opposed pairs of identical bearings to permit an increased
transverse shear stiffness of the pair of bearings without increasing the longitudinal shear stiffness or vice
versa.
Elastomeric bearing types
Elastomeric bearings come in the form of one of the following:

• Continuous strip bearings of plain rubber up to 125 x 25 mm in cross-section. The bearings are used to
support slabs and prestressed planks.
• Plain rubber bearings pads are used to varying thicknesses and up to 25 mm thick. They are usually
rectangular but can also be specified/used as circular. The bearings are used to support prestressed
concrete planks and short span girders where individual bearing supports are required. The bearings
have limited vertical load capacity, shear movement and rotational capacities compared to the thicker
laminated bearings described below. The advantage of circular bearings is that they have uniform
characteristics in all directions. This is particularly useful on skew bridges to accommodate the pier
movements not along the bridge.
• Laminated rubber bearing pads either rectangular up to 600 mm x 600 mm x 293 mm thick or circular up
to 880 mm diameter x 309 mm thick. The bearings are used to support prestressed concrete girders,
troughs and steel girders up to 40 m spans. The bearings consist of rubber reinforced by a number of
embedded steel plates. The number of plates and the height of the bearing increase as the bearing
capacity and/or movement range increases (Figure 14.22 and Figure 14.23).
Figure 14.22: Cross-section of laminated elastomeric bearing with four steel plates
Steel plates
Elastomer (natural rubber)

Figure 14.23: Laminated elastomeric bearing
Construction issues
In the installation of elastomeric bearings the following issues need to be addressed:

• the mortar pad must be planar to ensure uniform bearing
The plan dimensions of the mortar pad must exceed the plan dimension of the bearing to ensure a clearance
of at least 25 mm. This is to ensure friction is developed to prevent curling of the edges of the bearing that
may lead to tearing of the elastomer (Figure 14.24).
• safety – stability of tall bearings
The use of tall laminated elastomeric bearings to support individual girders presents a stability issue and
therefore a safety issue during construction as they may be unstable in terms of rotation and shearing until
the in situ deck is constructed. To address this issue, temporary restraints must be provided to prevent the
girders sliding off the bearings or rotating and falling. The temporary supports must be fixed before the girder
is released from the lifting mechanism.
Thermal effects
The stability of bearings and girders can also be affected by thermal effects. Solar heating of one side of a
girder may cause the member to bow with the possibility of the centre of gravity shifting horizontally to the
point where the girder becomes unstable. The design of the temporary bracing should take this into account.

To address this issue temporary restraint must be provided to prevent the girders sliding off the bearings or
rotating and falling. The temporary supports must be fixed before the girder is released from the lifting
mechanism.
Figure 14.24: Mortar pads for elastomeric bearings
Possible
Incorrect mortar pad size tearing
75- 100 mm
Correct mortar pad
When the member is placed on the bearing a close inspection should be carried out to ensure uniform
seating. Rotation of the member under the subsequent dead load of the deck concrete will correct the
situation to some degree. However, if a significant gap exists between the bearing and the member remedial
measures will need to be taken. This may involve correcting the levels on the mortar pad.
Laminated bearings under load result in a minor rippling of the vertical surface. The crests coincide with a
layer of rubber between the steel plates and the valleys with the steel plates. Excessive rippling on one side
of a bearing compared to the other indicates unequal loading and may lead to splitting of the protruding
rubber. Remedial action may be required to address the issue.
Uneven loading of elastomeric bearings indicates differential compressive strains and may require remedial
action.
14.4.2 Pot Bearings
Pot bearings are used extensively for larger bearings and have load capacities from 100 to 6000 tonnes or
more. They consist of a cylindrical pad of rubber contained in a steel ‘pot’ attached to, or integral with, a top
plate. A close-fitting steel piston attached to, or integral with, a bottom plate bears on the rubber pad. The
pressure in pot bearings is in the range of 40–50 MPa.
When rubber is confined in this way under pressure it acts as a fluid and as a result the top plate of the
bearing can rock on the pad in any direction. The rubber pad has a number of circumferential bronze sealing
rings that are vulcanised or recessed into the top of the rubber (Figure 14.25).

Figure 14.25: Pot bearing rubber pad with sealing rings
Rubber pad Sealing rings
The purpose of the rings is to prevent the extrusion of the rubber from the pot. Instances have occurred
where the rubber pad has extruded out of the pot as a result of either excessive clearance between the rings
and the internal diameter of the pot or an insufficient number of sealing rings (Figure 14.26).
Figure 14.26: Extrusion of rubber from pot bearing due to lack of effective seal
Cast-in top plate
Cast-in bottom plate
When load is applied to the bearing, the rubber pad expands and the sealing rings bear against the vertical
face of the pot creating the seal. The maximum permitted clearance between the pot and the piston is 1 mm.
Pot bearings are much thinner in height compared to bearings used in the past and are ideal as replacement
bearings on older bridges.
Fixed pot bearings
For fixed pot bearings the bottom plate is fixed to the superstructure by bolting the pot section to a plate cast
into the member. Similarly, the bottom plate is fixed to the headstock by bolting the piston section to a plate
cast into the member. In each case the clearance between the cast-in plates must be sufficient to allow the
bolts to be removed to facilitate any future replacement of the bearing (Figure 14.27).

Figure 14.27: Pot stay fixed bearing
Expansion pot bearings
In expansion pot bearings a thin disc of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is placed into a recess at the top of
the pot. A third plate bolted to the superstructure is faced on the bottom with a sheet of polished stainless
steel that can slide back and forth on the PTFE disc. As the PTFE has very low friction (coefficient of friction
0.01–0.015) under load, this type of bearing offers very little resistance to the movements of the
superstructure. Current standards require that the PTFE discs be dimpled to provide a reservoir for a
lubricant applied during manufacture.
The range of sliding movements of a bearing is only limited by the length of the top sliding plate.
Similar to fixed bearings, the bottom plate of expansion bearings is fixed to the superstructure by bolting the
pot section to a plate cast into the member. The bottom plate is fixed to the headstock by bolting the piston
section to a plate cast into the member. In each case the clearance between the cast-in plates must be
sufficient to allow the bolts to be removed to facilitate any future replacement of the bearing (Figure 14.28).
Free sliding and guided sliding bearings
Expansion pot bearings are available in two forms – free sliding/free floating bearing (Figure 14.28) or the
guided sliding bearing (Figure 14.29).
The free sliding bearing is used where the designer wants the bridge to be able to slide in all directions. The
guided sliding bearing is used where lateral restraint of the superstructure is required and also to ‘guide’ the
direction of movement.
The guides are bolted to the sliding plate. In instances where future lateral movement of piers is anticipated
e.g. mining subsidence, provision can be made for the replacement of the guides with wider or narrower
guide plates to suit the situation.
A combination of a free sliding bearing and a guided sliding bearing is often specified on curved bridges to
ensure the bridge is provided with free movement.

Figure 14.28: Free floating pot bearing – movement in all directions
Source: Based on Gabauer (1972).
Figure 14.29: Pot glide bearing movement in two directions
Source: Based on Gabauer (1972).

Construction issues
In the installation of pot bearings the following issues need to be addressed:

• Transit bolts – pot bearings are dispatched with transit bolts to ensure the bearing remains intact in
transit. The bolts must be removed once the bearing is in place.
• Component orientation – pot bearings must be installed with the pot pointing down. This prevents the
ingress of moisture and dirt into the pot notwithstanding the use of dust seals.
• Insertion of rubber pad – it is possible for the rubber pad to be inserted upside down i.e. with the sealing
rings at the bottom of the pot which will not seal the rubber to prevent it extruding.
• Mortar seating – it is imperative the mortar pad supporting the bearing be planar and level. Failure to
address this will result in a reduction in the rotational capacity of the bearing that may be insufficient for
in-service requirements (Figure 14.30).
• Orientation of guided sliding bearings – the guided sliding bearings must be carefully orientated in the
direction of movement to prevent binding of the guides with the top of the pot. Instances have occurred
where damage to the guides has occurred due to this problem (Figure 14.31).
Figure 14.30: Mortar pad not level reducing rotational capacity

Figure 14.31: Pot guide bearing – binding of octagonal pot with side guides
Safety issues – stability of temporary supports
The use of pot bearings to support individual girders presents a stability issue and therefore a safety issue during
construction, as they are unstable in terms of rotation and sliding until the in situ deck is constructed. Figure 14.32
provides an example of a bridge where the use of unstable bearings resulted in failure during construction.
To address this issue, temporary restraints must be provided to prevent the girders sliding off the bearings or
rotating and falling. The temporary supports must be fixed before the girder is released from the lifting
mechanism.
Where free sliding bearings exist on one pier there is no lateral restraint to the girder sliding laterally. The
very low coefficient of friction on the sliding surface means that the possibility of unexpected movement
occurring is high.
Figure 14.32: Collapse of Souvenir Boulevard Bridge during construction
Source: Tremblay and Mitchell (2006).

Thermal effects
The stability of bearings and girders can also be affected by thermal effects. Solar heating of one side of a
girder may cause the member to bow with the possibility of the centre of gravity shifting horizontally to the
point where the girder becomes unstable. The design of the temporary bracing should take this into account.
14.4.3 Disc Bearings
Disc bearings consist of a hard elastomeric disc (polyether urethane) located between two metal plates to
support the vertical loads and a metal key in the center of the bearing to resist horizontal loads. The
rotational movements are accommodated through the deformation of the elastomer. Where there is a
requirement to accommodate translational movements, a PTFE slider is required. Translational movements
in a specified direction may be restrained by guided edges (unidirectional bearing).
These are high load, multi-rotational compact bearings that can sustain design loads of up to 45 000 kN and
can accommodate rotations of up to 0.08 radians in both longitudinal and transverse directions.
Disc bearings are of three types (Figure 14.33):

• fixed, which allows rotation in all directions but prevents lateral displacement
• unidirectional, which allows rotation in all directions and displacement in one direction
• multidirectional which allows rotation and displacement in all directions.
Figure 14.33: Watson disc bearings
Source: Watson (2016).
14.4.4 Cylindrical and Spherical Bearings
Cylindrical bearings consist of a backing plate with a convex cylindrical surface (rotation element) and a
backing plate with a concave cylindrical surface between which a PTFE sheet and the mating material form a
curved sliding surface. Cylindrical PTFE bearings are also used in combination with flat sliding elements and
guides to form free or guided bearings.
Spherical bearings essentially consist of a spherical sliding surface, a lower and an upper bearing plate. The
spherical sliding surface features a concave bearing plate mating with a convex surface to allow rotations.
Translational movements can be accommodated by a top sliding plate. As with disc bearings, this type of
bearing is also a high load, multi-rotational compact bearing that can be used to accommodate thermal,
seismic and mechanical expansion and contraction.
Watson’s RJW spherical bearings consist of a concave bearing plate, a convex mating plate, an upper sole
plate and a lower masonry plate. Sliding surfaces comprise bonded PTFE mated to highly polished stainless
steel. They come in three types, being fixed, guided expansion and non-guided expansion bearings
(Figure 14.34).

Figure 14.34: RJW spherical bearings
Source: Watson (2016).
Maurer Sohne’s sliding bearings are another type of spherical bearing. They consist of a disc with a convex
lower surface and flat top surface. Both are made of proprietary Maurer sliding material (MSM), a base plate
with a mating concave sliding surface and a top plate. The top plate can be equipped with appropriate
restraints to provide fixed or guided features. Otherwise, it is a multi-translational bearing (Figure 14.35).
Figure 14.35: Maurer Sohne spherical bearings
Source: Maurer Sohne (2016).
Spherical bearings are normally supplied as a proprietary product where the detailed design of the bearings
is the responsibility of the manufacturer. Refer to AS 5100.4 for detailed design requirements.
14.4.5 Proprietary Bearings
Various bearing manufacturers produce a range of standard bearings for specific loads and displacements.
They also provide a design service for non-standard bearings to suit particular applications. Refer to
manufacturers’ catalogues for details. Designers should ideally select standard bearings from the list in AS
5100.4.

15. Bridge Deck Joints
This section presents information on deck joint function, design considerations and descriptions of typical
types of bridge deck joints. Refer to Section 19 AGBT Part 6: Bridge Construction for information on supply
and installation, as well as construction issues of common types of bridge deck joints. Refer also to Section
6.9.4 of AGBT Part 7: Maintenance and Management of Existing Bridges for information on failure modes of
various types of bridge deck joints and their rehabilitation and strengthening treatments.
15.1 Function of Deck Joints
The function of deck joints is to provide for the movements and rotations of the separate sections of the
bridge deck to ensure no significant secondary stresses are imposed on the superstructure. Sealed deck
joint systems also provide barriers preventing runoff water and debris from passing through the joint onto
bearings and other substructure elements beneath the bridge deck.
Deck joints are either fixed or expansion depending on the articulation of the bridge by the location of fixed or
expansion bearings. The long-term performance of deck joints is a major bridge maintenance issue. The cost
of replacing deck joints and the associated traffic control measures required are disproportionate to the initial
cost of the item. On major bridges on motorways, traffic control costs can exceed $1 million. Hence, there
needs to be an approach of providing robust design to deck joints to ensure an adequate service life is
achieved. All too often a minimalist approach to deck joints has been used when for a relatively small
additional cost, long-term service would have been achieved.
Deck joints are subjected to very high repetition impact loads that will expose members and fixtures to stress
levels not conceived by the designer. For example the use of preloaded hold-down bolts with a de-bonded
length will prevent fatigue failure if pre-load is above the applied tensile load.
Expansion joints must accommodate movements produced by various actions on the bridge such as
concrete shrinkage and creep, post-tensioning shortening, thermal variations, dead and live loads, wind and
seismic loads, and structure settlements.
The selection of a suitable expansion joint at the design stage is based on various factors such as the type of
bridge structure, material, span, usage, and climatic conditions. Principally, expansion joints must meet the
following conditions:
• accommodate all ranges of movements induced by all actions affecting the bridge
• sustain impact and vibration of traffic and other actions (direct and indirect)
• provide a good running surface for all classes of road user
• restrict noise levels to a reasonable level
• remain serviceable under different climatic conditions and chemical agent impacts
• prevent grit, debris and water from damaging the bridge components below the joints
• allow easy installation, inspection, maintenance and replacement
• provide total service life cost-effectiveness.

The design of deck joints should take into account the following considerations:
• design loads, including vertical live load and longitudinal live load in accordance with AS 5100.4
• fatigue, to limit the stresses so that each joint component is able to sustain an infinite number of live load
cycles unless a detailed investigation is undertaken
• ultimate limit state movements, including longitudinal, vertical and lateral movements based on
installation conditions and allowing for all irreversible movements, erection sequences and ambient
conditions
• gap width, to ensure a maximum of 85 mm is not exceeded in the worst case scenario.
Refer to AS 5100.4 for the detailed design requirements for deck joints.
15.2.2 Types of Deck Joints
The types of deck joints are classified by the functions they perform.
Fixed joints
The functions of fixed joints are to:

• act as a contraction joint
• provide rotation where necessary.
Expansion joints
The functions of expansion joints are to:

• allow the deck to expand and contract with variations in temperature
• allow for long-term shortening of the superstructure due to creep and shrinkage
• allow for rotation as the deck deflects under load
• provide a smooth riding surface for vehicles passing over the joint
• prevent the ingress of water through the joint unless it is designed as an open joint.
15.2.3 Components of Deck Joints
The principal components of a deck joint may include:

• a nosing to restrain the surfacing at the end of each section of the deck
• a base plate to which a cover plate or finger plate is bolted
• a protection angle or flat to protect the edge of a deck from damage by impact
• anchorages to tie the base plate, protection angle or strip to the deck
• a seal or sealant to prevent water flowing from the deck down onto the girder ends and substructure
• a cover plate or finger plate to cover an otherwise excessively wide gap
• a drain to carry water away from the girder ends and substructure.
A particular joint does not necessarily possess all these components.

15.2.4 Selection of Deck Joints
The selection criteria for expansion joints should be based on the performance requirements as presented in
Section 15.2.1. Based on the applicable movement range of each joint type, the following may be used as
guidelines for the initial joint selection step:
• For very small movements (< 25 mm), suitable expansion joints are pourable sealant and compression
seal.
• For a movement range of 25 mm to 85 mm, compression seals and strip seals can be used for normal
applications while a fingerplate joint (with cast aluminium triangle shape finger) can be used for skew
bridges.
• For a movement range of 85 mm to 125 mm, bonded metal/elastomer and fingerplate joints are
applicable. It should be noted that although the strip seals can accommodate a movement of up to 125
mm, it is limited by the AS 5100.4 requirement for a maximum gap of 85 mm.
• For a movement range of 125 mm to 330 mm, fingerplate joints and bonded metal/elastomer joints are
applicable. A modular bridge joint system (MBJS) can also be considered for this movement range.
• For a movement of 330 mm to 500 mm, a fingerplate joint or MBJS can be selected.
• MBJS is the only joint system that can be applicable for movements larger than 500 mm.
• If a fingerplate joint is selected for a movement larger than 200 mm, special attention should be paid to
control the fatigue failure of the fingers.
15.3 Types of Deck Joints
Table 15.1 provides details and illustrates the range of deck joints available.
Table 15.1: Typical deck joints details
Joint types Comments Diagram Image

Fixed joints The fixed joint is a simple
type of joint. It is basically
fixed but may allow very small
movements of 1 or 2 mm.
Used on small to medium
bridges. Rebates in adjoining
decks filled with a
polysulphide or polyurethane
filler. The width/thickness
ratio specified to suit. A bond
breaker is applied on the
vertical face of the first
poured deck. Used mostly in
prestressed concrete deck
unit bridges.
Semi-fixed Used on small to medium

joints bridges. Rebates in adjoining Compressible joint
decks filled with a hot or cold filler
poured filler. A compressible
joint filler is placed prior to
pouring the second deck.
Open joints An open joint is merely a gap,
usually protected by steel
nosings, with no sealing
component. In some cases a
channel is provided to collect
and discharge any water and
debris passing through the
joint.


Sealant filled Used on small to medium-
joints span bridges. A polymer
concrete nosing is formed on
the deck. A two-part silicon
sealant is used to fill the gap.
Rubber pipe Used in the past with limited

expansion success. The rubber pipe was
joints often forced out between the
adjoining decks. Not
recommended.
Sliding plate Used on older bridges,

expansion particularly steel trusses with
joints movement ranges of 50 mm
to 100 mm. Problems
occurred with fatigue in the
welded anchors. In many
instances anchor bolts are
installed when weld failures
occur. The joint suffers from
the accumulation of dirt at the
sliding surfaces. These joints
are no longer used under
road traffic conditions as they
do not conform to AS 5100.4
in regard to watertightness
and sealing against dirt Source: D Carter (n.d.).
ingress, and can generate
excessive noise and
problems in service.
Compression Used for expansion joints on
seals small to medium bridges for
movements of 5–60 mm. The
seals have a variety of sizes
and configurations. The as-
built gap width and the
expansion and contraction
movements must be in the
operating range of the
compression seal for
satisfactory performance.


Asphaltic plug Used to provide expansion on
joints small-span bridges with
asphaltic concrete overlays.
The asphaltic plug is
designed to accommodate
small movements up to
20 mm. A steel plate is used
to support the joint over the
gap.
Strip seal joints The joint has been used on

medium-size bridges with
maximum allowable open gap
of 85 mm and minimum gap
of 15 mm. The joint consists
of aluminium extrusions
bolted into rebates in the
adjoining decks. A moulded
rubber seal is inserted into
jaws in the aluminium
extrusion. The anchor bolts
should be fully tensioned to
avoid fatigue and to stress the
extrusion onto the concrete.
The bottom of the rebates
must be planar and a bedding
layer of resin used to ensure
uniform seating.
Finger joints Used for medium to large
bridges with longitudinal
movements of 75 mm to 500
mm.
The joints are fabricated from
steel plate. The length of the
fingers is designed to
accommodate the range of
movement. The design
limitation of the joint is the
length of cantilever of the
fingers. The anchorage
system consists of base
plates anchored into the deck
using fully tensioned high-
strength bolts. The finger
plates are anchored to the
base plates using high-tensile
machine screws. The use of
welded connections is not
recommended due to fatigue
issues.


Proprietary Numerous companies
finger plate manufacture proprietary
expansion finger plate expansion joints.
joints A number of road agencies
have undertaken a survey of
the in-service performance of
these joints. It is
recommended that they be
contacted for information on
specific joints.
Modular Bridge Used on large bridges. The

Expansion joint consist of transverse
Joints (MBEJ) centre beams supported by
longitudinal support beams.
The centre beams are
connected so that as the joint
moves the spacing of the
centre beams is equalised.
There have been fatigue
problems with the joint.
However, these have been
addressed by changes in the
design requirements.
There have been some noise
issues with modular joints
installed in urban areas.
Some road agencies require
that the modular joint not
generate a significant
increase in the average noise
levels. An approved noise
reduction system must be Source: Brown Steelflex (2016).
fitted with the joint if it is
installed on a bridge located a
close distance from a
residential development,
e.g. within 2 km radius.

16. Ancillary Bridge Components
Ancillary bridge components include traffic barriers, pedestrian rails, noise barriers, protection screens,
utilities, drainage, road signs and lighting structures.
16.1 Traffic Barriers
Bridge barriers perform an essential safety function on a bridge and must be designed to the performance
requirement at each site.
AS/NZS 3845.1 sets out the requirements for traffic barrier devices that provide some redirection and
containment capability when impacted by a vehicle. For bridge barriers, refer to Clause 13 of AS 5100.1.
Refer to Standardised bridge barrier design (Austroads 2013) for a thorough discussion of bridge barriers
and a list of proposed standardised barrier designs.
16.1.1 New Bridges
The performance requirements for traffic barriers for a new bridge are determined by the road agency taking
into account a number of factors, including:
• height
• width
• design speed
• traffic volumes
• alignment
• flood loading for submersible bridges
• degree of bridge and approach curvature
• overbridge – roads and railway lines
• overbridge – property
• containment of heavy vehicles
• other site-specific requirements.
16.1.2 Existing Bridges
The performance requirements for the upgrading of traffic barriers for an existing bridge are determined by
the road agency taking into account a number of factors, including:
• expected remaining life of the structure
• accident history
• costs and benefits
• practicality of upgrading bridge members supporting the barriers to meet the performance requirements
referred to in Section 16.1.1
• typical traffic barriers.
Table 16.1 sets out details of typical traffic barriers. It should be noted that older types of barriers may not be
used when retrofitting older bridges since they may not meet the performance requirements.

16.1.3 Road-to-bridge Transition
The transition from the flexible road guardrail to the rigid bridge barriers is an important design consideration.
The approach guardrail must transition from flexible to rigid where it connects to the bridge barrier to prevent
errant vehicles impacting with the bridge barrier.
The normal approach is to successively close up the guardrail post spacings as they approach the bridge
and replace the guardrail with a thrie-beam. Road agencies have standard drawings for this detail. Figure
16.1 shows the connection of the thrie-beam to the bridge barrier.
Figure 16.1: Connection of approach guardrail to the bridge barrier using thrie-beam

Table 16.1: Typical bridge barriers on existing and new bridges
Traffic barrier
type
Timber post Used on timber beam, timber
and rail truss and wrought iron
bridges. The barrier has
limited capacity.
Steel post and Used on heritage bridges to

rail barriers replicate the traditional timber
with guardrail post and rail.
Source: R Taylor (n.d.).
Concrete post Used on older bridges. Being

and steel pipe replaced with steel barriers or
barriers supplemented using traffic
guardrail to provide a
continuous barrier.
Source: P Wilson (n.d.).
Concrete post Used on older bridges. Being

and rail replaced with steel barriers or
barriers supplemented using traffic
guardrail to provide a
continuous barrier.
Replacement Existing concrete bridge

of concrete rehabilitation.
post and rail
barrier with
modified New
Jersey kerb
and steel
barrier
Existing concrete deck cantilever

Traffic barrier
type
Steel post and Used on older bridges. Some
rail designs had no connection
between panels.
Being replaced with steel
barriers or supplemented
using traffic guardrail to
provide a continuous barrier.
Steel multiple Used on bridges pre-1990.

rail Designed to the standard at
that time.
Steel barrier – Used where the strength of

spanning culverts is insufficient to carry
culvert traffic barrier loads. The
barrier consists of large RHS
sections with an Armco or
thrie-beam at the traffic face.
The RHS sections are bolted
to steel post cast into 1 or 2
cast-in-place piles installed
clear of the ends of the
culvert. As a result no traffic
barrier loads are transmitted
to the culvert.
New Jersey Full height concrete kerb
kerb concrete designed to absorb energy
barrier through the vehicle
suspension and reduce the
risk of vehicles being
deflected back into the traffic
stream. Used extensively on
new bridges.
Concrete Used on urban freeways

barrier with pre-1990 for increased
single steel rail containment of vehicles.

Traffic barrier
type
Concrete Used on urban freeways pre-
barrier with 1990 for increased
double steel containment of vehicles.
rail
Concrete/steel Used in NSW as a

(or aluminium) modification of the New
barrier Jersey kerb concept.
Traffic Used on culverts or small

guardrail bridges where deemed
suitable.

Concrete Used where containment of
barrier – full heavy vehicles is required on
containment overbridges.

16.2 Pedestrian Rails
The geometric requirements for pedestrian rails are set out in Clause 15 of AS 5100.1 Pedestrian and Cyclist
Path Barriers. The geometric requirements include:
• minimum height of 1.2 m from the top of the pedestrian way
• minimum railing height of 1.4 m from the top of the pedestrian way where cyclists may use the pedestrian
way
• balustrade spacing not more than 125 mm
• the spacing between the top of the kerb and the bottom railing not to exceed 125 mm
• provision of a continuous kerb with a minimum height of 100 mm
• vertical balustrade to have no climbing footholds.
A typical pedestrian handrail is shown in Figure 16.2.
Figure 16.2: Typical pedestrian handrail
Source: ARRB Group (n.d.).

16.3 Noise Barriers
The requirement to minimise traffic noise has resulted in the necessity to attach noise walls to bridges,
however, for some road agencies, noise barriers are not provided automatically on new structures. Provision
of noise barriers is subject to the relevant road agency policy, eligibility of the property, a noise survey and
proximity of noise sensitive facades.
Noise wall designs vary widely. The design considerations for noise walls on bridges include:
• designed to be discontinuous over expansion joints
• designed for vehicle impact so as not to damage the bridge
• designed to be modular so that individual panels can be replaced
• connections and joints to be designed to prevent fragmenting and projectiles in the event of an impact
• compliance with the vehicle roll allowance specified by the relevant authority
• allowance for thermal movements between fixtures
• wind loads transmitted to the bridge
• the durability of fixtures
• effects of the deflection of the bridge under live load
• effects of vibration of the bridge under live load and fatigue of fixtures.
A typical steel frame noise wall on a bridge is shown in Figure 16.3.
Figure 16.3: Steel frame noise wall attached to bridge

16.4 Protection Screens on Road and Pedestrian Bridges
The frequency of objects being thrown off bridges has resulted in the need to install protection screens. The
screens typically consist of a steel mesh supported by a steel frame attached to the bridge.
The requirements for protection screens on bridges are set out in Clause 15.3 of AS 5100.1. A typical
protection screen is shown in Figure 16.2.
For some road agencies, protection screens are not provided automatically on new structures. Provision of
protection screens is subject to the relevant road agency policy and site-specific risk assessment.
16.5 Utilities
Utility services are usually attached on structures. The following considerations should be made when
attaching utility services (AS 5100.1):
• They should be positioned outside the required clearance and minimise the potential for damage from
flood events, vehicle impact and vandalism.
• Durable materials should be used for utility services, fixings, brackets and other attachments.
• Where utility services carrying liquids are located inside closed cells, drainage is to be provided in case of
leaking or bursting of the pipes. Utilities conveying flammable substances are not located inside closed
cells.
• Utility services should incorporate measures to accommodate deck movement.
16.6 Drainage
Transverse and longitudinal drainage of the carriageway is ensured by providing a suitable crossfall and a
camber or gradient, respectively. Water flowing downgrade on bridge approaches is intercepted and should
not be permitted to run onto the bridge. Bridges over rail, other roads and environmentally sensitive areas
should be designed without scuppers.
Where a drainage system is required, the outlets should be sufficient in size and number to drain the deck
and transfer water away from substructure componentry. The drainage system should be of rigid, ultraviolet,
fire and corrosion resistant material throughout its design life and should be provided with cleanouts.
16.7 Road Signs and Lighting Structures
These ancillary structures include above road and cantilever gantries and structures, tolling structures and
traffic light poles. Refer to AS 5100.1 for detailed requirements.

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Summary of Deck Types and Associated

Superstructure Type
Superstructure
Deck type Elevation and/or cross-section Deck material Comments
type
Transverse Timber girders Timber See
timber decking decking planks Section 11.1.1.
planks or longitudinal
timber
sheeting
Transverse Timber truss Timber Timber deck
timber decking decking planks system. Stringers
planks or longitudinal span between the
timber cross girders and
sheeting support decking.
See
Section 11.1.1.
Stress laminated Timber truss Spray bitumen Stress laminated

timber seal of deck replaces
asphaltic original timber deck
concrete system and spans
overlay between the cross
girders – stringers
removed. See
Section 11.1.3.
Stress laminated Steel girders Spray bitumen Stress laminated
timber seal of deck replaces
asphaltic original timber deck
concrete on steel cross
overlay beams supported
by main steel
girders. See
Section 11.1.3.
Flat slab Slab Reinforced Used for shorter
concrete spans in the past.
Replaced by
prestressed
concrete slabs and
planks.
See Section 5.3.
Voided flat slab Voided slab Reinforced Used for shorter
concrete spans in the past.
Replaced by
prestressed
concrete types.
See Section 5.3.
Top flange T-beam Reinforced Used for reinforced
concrete concrete bridges
circa 1930.
See Section 5.4.
Inverted U-beam Inverted U- Reinforced Planks bolted
beam concrete through adjacent
legs
See Section 5.5.

Superstructure
type
Concrete plank Deck unit/plank Prestressed Transversally
deck concrete stressed. Asphaltic
overlay.
See Section 6.5.
Concrete deck Rolled steel Composite Plates welded to
beams reinforced bottom flange to
concrete increase span.
Steel or concrete
cross girders used.
See Section 4.2.2.
Concrete deck Welded plate Composite Steel bracing or
girders reinforced concrete cross
concrete girders used.
See Section 4.2.5.
Concrete deck Welded steel Composite Temporary bracing

trough girders reinforced required between
concrete top flanges of each
girder.
See Section 4.2.3.
Concrete deck Welded steel Composite Cantilever slab
box girder reinforced reinforced
concrete concrete.
Simply supported,
continuous or
cable-stayed
spans.
See Section 4.2.4.
Steel deck Welded steel Orthotropic Simply supported,
box girder steel deck with continuous or
concrete infill cable-stayed
and asphaltic spans.
overlay See
Section 11.5.2.
Concrete deck Prestressed Composite Standard I-girders
pre-tensioned reinforced types 1, 2, 3, 4.
concrete concrete Concrete cross
I-girders girders used.
Simply-supported,
or girders
simply-supported
and deck poured
continuous over
piers.
Concrete deck Prestressed Composite Permanent deck
pre-tensioned reinforced formwork required
concrete trough concrete between each
girders girder and between
webs of each
girder.
Simply-supported,
or girders
simply-supported
and deck poured
continuous over
piers.

Superstructure
type
Concrete deck Prestressed Composite Permanent deck
pre-tensioned reinforced formwork only
concrete super concrete required between
T-girders the webs of each
girder. Cantilever
slabs provide the
form for the deck
concrete.
Simply-supported
or girders
simply-supported
and deck poured
continuous over
piers.
Concrete deck Prestressed Composite Top flange and
pre-tensioned reinforced cantilever slabs
concrete closed concrete provide the form for
flange super the deck concrete.
T-girders Simply supported,
or girders
simply-supported
and deck poured
continuous over
piers.
Concrete deck Prestressed Top flange Cantilever slab
post-tensioned forms the deck reinforced or
voided slab prestressed
concrete.
Simply-supported
or continuous
spans.
Concrete deck Prestressed Top flange Cantilever slab
post-tensioned forms the deck reinforced
multi-cell box concrete.
girder Simply-supported,
continuous or
cable-stayed
spans.
Concrete deck Prestressed Top flange Single cell.
post-tensioned forms the deck Cantilever slab
box girder reinforced
concrete.
Simply-supported,
continuous or
cable-stayed
spans.
Soil infill Masonry arch Bitumen spray Sedimentary or
seal or igneous stone.
asphaltic
concrete
Concrete deck Concrete arch Composite Prestressed
reinforced concrete or steel
concrete girders.
Concrete deck Steel arch Composite Prestressed

reinforced concrete or steel
concrete girders.

Superstructure
type
Steel trough Steel arch Concrete infill
deck
Orthotropic steel Suspension Asphaltic Major bridge

deck bridge concrete construction. Steel
overlay deck system. Steel
hangers.
Transverse Suspension Decking planks Timber deck
timber decking bridge or longitudinal system. Steel or
planks timber wrought iron
sheeting hangers. Heritage
bridges.
Reinforced Cable-stayed Top flange of Stay-cable
concrete and concrete girder girder forms arrangements vary
steel the deck from bridge to
bridge – radiating
or parallel. Single
or double line of
cables.
Reinforced Cable-stayed Composite Stay-cable
concrete and steel girder concrete or arrangements vary
steel orthotropic from bridge to
steel deck bridge – radiating
or parallel. Single
or double line of
cables.
Reinforced Cabled stayed Single column.
concrete and steel or Stay cable
steel concrete girder arrangements vary
from bridge to
bridge – radiating
or parallel. Single
or double line of
cables. Commonly
used for shorter
spans and
pedestrian bridges.

Glossary
The following definitions are adopted from Austroads (2015) Glossary of Terms, 6th Edn.
Term Definition
Abutments Substructure components at the ends of a bridge providing support to the superstructure
and retaining the approach fill.
Afflux The rise in water level on the upstream side of a constriction in a stream or channel
relative to the water level on the downstream side.
Alignment The geometric form of the centreline (or other reference line) of a carriageway in both the
horizontal and vertical directions.
Annual average daily The total volume of traffic passing a roadside observation point over the period of a
traffic (AADT) calendar year, divided by the number of days in that year (365 or 366 days).
Approach slab A reinforced concrete slab supported on the abutment curtain wall and the approach fill.
Approaches (bridge) A relatively short length of carriageway leading up to a bridge, including embankment,
pavement and safety barriers.
Apron (culvert) A smooth (generally concrete) surface that is placed between culvert and channel to
improve capacity and reduce erosion.
Arterial road A road that predominantly carries through traffic from one region to another, forming
principal avenues of travel for traffic movements.
Articulated vehicle Combination of prime mover and semi-trailer.
Asphalt A mixture of bituminous binder and aggregate with or without mineral filler, produced hot in
a mixing plant, which is delivered, spread and compacted while hot. In the USA, the term
‘asphalt’ can also mean bituminous binder.
Barrier An obstruction placed to prevent vehicle access to a particular area.
Barrier kerb A kerb with a profile and height sufficient to prevent or discourage vehicles moving off the
carriageway.
Batter The uniform side slope of walls, banks, cuttings, etc. Usually expressed as a ratio of
horizontal to vertical.
Beam A load bearing member which supports the deck of a bridge.
Bearing (structural) A device for transmitting horizontal and vertical forces of a bridge superstructure to the
supporting structure.
Bearing capacity The maximum average contact pressure between the foundation and the soil which will not
produce shear failure in the soil.
Bore (bore hole, drill hole) A hole produced in the ground by drilling or driving for geotechnical investigation or to give
access to underground water supplies.
Box culvert A culvert of rectangular cross-section.
Bracing Component providing stability to a member, or group of members, such as the timber
cross bracing on piles.
Bridge A structure designed to carry a road or path over an obstacle by spanning it.
Caisson A hollow structure for keeping water or soft ground from flowing into an excavation.
Capwales Pair of horizontal timber components (typically 300 mm x 150 mm) at the tops of piles, or
posts, providing bearing for the superstructure.
Carriageway That portion of a road or bridge devoted particularly to the use of vehicles, inclusive of
shoulders and auxiliary lanes.
Cast-in-place (concrete) Concrete which is cast directly into its final position.
(also cast-in situ)
Causeway A raised carriageway across wet or low areas or across tidal water.
Centreline The line which defines the axis or alignment of the centre of a road or other work. It may
be defined by pavement markings on a road delineating opposing traffic flows.
Chainage The distance of a point along a control line, measured from a datum point.

Term Definition
Components General term referring to members forming part of a structural assembly.
Composite A member or system with two components, or materials structurally joined together to form
one member.
Containment The maximum tested vehicle mass used in a set of standard crash tests.
Corbel A longitudinal timber bearing member which provides support and some continuity
between bending members in adjacent spans.
Cross beam (cross girder) Transverse beam, used to support longitudinal members, such as girders, planks,
stringers, etc.
Crossfall The slope, measured at right angles to the alignment, of the surface of any part of a
carriageway.
Crosshead Part of a pier or abutment spanning between columns or piles that support the
superstructure.
Cross-section A vertical section, generally at right angles to the centreline of a bridge component.
Crown The highest point on the cross-section of a carriageway with two-way crossfall.
Culvert One or more adjacent pipes or enclosed channels for conveying surface water or a stream
below formation level.
Curtain wall A narrow reinforced concrete wall, forming part of the abutment to prevent the earth fill
reaching the abutment sill and bearings.
Deck The bridge floor directly carrying traffic loads.
Deck units Load bearing deck members which comprise the bridge deck.
Decking (timber bridges) Closely spaced sawn timbers up to 125 mm deep (200 mm to 250 mm wide) supported on
girders.
Design Can mean design of a scheme, installation, treatment or device. The distinction is
important, and should be made clear in each case.
Design period A period considered appropriate to the function of the road or bridge. It is used to
determine the total traffic for which the pavement or bridge is designed.
Design process Process for arriving at a final design for a transport project and normally divided into three
distinct phases: 1. Functional Design: Preparation of the conceptual design with enough
detail to ensure that the design will function as intended. 2. Preliminary Design:
Finalisation of design in terms of calculations, specifications and estimates such that all
aspects of the design are determined. 3. Documentation: Preparation of plans and
documents describing the design sufficiently for it to be constructed.
Diaphragm A transverse stiffening member girder webs or inside a hollow pier (see also ‘End beam’).
Divided carriageway A road with a separate carriageway for each direction of travel created by placing some
physical obstruction, such as a median or barrier, between the opposing traffic directions.
Divided road A highway or road with separated carriageways for traffic travelling in opposite directions.
Dowel A short, straight, plain reinforcing bar embedded into two adjacent blocks or slabs of
concrete to permit relative horizontal movement in the direction of the dowel and hence
prevent relative vertical movement between adjacent blocks.
Drainage The natural or artificial means of intercepting and removing surface or sub-surface water,
usually by gravity.
Driveway A defined area used by vehicles travelling between a public carriageway and a property
adjacent or near to the road.
Ductility The ability of a material to be elongated without rupture, when stretched under standard
test conditions.
Dynamic load allowance The parameter used to characterise the magnitude of the wheel forces applied by a
moving vehicle to a pavement or structure.
Elastomer A polymeric material, usually synthetic, which has elastic properties akin to rubber.
Embankment A construction (usually of earth or stone) to raise the ground (or formation) level above the
natural surface.
End beam A transverse stiffening member girder webs or inside a hollow pier.

Term Definition
Engineered/engineering Referring to design and/or evaluation by an engineer certified by the Institution of
Engineers Australia.
Expansion joint A joint provided to allow relative movement to occur and to prevent the build-up of stresses
due to expansion. May be of various types depending on the movement to be
accommodated.
Flexural member A component primarily subjected to bending between these supports.
Floodway A longitudinal depression in a carriageway specially constructed to allow the passage of
floodwater across it without damage. The cross-section of a stream in flood plus a
nominated area for freeboard.
Footing The widening at the base of a structure (pier, abutment, etc.) to spread the load above to
the foundation material.
Footpath A public way reserved for the movement of pedestrians and of manually propelled
vehicles.
Footway Pedestrian facility on a bridge.
Foundation The soil or rock upon which a structure rests.
Gabion A wire basket filled with stones used to retain earth or to control scour. A certain type is
termed a rock-fill wire mattress.
Galloping Transverse oscillations of some structures due to the development of aerodynamic forces
which are in phase with the motion. The amplitude of transverse vibration increases with
increase of wind speed.
Girder A load bearing member which supports the deck of a bridge.
Grouting The operation of pouring or forcing binders such as bitumen, cement slurry or epoxy
materials into the interstices of a pavement surfacing, a structure or a natural formation.
Guardrail A rail erected to restrain vehicles that are out of control.
Haunch A thickening of a concrete slab to support an additional load, as under a wall.
Head wall A retaining wall at the end of a culvert.
Headstock Part of a pier or abutment spanning between columns or piles that support the
superstructure.
Hog The vertical deflection caused by the application of prestress in prestressed concrete
members.
In situ An operation carried out on a material in its final position.
Joint The gap between adjoining sections of prestressed concrete construction, usually filled
with epoxy resin or concrete.
Kerb A raised border of rigid material formed at the edge of a carriageway, pavement or bridge.
Longitudinal A component oriented parallel to the roadway.
Mass concrete Unreinforced concrete, commonly used in a thin layer to provide a clean even surface for
supporting of reinforcement during construction.
Orthotropic plate A plate which has anisotropic structural properties at 90 degrees.
Overpass A grade separation where the subject carriageway passes over an intersecting
carriageway or railway.
Parametric excitation A form of resonance that occurs in a mechanical system when a system is parametrically
excited and oscillates at one of its resonant frequencies.
Pier 1. An intermediate support in a bridge having more than one span.
2. Part of the substructure supporting the superstructure and transferring the loads to the
foundations.
Pile A slender member driven, jetted, screwed, or formed in the ground to resist loads or thrust.
Pile cap A structural member designed to connect and distribute loads from the above structure to
a group of piles.
Plank A load bearing member which supports or forms part of the deck of a bridge.
Post-tensioning A method of prestressing in which tendons are tensioned after the concrete has hardened.

Term Definition
Prestressed concrete Concrete in which prior to complete loading, effective internal compressive stresses are
induced deliberately, usually by means of tensioned steel, to reduce or eliminate tensile
stresses when loaded.
Pre-tensioning A method of prestressing in which tendons are tensioned before the concrete is placed
(e.g. Super T girders, deck units).
Protective treatment General term referring to the protection applied to components to provide resistance to
deterioration.
Reinforced concrete Concrete strengthened within its mass by steel bars, or mesh or steel fibres.
Reinforced soil wall A method of constructing retaining walls in which fill is retained by vertical steel or concrete
units anchored by friction into the fill by means of galvanised steel strips.
Retaining wall A wall constructed to resist lateral pressure from the adjoining ground or to maintain in
position a mass of earth.
Riprap Medium to large size rock protection, against scour, applied (usually by dumping) to the
face of an embankment.
Safety barrier A physical barrier separating roadside hazards or opposing traffic and the travelled way,
designed to resist penetration by an out-of-control vehicle and as far as practicable, to stop
or redirect colliding vehicles.
Seasoned A timber component which has been air dried to remove some moisture.
Sheeting Timber plank running surface, generally 50 mm to 75 mm thick, running parallel to the
roadway and supported on the timber decking.
Side wall A thin wall which extends upwards from the side of a pier or abutment, to either hide deck
joints from view, or to retain a batter from filling onto an abutment sill.
Soffit The highest portion of the internal surface of a pipe, culvert or arch.
Span 1. The distance between the centres of adjacent supports of a bridge, beam or truss.
2. The superstructure of a bridge between two adjacent supports.
Span length 1. End spans – the distance between the end of the superstructure and the centre of the
nearest pier. 2. Intermediate spans – the distance between the centres of piers. For design
purposes the span length is the length between centres of supports.
Stiffness The relationship between stress and strain as a function of time of loading and
temperature.
Strand A product consisting of two or more wires spun together in a helical form. Usually bundled
together to form a tendon.
Stress laminated timber A structural system formed from small timber elements stressed together using
prestressing tendons.
Structural defects A general term referring to damage in timber such as splits, checks, fractures, pipes and
crushing.
Subbase The material laid on the subgrade below the base either for the purpose of making up
additional pavement thickness required, to prevent intrusion of the subgrade into the base,
or to provide a working platform.
Substructure In a bridge, the piers and abutments (including wing walls) which support the
superstructure.
Superstructure That part of a bridge structure which is supported by the piers and abutments.
Tendon A tension element usually made up of a number of steel strands or wires, used in concrete
members, to impart prestress.
Timber cross girders Typically large section and high quality timbers of up to 400 mm x 400 mm cross-section
(beams) oriented transversely as part of a larger structure and supporting traditional timber deck
systems.
Timber girders Traditionally round timber members from 300 mm to 500 mm in diameter oriented
longitudinally.
Timber trusses Typically, large section and high quality timber components assembled to form trusses
which can span distances of over 15 m.
Transverse A component oriented perpendicular to the roadway.

Term Definition
Underpass A grade separation where the subject carriageway passes under an intersecting
carriageway or railway.
Viaduct A long bridge composed of a series of spans, usually over land.
Vortex shedding An oscillating flow that takes place when a fluid such as air or water flows past a bluff (as
opposed to streamlined) body at certain velocities, depending on the size and shape of the
body.
Waterway 1. A channel or stream. 2. The area available for water to pass through or under a
structure.
Wearing surface The top coating on a bridge deck provided to resist abrasion from traffic and to minimise
the entry of water.

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Guide to Bridge Technology Part 3:

Typical Superstructures, Substructures and

• Section 2 General Bridge Types and Components | New section.

2. General Bridge Types and Components .............................................................................................. 2

3. Timber Bridges ....................................................................................................................................... 6

4. Steel Bridges ......................................................................................................................................... 25

Austroads 2018 | page i

4.5 Steel Bridge Design Issues .................................................................................................................... 57

5. Reinforced Concrete Bridges .............................................................................................................. 66

6. Prestressed Concrete Bridges ............................................................................................................ 70

7. Cable-stayed Bridges ........................................................................................................................... 99

8. Suspension Bridges ........................................................................................................................... 110

Austroads 2018 | page ii

8.3 Suspension Bridge Components .......................................................................................................... 115

9. Arch Bridges ....................................................................................................................................... 122

10. Pedestrian Bridges ............................................................................................................................. 134

11. Bridge Decks ....................................................................................................................................... 137

12. Major Bridge Substructure Elements ............................................................................................... 145

13. Bridge Foundations ............................................................................................................................ 159

Austroads 2018 | page iii

13.3 Design Considerations ......................................................................................................................... 162

14. Bridge Bearings .................................................................................................................................. 164

15. Bridge Deck Joints ............................................................................................................................. 188

16. Ancillary Bridge Components ........................................................................................................... 194

Austroads 2018 | page iv

Austroads 2018 | page v

Figure 4.7: Typical universal beam span .................................................................................................. 30

Austroads 2018 | page vi

Figure 5.1: Reinforced concrete slab ........................................................................................................ 67

Austroads 2018 | page vii

Figure 7.5: Supplementary wires added to dampen vibrations ............................................................... 103

Austroads 2018 | page viii

Figure 11.10: Typical components of an orthotropic deck bridge ............................................................... 143

Austroads 2018 | page ix

A bridge needs to address requirements such as:

1.1.2 Available Materials

Austroads 2018 | page 1

1.2 Guide Structure

Table 1.1: Parts of the Guide to Bridge Technology

Part Title Content

Austroads 2018 | page 2

2. General Bridge Types and Components

2.1 Classifications of Bridge Structures

2.1.2 Structural Types

2.1.3 Support Conditions

Depending on support condition, bridge structures can typically be classified as simply-supported,

Figure 2.1: Simply-supported spans

Source: D Carter (c2009).

Cantilever with drop-in spans

Austroads 2018 | page 3

Figure 2.2: Cantilevered span with drop-in

Source: D Carter (c2009).

Figure 2.3: Continuous spans

Figure 2.4: Portal frame

Austroads 2018 | page 4

2.2 Bridge Components

Constituent components of the substructure include:

2.2.3 Ancillary Bridge Components