BIOLOGY

Atoms Elements

Protons Electrons Neurons Compounds

Inorganic Organic
Chemical Bonds
Compound Compound

Ionic Bond Water

Covanlent Bond Acid

Hydrogen Bond Base

Electrolyte

Carbon Dioxide
 “All living thing organisms and all the things in the physical environment are made up of matter
composed of atoms.”

Matter
- Is anything that occupies space and has mass
- Is present on Earth in four physical states—solid, liquid, gas, and plasma.

Arrangement of structures from the atomic level until the biosphere leads to the formation of
organisms:

Chemical Level Cellular Level Tissue Level Organ Level System Level

“There are 118 elements discovered to be present on Earth; 91 of these elements occur naturally in
the planet, while the rest were created synthetically by scientists in the laboratory. 25 of these
elements are essential to life.”

Functions of the Seven Major Elements in Living Systems

Symbol Name Functions
The main composition of
C Carbon
organic compounds
The major source of fuel in the
H Hydrogen
production of energy
Essential part of water
O Oxygen molecule and organic
compounds
N Nitrogen Key element in proteins
Major component of nucleic
P Phosphorus acids and energy-rich
compounds
Part of some amino acids and
S Sulfur
vitamins
Major component of bones and
Ca Calcium acts as biological signals in the
body

Other Elements in Living Systems and their Functions

Symbol Name Functions
Na Sodium Essential for nerve function
K Potassium
I Iodine Acts as a thermostat to
regulate body temperature
Md Molybdenum Needed by plants to
incorporate nitrogen into a
biologically useful substance
Mg Magnesium Important component of bones,
teeth, and chlorophyll
Fe Iron Carrier of oxygen in the blood
Trace elements
- Other elements found in tiny amounts in living systems include: Fe, Md, Se, V, I, B, Cr, F, Si,
Cl, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn
- Need them for survival
- Cr is essential for cells to break down sugar for usuable energy
- A person could experience micronutrient deficiency from lack or shortage of trace elements
such as iodine
- Iodine deficiency in the diet can cause the thyroid gland to grow abnormally in size; adding
iodine to table salt can reduce the incidence of goiter
- Are also called minerals, which are essential for growth and maintenance of good health

John Dalton
- Concluded that each element is composed of identical particles called atoms

Atomos
- Greek word meaning indivisible

Element
- Is a pure substance made up of only one type of atom

Atoms
- Are made up of subatomic particle which are: proton (positively charged), electron (negatively
charged), and neutron (uncharged)

“When atoms combine to fill their outermost electron orbit, they form chemical bonds, which are
attractive forces that appear to be like an energy glue so two atoms can achieve stability.”

Three kinds of bonds are observed in biological system:

 Ionic bond
- Are attractions between ions of opposite charges
- Forms between ions, which have electronic charge, resulting from gaining or losing one
or more electrons
- Ions are formed because they are more stable when the outermost energy level is full
- Forms when electrons are transferred from one ion to another
 Covalent bond
- Not all atoms easily gain or lose electrons, like ions. Atoms of many elements share
electrons instead
- This occurs when atoms share their outermost shell electrons
- This forms a molecule composed of two or more atoms held together by covalent bond
- Strongest bond of all
- Results in the sharing of electrons between atoms
- A polar covalent bond involves unequal sharing or electrons, while nonpolar covalent
bond involves equal sharing of electrons
 Hydrogen bond
- Are weak covalent bonds between a hydrogen atom and another atom
- Is a weak attraction that is important in the stability of water molecules

Electronegativity
- Atoms are usually at a constant tug-of-war for the sharing of these electrons
- Attarction between shared electrons
- The higher the electronegativity of an atom, the stronger is the atom’s pull to the shared
electrons toward its nucleus
Nonpolar molecules
- In molecules of only one element such as in H2, the pull toward each atom is equal because
each atom has the same electronegativity, thus there is an equal sharing of electrons between
them

Polar electrons
- Water has atoms with different electronegativties so there is an unequal sharing of electrons
- Oxygen attracts the shared electrons more strongly thatn hydrogen so the shared electrons
spend more time near the oxygen

Compound
- Atoms of two or more elements that are chemically bonded compromised another pure
substance
- The cannot be separated easily
- Can be covalent compound or ionic compound

Inorganic compounds
- Are those without carbon, but with some exceptions like carbon dioxide
- Are non-carbon containing substances but with some exceptions such as carbon dioxide and
carbon monoxide

Organic compounds
- Contain carbon
- Contain carbon atoms bound together by covalent bonds

Water
- Is a molecule formed by the sharing of these electrons between two hydrogen atoms and an
oxygen atom
- Is a compound
- Is the most abundant inorganic compound
- Water’s unique properties allows life to exist on earth

Levels of biological organizations:

1. Subatomic particles
2. Atoms
3. Molecules
4. Macromolecules
5. Organelles
6. Cells
7. Tissure
8. Organ
9. Organ system
10. Organism
11. Population
12. Ecosystem
13. Biosphere
Its polarity gives water its unique characteristics and functions in living systems:
1. Water is a biological solvent
- Has the ability to dissolve many substances
- It is a versatile solvent that is fundamental to life processes due to its polarity
-
2. Water molecules stick to each other and to surfaces
- Is an excellent transport system; serves as a vehicle
 Cohesion
- Water molecules stick to one another through its hydrogen atoms
 Adhesion
- They also cling to other polar surfaces
3. Water has high surface tension
- Water molecules strongly attract each other, particularly on the surface of water than
the air above
4. Water has high heat capacity
- A relatively large amount of energy is needed to raise the temperature of water
- Cooling mechanism when you sweat
5. Water has high heat of vaporization
- Large amount of heat is needed to turn liquid water into gas or vapor
6. Water has high heat of fusion
- Large amount of heat must be removed from liquid water to turn it into solid state or ice
7. Water is a medium where chemical and physical properties take place
- Water provides a medium for the breakdown and the formation of food, absorption,
secretion, and excretion
8. Water serves as a moisturizer of surfaces
9. Water is lubricant
- Water prevents friction in joints during movement
10. Water is a good cushion
- Water in the cerebrospinal fluid protects the brain and the spinal cord

Hydrogen ion
- Positively charged (H+) particle

Hydroxide ion
- Negatively charged (OH-) particle

Ionization
- Is the process involved in spontaneous ion formation

pH
- Potential of hydrogen ions

pH scale
- Measures water with the neutral value of seven while pH values below 7, are acidic and pH
values above 7 are basic

Acids
- Are compounds that release hydrogen ions in solutions
- Have a sour taste and they turn litmus paper to red
Some common acids:
 Ascorbic acid – vitamin C
 Acetic acid – in vinegar
 Citric acid – citrus fruits
 Carbonic acid – soft drinks
 Hydrochloric acid – stomach (one of the most acidic parts of our body)

Lungs
- Allow accumulation of carbon dioxide in the blood when you hold your breath, forming carbonic
acid

Common bases
 Sodium hydroxide – soap
 Ammonium hydroxide – ammonia
 Magnesium hydroxide – laxatives and antacids

Salt
- Is a compound from the combination of a positive ion other than hydrogen (H+) and a negative
ion other than hydroxide (OH-)
- It is formed when a base and an acid reacts together
- Is a product of the neutralizationreaction of an acid and a base; water is the product in this
reaction

Buffer
- Is a mixture of weak acid and its corresponding base that controls the pH of a given substance

Electrolytes
- Are compounds that can be acid, base or salt
- Are important for cells and normal functioning of chemical processes
- Are either cations that move to positively charged electrodes, and anions that move to
negatively charged electrodes
- Such as sodium and potassium ions, are important in maintaining voltage across cell
membranes
- Carry electrical impulses in nerve cells and muscles cells during muscle contraction
- Affect the amount of water and acidity of blood in the bodyare lost in the sweat during heavy
exercise or excessive vomiting and diarrhea
 Some important electrolytes in the body
Electrolyte Functions
Regulates heart function
Bicarbonate
Maintains body’s pH balance
Component of bones and teeth
Calcium
Plays important role in nerve impulses and muscle movement
Chloride Maintains water balance
Aids in production of DNA and RNA
Contributes to normal nerve and muscle function
Magnesium Maintains normal heart rhythm
Enhances immune system
Regulates blood glucose levels
Phosphate Strengthens bones and teeth
Potassium Helps cells produce energy needed for tissue growth and repair
Helps with electrical signals in the body
Sodium
Part of water regulation

Carbon Dioxide
- Is an inorganic compoud that is essential for organisms that perform photosynthesis
- Is a waste product in the breakdown of organic food substances
- Is one of the major greenhouse gases emitted from burning fossil fuels and known to be
responsible for global warming
- Is a by-product of the breakdown of food molecules and also a waste product of respiration

Electrons
- Determine the chemical behavior of an atom
 Is made which Simplest form of
Compound Elements substance in the
up of are the body

Inorganic Organic
Compound can
Compound

either be

like

Protein Carbohydrate Lipid Nucleic Acid

such as such as such as such as

Structural
Monosaccharide Fat DNA
Protein

Transport
Disaccharide Phospholipid RNA
Protein

Signal Protein Polysaccharide Sphingolipid

Enzymatic
Wax
Protein

Contractile
Steroid
Protein
Macromolecules
- Known as organic molecules due to their relatively large size as compared to inorganic
compounds

Carbon skeleton
- A chain of atoms can bond with carbon rings to form even larger or more complex molecules

Monomer
- Subunit of a complex molecule
- Monomers present in a polymer are usually the same such as in carbohydrates, but may also
be different as in the case of proteins
- Monomers are linked together to form complex polymers
- Building blocks of biological molecules
Polymers
- When monomers link together, they form complex molecules
- Is a macromolecule consisting of a series of monomers bonded together

Dehydration Reaction
- Connecting monomers to form polymers
- Removes water
- Builds a polymer chain

Hydrolysis Reaction
- Polymers are disassembled or broken down by the addition of water
- Breaks a polymer chain

Four types of organic compounds found in any biological system:

 Proteins These organic
 Carbohydrates compounds are
made up of oxygen
 Lipids
and hydrogen
 Nucleic acids aside from carbon

Biological
Molecules

Polymers Monomers

Proteins Amino Acids

Carbohydrat
Sugar
es

Fatty Acids
Lipids
+ Glycerol

Nucleic
Nucleotides
Acids
 BIOMOLECULES

Proteins
- Are the most abundant organic compounds in living organisms that is responsible for as much
as 15% of the body’s dry weight
- Are polymers made up of a chain of the basic building blocks called amino acids
- Is made up of one or more peptides
- Are polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds
- Body structures and bodily functions
- Build and repair: body tissues
- C, H, O, N, and sometimes Sulfur

Monomer: Amino acids

- Are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur
- An amino acid is made up of an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), and a
hydrocarbon the R group, which is a side chain
- Are linked to one another by peptide bonds formed between the amino groups of one amino
acid and the carboxyl group of the next

H
H O
N C C
 H2O
H OH

Amino group Carboxyl group

R

R group

Peptide or polypeptide
- Is a chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds

H H
H O O
N C C N C C  H2O
H H OH

R R
 Essential amino acid Nonessential amino acid
- Cannot be made by body - Made by body
- 8 essentials - 12 nonessentials

1. Isoleucine 1. Alanine
2. Leucine 2. Aspargine
3. Lysine 3. Cysteine
4. Methionine 4. Glutamate
5. Phenylalanine 5. Glycine
6. Threonine 6. Proline
7. Valine 7. Serine
8. Tryptophan 8. Tyrosine
9. Arginine
10. Histidine
11. Aspartate

“Your body is capable of producing about 12 amino acids to form proteins.”

Essential amino acids

- Other amino acids that you cannot synthesize
- Are either directly or indirectly obtained from other animal and plant sources

Food sources rich in proteins:

 Meat
 Fish
 Beans
- Are good sources of isoleucine and lysine but are likely to be deficient in tryptophan and
other sulfur-containing amino acids
 Nuts
 Milk products
 Flour
 Certain vegetables
List of some important proteins present in the body and their functions/Types of proteins:
1. Structural proteins
- Proteins from the structural parts of cells and tissues, such as keratin in hair and fingernail
 Keratin
- Makes up about 90% of your hair
- hair, nails, outer layer of skin
 Collagen
- is a fibrous protein found in connective tissues that support the skin, tendons,
and ligaments
- most abundant protein in vertabrates

2. Enzymatic proteins
- All chemical processes in the body need a large amount of energy
- Most of these processes require several hundred degress centigrade
 Enzymes
- Speed up chemical reactions without themselves being chemically change at the
end of the process they catalyze
- Food digestion involves different enzymes: amylase (breaking down of
carbohydrates; at saliva), protease (proteins), lipase (lipids)

Characteristics of enzymes:
o Are highly specific
- can catalyze only a specific chemical reaction
- the enzyme maltase specifically catalyzes the breakdown of maltose into
simple sugars
- maltase (maltose)
o Are required in minute amounts
- One molecule of catalse can catalyze the breakdown of five million
molecules of hydrogen peroxide in one second
- catalase (break down hydrogen peroxide)
o Reactions are affected by temperature
- Most enzymes are active only at body temperature (37 C), but become
inactive at low temperature
o Reactions are affected by pH
- Amylase (must have pH 7) works best at pH 7 and becomes denatured or
destroyed at highly acidic or basic conditions

3. Transport proteins
- The presence of membrane proteins in the form of channel and carrier proteins in the plasma
membrane aid cells to be selective in moving substances into and out of the cell
- Other transport proteins in the body: hemoglobin in RBC
- Carrier proteins, channel proteins (cell membrane)
4. Defense proteins
 Antibody
- Another type of protein that plays an important role in the body’s defense system
against disease-causing foreign organisms and particles, like bacteria and
viruses
- Are produced by a specific type of white blood cells called B lymphocytes in
response to the presence of a foreign substance in the body, which is antigen
- Can cause the death of invading microorganisms by destroying the disease-
causing cells via cell lysis or by aggregating the cells via agglutination
- Can also detoxify foreign substances that may cause damage or death to
affected cells
 WBC (white blood cells): antibody
- Neutrophils – bacteria
- Basophils – allergies
- Eosinophils – parasites
 Antigen – pathogenic organisms

5. Regulatory or signal proteins

- hormones (chemical messengers)
- growth hormone
 Hormones
- Are signal proteins that regulate body functions

6. Contractile proteins
- In the form of actin and myosin are found in cells to allow movement and cause muscle
contraction
- movement and contraction

7. Storage proteins
- Serves as reserves of amino acids which can be used later on to nourish the growth and
development of organisms
- These proteins are found in egg whites (albumin), seeds, and milk
- reserves proteins for growth and development
 albumin – egg
 seeds – plants
 milk – humans
 Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides

Ribose Glucose Lactose Starch

Deoxyribose Fructose Sucrose Glucose

Mannose Galactose Maltose Glycogen

Carbohydrates
- are used as building blocks in the formation of complex sugars
- are organic compounds that serve as the main source of energy in all organisms
- are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen molecules; CHO
- Provides energy; building material
- 1:2:1

Monomer: Sugar/Monosaccharide

Simple Carbohydrates Complex Carbon

- 1 sugar unit - 2 or more sugar units

1.) Monosaccharides 1.) Disaccharide – 2 sugar units

 Hexoses C6H12O6 1. Sucrose – table sugar
1. Glucose – blood sugar (dextrose) 2. Lactose – milk sugar
2. Fructose – fruit sugar 3. Maltose – malt sugar
3. Galactose – milk sugar
4. Mannose – digestion (metabolism) 2.) Polysaccharides – 10 or more sugar units
1. Starch – plants
 Pentose C5H10O5 2. Glycogen – animals
5. Ribose 3. Chitin – animal  crustaceans,
6. Deoxyribose insects, mollusk
- RNA and DNA backbone 4. Cellulose – plants (source of fiber)

 Trioses C3H6O3 3.) Oligosaccharides – 3 - 9 sugar units

7. Glyceraldehyde – requirement for 1. Maltotriose – produce digestive
building materials enzymes
2. Glycolipids – immune response;
Three important structures/formula: amylase enzyme
1. Trioses
2. Pentose
3. Hexoses

Monosaccharides
- Are simple sugars with only one sugar unit
- Are identified based on the number of carbon atoms they are made up
- Are highly soluble in water and can easily pass through membranes such as the cell
membrane
 Glucose
- are instant sources of energy in the cell
 Fructose
- is commonly found in plants but rarely found in animals
- sweetest known sugar in fruits, such as ripe mangoes, melon, and sugar apple
(atis)
 Ribose and deoxyribose
- Are simple sugars forming the backbones of RNA and DNA
 Simple sugars
- Are used as building blocks in the formation of complex sugars such as
disaccharides and polysaccharides
Disaccharide
- Are complex sugars made up of two molecules of monosaccharides chemically joined together
- The chemical formula of a disaccharide is C12H22O11
- Can be broken down into simple sugars by heating it with acids or treating it with a suitable
enzyme

Sucrose
- The common table sugar, is a disaccharide formed from the chemical combination of glucose
and fructose
- Is found in sugarcane, sugar beets, carrots, and other sweet fruits
- It is not found in mammals

Condensation or dehydration synthesis

- The chemical process where two monosaccharides are joined together to form a disaccharide
with the loss of water molecule
- The process of forming/combining 2 monosaccharide with loss of water

1. Glucose + fructose  sucrose + water

C6H12O6 + C6H12O6  C12H22O11 + H2O
C12H24O10

2. Galactose + glucose  lactose + water

3. Glucose + glucose  maltose + water

Maltose
- Or malt sugar is made up of two glucose molecules which occur in malted cereals and
sprouting grains

Lactose
- Or milk sugar is composed of one molecules of galactose and one molecule of glucose

Hydrolysis or hydrolytic reaction

- The chemical reaction where water molecule is added to split a disaccharide into its
component units
- Process of breaking down complex carbohydrates through adding H2O or heating solution
using enzymes

a. Sucrose + H2O  glucose + fructose

sucrose

b. Lactose + H2O  galactose + glucose

lactase

c. Maltose + H2O  glucose + glucose

maltase

carbohydrates + enzymes = sugars

bread + salivary amylase = sugar
proteins + protease = amino acids
lipids + lipase = glycerol and fatty acid
Polysaccharide
- Are complex sugars made up of chains or branches of monosaccharides formed by
condensation reactions
- The basic formula for a polysaccharide is (C6H10O5)n, where n refers to the number of
monosaccharides present
- Are capable of acting as energy storage or structural molecules as parts of cell structures
- 10 sugar units

a. Storage polysaccharide
 Starch – plants
- Is a storage carbohydrate in plants composed entirely of glucose molecules
- It is commonly found in potato tubers, cassava, carrots, corn, and cereals
 Glycogen – animals  liver
- Is a storage carbohydrate in animals which accumulates in the liver and muscle
cells of vertebrates
- Is also made up entirely of glucose units

“Not all monosaccharides are used by cells so the unused glucose is stored in the liver as glycogen
for future use”

Glycogen and starch are ideal storage polysaccharides for the following reasons:
 Can easily be broken down into glucose molecules when needed
 Are insoluble in water, thus, do not affect osmotic pressure in cell
 Have compact shapes, thus, occupy less space
 Cannot diffuse through cell membranes because of their relatively large size

Liver:
- Enzymes: insulin (lower blood sugar) and glucagon (to increase blood sugar)
- Hyperglycemia/diabetic: inject insulin
- Hypoglycemia: hypoglycemia

Islets of Langerhans – part of Pancreas

Produces two enzymes:
- Insulin – to lower blood sugar (hyperglycemia)
- Glucagon - to increase blood sugar (Hypoglycemia)

b. Structural polysaccharide
 Chitin – animals: crustaceans, insects, mollusk
- In the outer coverings of crustaceans and insects
- Has protective and supportive functions
- Is very rigid and inflexible
 Cellulose – plants
- Most abundant organic compound on earth
- Found in plant cell walls
- Source of fiber
- Purpose of fiber: digestion—soft fecal; metabolism; renal cancer
- Humans have no cellulose
- Ruminants: carabao, cow, horse—can eat raw plants (can be found in rumen
‘callos’)
Ruminants
- Carabao, cow, horse
- Rumens “callos”

Oligosaccharide – 3-9 sugar units

1. Maltotriose
- Produce digestive enzymes

2. Glycolipids
- Immune response
- Amylase enzyme
Lipids
- Are organic substances that include fats and fat-like substances such as: phospholipid, wax,
steroid, and sphingolipid
- Are generally hydrophobic substances and are insoluble in water but soluble in organic
solvents such as: benzene, ether, and chloroform
- Are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen but contain less oxygen in proportion to
hydrogen
- Hydrophobic with diverse function
- Are energy storage and structural macromolecules

Monomer: Fatty acids + glycerol

Functions:
 Solvent for fat-soluble vitamins and hormones
 Prevents water loss - skin (sebaceous gland)
 Essential parts of cell membrane (phospholipid)
 Insulation (more on marine organisms)
 Source and storage of energy (triglycerides, “blood fats”)

Fats
- Are lipids composed of one molecule of glycerol and three fatty acids molecules
- Can be broken down into simpler compounds by the addition of water or hydrolysis

Two types of fatty:

- Saturated fatty acids
- Are solid at room temperature
- Mostly found in animals
- Examples: lard, margarine, and butter
- Have single bonds
- Unsaturated
- Occur in liquid state at room temperature
- Are found mainly in plants
- Examples: vegetable oil and corn oil
- Are found to be healthier sources of fat
- Have double bonds

Fat-soluble vitamins Water soluble vitamins

a. A – retinal
b. D2 – ergocalciferol
D3 – cholecalciferol
c. E – tocopherol
d. K – Mephyton
(Koagulation vitamins)
Fat-soluble hormones
a. Testosterone
b. Progesterone
c. Estrogen
d. Androgen
a. B1 – thiamine
B2 – riboflavin
B3 – niacin
B5 – pathotenic acid
B6 pyridoxine
B12 – cyanocobalamin
b. C – ascorbic acid
Water soluble hormones
a. Growth hormone
b. Insulin
c. Follicle stimulating
hormone
Types of Lipids:
1. Fats
- Glycerol and 3 fatty acids

Two types of fats:

a. Saturated: butter, margarine
- solid in room temperature
- single bond
b. Unsaturated: oil, corn oil
- Liquid in room temperature
- Double bond

2. Phospholipids
- Are important components of cell membranes
- Are made up of two fatty acid molecules and one phosphate group
- Nonpolar fatty acid components are hydrophobic (Tail)
- Polar phosphate group is hydrophilic (Head)

3. Waxes
- cuticle covering of plant, leaves, stems
- protective coverings on the skin and furs of animals

4. Steroids
- signaling
- with a carbon skeleton of four fused rings
- “man-made medicines”
a. Corticosteroids – fight inflammation
b. Anabolic – androgenic – muscle building

1. Bile salts
- produce in liver and stored in gallbladder
2. Cholesterol
- maintains sex hormones and vitamin D
3. Sex hormones
- secondary characteristics; example: enlarging or the breasts, widening of hips
4. Vitamin D
- increase intestinal absorption
- protection of skin

5. Triglycerides
- Also known as blood fats
- You get triglycerides from food such as meat and plant oils
- Energy between meals

6. Sphingolipids
- present in brain, lungs and nerve tissues
- serve as surfactants that help reduce tension on the lungs to maintain its right shape
Globoside
- found in RBC (red blood cells)
5. Sphingomyelins
- found in nerve tissues/RBC
Nucleic acids
 - are organic compounds that function for the storage of genetic information which is transmitted
from one generation to the next in all living organisms
- physical carrier of inheritance that is passed from parents to offspring
- also function in protein synthesis
- store, transmit, and express/code genetic information
- Contain C, H, O, N, P

Monomer: Nucleotide
- Is made up of a five-carbon sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base

Types of nucleic acids:

- both are made up of the basic building blocks called nucleotide
- are two nucleic acids that serves as blueprints for proteins

- Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

- The two strands that make up DNA molecule winds around each other,
forming a double spiral molecule that resembles a twisted ladder
- Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

- DNA strand will be converted into RNA strand and will undergo transcription to become
proteins specifically amino acid

DNA  RNA  Proteins

Differences between DNA and RNA

DNA RNA
1. Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose
A
T
C G A
C G T
2. Strand Double T
A
A
T
Single C
T A GT
C
1 2 1

Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine,

3. Nitrogenous Base Cytosine Uracil
Pairing
A–T C–G A–U C–G
Nucleus, Mitochondria,
4. Location Nucleus, Cytoplasm
Chloroplast – plant
 SUMMARY

1. Phosphorus
- Element that serves as major component of nucleic acids and energy rich compound.
2. Neutrons, Protons, Electrons
- Subatomic particles of an atom.
3. Hydrogen
- Element function as the major source of fuel in energy production.
4. CHONSCAP (Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfur, Calcium, Phosphorus)
- 7 major elements making up the weight of all living things.
5. Calcium
- Element for bones and acts as biological signals in the body.
6. Iodine
- Element acts as thermostat to regulate body temperature.
7. Sodium and Potassium
- Elements are essential for nerve function.
8. Oxygen
- Highest percentage in the body.
9. Fe, V, Si, Cl
- Trace elements.
10. Indivisible
- Atomos (Greek)
11. Helium
- 2 protons, 2 electrons, 3 nuetrons.
12. Ionic bond
- Attraction between metallic and non-metallic elements.
13. Covalent bond
- Non-metallic elements.
14. Hydrogen bond
- Weak bond or attraction that is important in the stability of water molecules.
15. Polar molecules
- Unequal sharing of electrons.
16. Non-polar
- Equal sharing of electrons.
17. Compound
- Atoms of two elements that are chemically bonded.
18. Organic
- Contains carbon atoms.
19. Inorganic
- Does not contain carbon atoms.
20. Carbon dioxide
- By product of the breakdown of food.
 Organic Compound
Protein Carbohydrates Lipid Nucleic Acid
such as
Structural Protein Monosaccharides Phospholipid RNA
Transport Protein Oligosaccharides Sphingolipid
Signal Protein Polysaccharides Wax
Enzymatic Protein Steroid
Contractile Protein

Biological Molecules
Polymers Monomers
Proteins Amino Acids
Carbohydrates Sugar/Monosaccharide
Lipids Fatty acids + glycerol
Nucleic Acids Nucleotides

Structure
Carbohydrates CHO
Lipids CHO
Proteins CHON
Nucleic Acids CHONP

Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides
Glucose Ribose Sucrose Starch
Fructose Deoxyribose Maltose Glycogen
Galactose Mannose Lactose Cellulose

Disaccharides
Glucose + Glucose Maltose
Glucose + Fructose Sucrose
1. Which elements do carbohydrates contain, and in what ratio? Carbon, Hydrogen, oxygen 1: 2: 1

2. Carbohydrates are taken in the form of Grains, Cereals, Pasta, Fruits, Vegetables

3. Carbohydrate is the element of our food that supplies energy. Carbohydrates also play a vital
part of the digestive process, and of the metabolism and oxidation of protein and fat

4. Based on their molecular formulas, which of the following are NOT carbohydrates?

NOT a. C3H8O3 NOT d. C10H18O9

NOT b. C18H32O16 NOT e. C4H8O2
NOT c. C16H32O2 YES f. C6H12O6

5. For molecule below, determine if it is a monosaccharide, a disaccharide or a polysaccharide:

MONO a. Fructose MONO d. Ribose POLY g. Cellulose

MONO b. Glucose POLY e. Glycogen POLY h. Chitin
POLY c. Starch DI f. Maltose DI i. Sucrose

6. Describe a biological function for each of the following carbohydrates:

a. Cellulose – support and protection for plant cells
b. Ribose – simple sugar forming the backbone of RNA
c. Starch – storage carbohydrate in plants composed entirely of glucose molecules
d. Glycogen – storage carbohydrate in animals
e. Deoxyribose – simple sugar forming the backbone of DNA
f. Fructose – sweetest known sugar in fruits; supplies energy
g. Sucrose – the common table sugar; supplies energy

7. Write the chemical equation for the Glucose: C6H12O6

8. Complete these word equations:

a. Glucose + glucose  Maltose + water
b. Glucose + fructose  Sucrose + water
c. Monosaccharide + monosaccharide  Disaccharide
d. Disaccharide + water  Monosaccharide + monosaccharide

9. Briefly describe the process of condensation synthesis reaction:

- The chemical process where two monosaccharides are joined together to form a
disaccharide with the loss of water molecule

10. Briefly describe the process of hydrolysis digestion reaction:

- The chemical reaction where water molecule is added to split a disaccharide into its
component units
 TEST

1. Phosphorus

2. Neutrons, Protons, Electrons

3. Hydrogen

4. CHONSCAP (Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfur, Calcium, Phosphorus)

5. Calcium

6. Iodine

7. Sodium and Potassium

8. Oxygen

9. Fe, V, Si, Cl

10. Indivisible

11. Helium

12. Ionic bond

13. Covalent bond

14. Hydrogen bond

15. Polar molecules

16. Non-polar

17. Compound

18. Organic

19. Inorganic

20. Carbon dioxide

 Organic Compound
Protein Carbohydrates Lipid Nucleic Acid
such as

Biological Molecules
Polymers Monomers
Proteins
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Nucleic Acids

Structure
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic Acids

Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides

Disaccharides
Glucose + Glucose
Glucose + Fructose
 1. Which elements do carbohydrates contain, and in what ratio?

2. Carbohydrates are taken in the form of .

3. Carbohydrate is the element of our food that supplies . Carbohydrates also play a vital
part of the digestive process, and of the metabolism and oxidation of protein and fat.

4. Based on their molecular formulas, which of the following are NOT carbohydrates?

a. C3H8O3 d. C10H18O9
b. C18H32O16 e. C4H8O2
c. C16H32O2 f. C6H12O6

5. For molecule below, determine if it is a monosaccharide, a disaccharide or a polysaccharide:

a. Fructose d. Ribose g. Cellulose

b. Glucose e. Glycogen h. Chitin
c. Starch f. Maltose i. Sucrose

6. Describe a biological function for each of the following carbohydrates:

h. Cellulose –
i. Ribose –
j. Starch –
k. Glycogen –
l. Deoxyribose –
m. Fructose –
n. Sucrose –

7. Write the chemical equation for the Glucose:

8. Complete these word equations:

e. Glucose + glucose 
f. Glucose + fructose 
g. Monosaccharide + monosaccharide 
h. Disaccharide + water 

9. Briefly describe the process of condensation synthesis reaction:

10. Briefly describe the process of hydrolysis digestion reaction:

 Flow of Energy
Photosynthesis
- Happens to plants, algae, under protease – bacteria

6CO2 + 6H2O  sunlight  C6H12O6 + 6O2

Cellular Respiration
- Is a biochemical process that occurs in three stages in which cells harvest the energy stored in
food
- Overall process of cellular respiration converts sugar into ATP with the presence of oxygen
- Produces ATP by breaking down glucose
- Happens to all organisms

C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (ATP)

Autotrophs – producers (plants)

Heterotrophs – consumers (eat plants and other organisms)

Muscle cells
- Can switch pathways in obtaining energy

Pathways for cellular respiration:

 Aerobic pathway – requires O2 (oxygen)
 Anaerobic pathway – does not require O2

Products of cellular respiration:

1. Carbon dioxide produced from breakdown of pyruvate from Krebs cycle
2. Water from the electron transport chain
3. A net gain of 38 ATP molecules for every glucose molecule (2 from glycolysis, 2 from Krebs
cycle, and 34 from electron transport chain)

Cellular Respiration and its ATP Yield

Phase NADH FADH2 ATP Yield
Glycolysis 2 – 2
Krebs cycle 6 2 2
Electron
10 30
transport chain
2 4
38
Total
maximum

Cellular respiration products:

 CO2 – Krebs
 H2O – Electron transport chain (ETC)
 38 ATP
- 2 glycolysis
- 2 Krebs
- 34 ETC (minimum)
––––––––––––––––––
Total: 38 (maximum)
Aerobic Pathway
- Also known as cellular respiration
- ATP is produced from the three stages of aerobic cellular respiration but most ATP are formed
in the electron transport chain

Three stages:
4. Glycolysis
- The first stage of aerobic pathway
- Glyco “sugar”, lysis “to split”
- Series of enzyme-controlled reactions that occur inside the cytoplasm
- Does not require oxygen
- Begins by breaking down glucose from food, but only produces a small amount
of energy in the form of ATP molecules
- Is the harvesting of energy by breaking down glucose into pyruvate
- Glucose enters glycolysis and breaks down to pyruvate
- The net output is 2NADH, 2ATP, 2 pyruvate
- Location: cytosol (cytoplasm)

o Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

- Some bonds holding the hydrogen atoms to the glucose molecules
are also broken down and picked up
- Are electron carrier molecules

o Pyruvate
- Ionized pyruvic acid

C3

2 ATPs pyruvate + 2 ATPS + 2 NADH

Glucose C3

2 NAD pyruvate + 2 ATPs + 2 NADH

Generalized chemical reaction summarized by the equation:

Glucose + 2ATP + 2NAD  2ATP + 2NADH + 2 pyruvate
 5. Krebs cycle
- Also known as citric acid cycle/Hans Krebs/tricarboxylic acid
- Requires O2
- Starts with the end-product of glycolysis, pyruvate, and involves a series of
enzyme-controlled processes that occur inside the mitochondrial matrix
- Produces two molecules of ATP
- Pyruvate molecules are further broken down and their remains are released as
carbon dioxide
- Next products of Krebs cycle are: 6CO2, 8NADH, 2FADH, 2ATP
- Start at the end of glycolysis
- Location: mitochondrial matrix

CO2 NADNADH

Pyruvate Acetyl Coenzyme A

C2

Citrate
Oxaloacetate C4

NADH

Isocitrate C4
Malate
CO2

NAD

Fumrate Alpha - Ketoglutamate C5

CO2
FADH
NAD
Succinate Succiryl CO A
C4
1 ATP

Generalized equation:
Pyruvic acid + 4NAD + FAD + 2H2O + ADP + Pi  3CO2 + 4NADH2 + FADH2 + ATP

Results:
1) 2)

3 NADH 6 NADH
1 FADH2 2 FADH2
2 CO2 4 CO2
1 ATP 2 ATPs
6. Electron transport chain
- Oxidative phosphorylatin
- The third process of obtaining energy
- Involves a series of enzyme-controlled reactions that transfers the chemical
energy present in hydrogen electrons to ATP
- Allows harvesting more energy
- Location: Mitochondria

Phases: Results

1. NADH2 – produce 4 H (protons) 8 NAD

2. FADH2 – produce 4 H (protons) 4 FAD
3. Cytochrome – 2 H (protons) 32 ATP
4. ATP synthase - 4 H (protons) (the one to produce ATP) 12 H2O

Generalized equation:
6O2 + 8NADH + 4FADH2 + 32ADP  8NAD + 4FAD + 32ATP + 12H2O
Anaerobic Pathway
- Does not require O2
- Is followed at some point to supply immediate energy source
- The process involves glycolysis and fermentation, which allow glycolysis to continue in the
absence of oxygen

1.) 2 pyruvate
Glucose Lactic Acid
2 pyruvate Lactic Acid Fermentation

2.) 2 pyruvate
Glucose Alcohol + CO2
2 pyruvate Alcoholic Fermentation

Fermentation
- Recycles materials needed for glycolysis to continue, but does not release any useful energy
- Needs a molecule of NAD to pick up electrons
- Provides glycolysis with a steady supply of NAD
- Does not produce ATP
- Produces lactic acid as waste product which builds up in your muscle cells and causes the
sore feeling
- Is important in the global recycling of carbon in the environment
- Yields a small amount of energy without the presence of oxygen

Lactic acid fermentation

- Occurs not only in muscle cells but also in cells of vertebrates and some microorganisms

Lactic acid
- Causes muscles to feel burn or hurting during extreme exercise
 TEST

1. Plants, Algae, and Bacteria are organisms that produces their own food (photosynthesis).

2. Heterotroph vs. Autotroph

- Heterotroph are consumers whereas autotroph are producers

Cellular Respiration Photosynthesis

Organisms involved All organisms
Location of process Mitochondria
Chemical equation C H O + 6O  6CO + 6H O + Energy (ATP)
6 12 6 2 2 2 6CO2 + 6H2O  sunlight  C6H12O6 + 6O2
Aerobic, Anaerobic
Stages/cycle/process Under aerobic: glycolysis, Oxygenic, anoxygenic
Krebs cycle, ETC

Write the general chemical equation of the cellular respiration and photosynthesis. Encircle reactants
and underline the products:

3. Cellular respiration: C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (ATP)

4. Photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6H2O  sunlight  C6H12O6 + 6O2

Aerobic respiration Number of ATPs produced

Electron Transport Chain 32 or 34 ATP
Glycolysis 2 ATP
Krebs Cycle 2 ATP

Based on their molecular formula, write the letter C for carbohydrates and NC for Not carbohydrates:

C 5. C12H22O11
C 6. C5H10O5
NC 7. C16H32O2
C 8. C6H12O6
NC 9. C3H8O3
NC 10. C4H8O2

Biological molecules Structure Monomer

Carbohydrates CHO Sugar/monosaccharides
Proteins CHON Amino acids
Lipids CHO Glycerol + fatty acids
Nucleic Acid CHONP Nucleotide
 Monosaccharide Disaccharide Polysaccharide
 Glucose  Lactose  Starch
 Fructose  Sucrose  Glycogen
 Galactose  Maltose  Chitin
 Mannose  Cellulose
 Ribose
 Deoxyribose

Complete the word equations below:

11. Glucose + Glucose = Maltose + water

12. Glucose + Fructose = Sucrose + water
13. Monosaccharide + Monosaccharide = Disaccharide + water
14. Disaccharide + water = Monosaccharide + Monosaccharide
 TEST: FOR ANSWERING

15. _____, _____, and ______ are organisms that produces their own food (photosynthesis).

16. Heterotroph vs. Autotroph

-

Cellular Respiration Photosynthesis

Organisms involved
Location of process
Chemical equation
Stages/cycle/process

Write the general chemical equation of the cellular respiration and photosynthesis. Encircle reactants
and underline the products:

17. Cellular respiration:

18. Photosynthesis:

Aerobic respiration Number of ATPs produced

Electron Transport Chain
Glycolysis
Krebs Cycle

Based on their molecular formula, write the letter C for carbohydrates and NC for Not carbohydrates:

19. C12H22O11
20. C5H10O5
21. C16H32O2
22. C6H12O6
23. C3H8O3
24. C4H8O2

Biological molecules Structure Monomer

Carbohydrates
Proteins
Lipids
Nucleic Acid
 Monosaccharide Disaccharide Polysaccharide

Complete the word equations below:

25. Glucose + _______ = _______+ water

26. _______ + _______ = Sucrose + water
27. Monosaccharide + Monosaccharide = _______+ _______
28. Disaccharide + _______ = _______ + Monosaccharide