S-Plane Techniques

Stability Analysis 2
Routh Hurwitz Criterion 2
Maximum Stable Gain 4

Root Locus 7
Plotting the Root Locus 9
Angle Criterion 9
Magnitude Criterion 10
Rules for Root Locus construction 17
Controller action and Root Locus 18
Proportional control 18
Proportional plus Integral action 19
Proportional plus Derivative action 20
Root Locus in compensation design 23
Converting to a parallel algorithm P+I+D controller 30

Control 1: S-Plane Techniques

1
Stability Analysis

The stability of the closed loop system shown in Fig 1 can be determined from the location of the
closed loop poles. These poles are the roots of the characteristic equation:
(1 + K G ( s) H (s)) .

ϑi(s) ϑo(s)
+ KG (s )
ϑo K G( s) -
( s) =
ϑi 1 + K G (s) H (s)
H (s )

Fig 1

If any of these poles lie in the right hand half of the S-Plane the system will be unstable. For any
characteristic equation above second order the determination of the roots is time consuming
unless a computer is to hand.

Routh Hurwitz Criterion

The criterion can be used to determine the number of poles in the right hand half of the S-Plane.
This method does not require the characteristic equation to be solved. However it does not give
the positions of the poles. The characteristic equation is written in polynomial form:

1 + K G ( s ) H ( s ) = a 0 s n + a1s n −1 + a 2 s n − 2 + .............. + an − 1s + an = 0

The coefficients of the polynomial are arranged in rows and columns according to the following
pattern:
b1 =
(a1a 2 − a 0a3)
a1
a 0 a 2 a 4 .... b2 =
(a1a 4 − a 0a5)
a1
a1 a 3 a 5 ....
where
b1 b 2 b3 ....
c1 =
(b1a3 − a1b 2 )
c1 c 2 c 3 ....
b1
c2 =
(b1a 5 − a1b3)
b1
The process is continued until all terms generated are zero.

The criterion states that the number of roots of the equation with positive real parts, i.e., in the
right half of the S-Plane, are equal to number of changes of sign of the coefficients in the first
column of the Routh array.

Control 1: S-Plane Techniques

2
Examples

1. s 3 + 9s 2 + 23s + 15 = 0 Factorising this equation gives:

(s + 1)(s + 3)(s + 5) = 0

S-Plane
1 23 0
9 15 0
21.33 =
(9 * 23 − 1 * 15) 0
9
15 0
-5 -3 -1
0
No sign change in the first column therefore
no roots with positive real parts.

2. s 3 + 5s 2 + 2 s − 8 = 0 Factorising this equation gives:

(s − 1)(s + 2)(s + 4) = 0

S-Plane
1 2 0
5 −8 0
3.6 =
(5 * 2 − 1 * (− 8)) 0
5
−8 0
-4 -2 1
0
One sign change in the first column therefore
one positive real root.

3. s 3 + 2s 2 − 6s + 8 = 0 Factorising this equation gives:

(s + 4)(s − 1 + j )(s − 1 − j ) = 0

S-Plane
1 −6 0
2 8 0 j
− 10 =
(2 * (− 6 ) − 1 * 8)
0
2
8 0
-4 +1
0
-j
Two sign changes in the first column therefore
two positive real roots.

Control 1: S-Plane Techniques

3
4. s 4 + 2s 3 − 13s 2 − 14s + 24 = 0 Factorising this equation gives:
(s − 1)(s + 2)(s − 3)(s + 4) = 0

S-Plane

1 − 13 24 0
2 − 14 0 -4 -2 +1 +3

−6=
(2 * (− 13) − 1 * (− 14)) 24 = (2 * 24 − 1 * 0) 0
2 2
−6=
((− 6 ) * (− 14) − 2 * 24)
0
(− 6)
24 0
0

Two sign changes in the first column therefore two positive real roots.

Note, if the characteristic equation does not obey either or both of the following conditions then
some roots will lie in the right hand side of the S-Plane.

1. All coefficients must have the same sign.

2. All the derivatives must be present.

Unfortunately if a characteristic equation does obey these conditions it does not guarantee
stability.

Maximum Stable Gain

Routh Hurwitz can be extended so that the gain that takes a system to the limit of stability can be
found.

Consider the system in Fig 2.

ϑi (s ) 1 ϑo(s)
+ K
- s (s + 1)(s + 4 )

Fig 2

Control 1: S-Plane Techniques

4
The open loop transfer function for this system is given by:

K G (s ) =
K
s(s + 1)(s + 4)

The Characteristic equation is given by:

(1 + K G (s )) = 1 + K
=0
s (s + 1)(s + 4 )

s (s + 1)(s + 4 ) + K = 0

s 3 + 5s 2 + 4 s + K = 0
Routh array
1 4 0
5 K 0
20 − K
0
5
K 0
0

For no sign change in the first column

20 − K > 0 and K > 0

∴0 < K < 20

Therefore for the loop to be stable the controller gain must be positive and be less than 20.

We can check this result using a frequency response technique.

The open loop transfer function for this system is given by:

K G (s ) =
K
s(s + 1)(s + 4)

Convert to the frequency domain by replacing s with jω

Control 1: S-Plane Techniques

5
 K G ( jω ) =
K
jω ( jω + 1)( jω + 4)
0.25K
=
jω ( jω + 1)( j 0.25ω + 1)

=
( (
0.25K ω − 1.25ω − j 1 − 0.25ω 2 ( )))
( ( ( )))( (
ω − 1.25ω + j 1 − 0.25ω 2 ω − 1.25ω − j 1 − 0.25ω 2 ( )))
0.25K (− 1.25ω − j (1 − 0.25ω 2
))
ω ((1.25ω ) + (1 − 0.25ω ) )
= 2 2 2

At the limit of stability the phase shift of the open loop system will be -180o. Therefore on a
Nyquist diagram the open loop frequency response will be cross the negative real axis and the
imaginary part of K G ( jω ) = 0 .
Setting the imaginary part to zero gives:

(1 − 0.25ω ) = 0 2

1
ω= = 2 rad s −1
0.25

From the Nyquist diagram the overall gain of the system at the limit of stability is -1. Therefore
at 2 rad s-1 the gain of the open loop system is given by:

0.25K . − (1.25 * 2 − j 0 )
K G ( jω ) = = −1
(
2 (1.25 * 2 ) + (0 )
2 2
)
2(1.25 * 2 )
2
∴K = = 20
0.25 * 1.25 * 2

The following Nyquist diagram shows this system with gains of K=10, 20 and 60.
903.5
120 3 60
2.5
2
150 30
1.5
K=60 1
0.5
180 0

K=20

210 330
K=10

240 300
270

Control 1: S-Plane Techniques

6
Root Locus

Root locus shows graphically all the possible positions of the closed loop poles as some
characteristic of the system is varied. Normally the characteristic chosen is the system gain,
which is varied from 0 to +∞ .

Consider the following examples.

1.
ϑi (s ) K ϑo(s )
+
-
(s + 2 )

The closed loop transfer function is given by:

K
ϑo
=
(s + 2 ) = K
ϑi K s+2+K
1+
(s + 2 )
The characteristic equation is:

s+2+K =0

Therefore the closed loop pole can be found from:

s = −(2 + K )

The locus starts at the S-Plane

open loop pole and
finishes at −∞ .
The closed loop pole depends on K. The position
of the pole is plotted on the S-Plane as the gain is
varied from 0 to +∞ .
-2

The direction of the

arrow indicates
increasing gain.

Control 1: S-Plane Techniques

7
2.

ϑi (s ) K (s + 2 ) ϑo( s )
+
-
(s + 5 )

The characteristic equation of the closed loop system is:

s + 5 + K (s + 2 ) = 0

Therefore the closed loop pole can be found from:

s=−
(5 + 2 K )
(1 + K )

S-Plane
The locus starts at
the open loop pole

-5 -2
and finishes at the
open loop zero.

3.

ϑi (s ) K ϑo( s )
+
-
(s − 2)(s + 8)

The characteristic equation of the closed loop system is:

(s − 2)(s + 8) + K = 0

Therefore the closed loop pole can be found from:

Control 1: S-Plane Techniques

8
 s 2 + 6s + K − 16 = 0
− 6 ± 36 − 4(K − 16 )
s=
2

S-Plane
Closed loop
K Closed loop pole positions poles shown j12
0 2,-8 Closed loop poles = open loop poles for K=169
16 0,-6
24 -2,-5
25 -3,-3 Critical damping -3
-8 2
34 -3, ±j3
61 -3, ±j6
106 -3,±j9 -j12
169 -3,±j12

Plotting the Root Locus

Root locus, normally, shows all the possible values of the closed loop poles of a system as its
gain is varied from 0 to +∞ . These values are found by setting the closed loop characteristic
equation to zero, i.e.,
1 + K G(s)H (s) = 0
or from
K G ( s) H ( s) = −1

G ( s) H ( s) is a complex expression therefore both modulus and argument of the left hand side
can be equated with the right hand side. This leads to two important criteria, from the argument
comes the angle criterion and from the modulus of this equation comes the magnitude criterion.

Angle Criterion

The angle criterion can be used to:

• Plot root locus diagrams.
• Test a point on the S-Plane to see if it is on the route locus.
• Design the positions of controller poles and zeros.

From the argument of K G ( s) H ( s) = −1 comes:

G ( s) H ( s ) = −180°

Control 1: S-Plane Techniques

9
This can be interpreted, as the sum of the angles of the zeros in the system minus the sum of the
angles of the open loop poles equals an odd multiple of -180o.
, i.e.,

(s + z1)(s + z 2 )........(s + zm ) = −180°

(s + p1)(s + p 2 )........(s + pn )
(s + z1) + (s + z 2 )........ + (s + zm ) − (s + p1) − (s + p 2 )........ − (s + pn ) = −180°

For example consider a system with two poles and a zero

K G ( s ) H ( s ) = −1 = K
(s + z 1)
(s + p1)(s + p 2 )
From the angle criterion

(s + z1) = −180° The point on the s

S-Plane
(s + p1)(s + p 2 ) S-Plane under test.
(s + z1) − (s + p1) − (s + p 2 ) = −180°
θ1 θ2 θ3
θ 1 − θ 2 − θ 3 = −180°
-z1 -p1 -p2
"s" will only be a point on the root locus if
the angle criterion is true.

Magnitude Criterion

The magnitude criterion can be used to calculate controller gain.

From the modulus of K G ( s) H ( s) = −1 comes:

K G ( s) H ( s) = 1

This can be interpreted as the product of the open loop gain and the zero distances divided by the
product of the pole distances equalling one.
,i.e.,

(s + z1) (s + z 2 )........ (s + zm )
K =1
(s + p1) (s + p 2 )........ (s + pn )

or if the gain is required

Control 1: S-Plane Techniques

10
 1 (s + p1) (s + p 2 )........ (s + pn ) ∏ pole distances
K= = =
G(s)H (s) (s + z1) (s + z 2 )........ (s + zm ) ∏ zero distances
For example consider the above system with two poles and a zero.

K G ( s ) H ( s ) = −1 = K
(s + z 1 )
(s + p1)(s + p 2 )
From the magnitude criterion and if the "s" is on the root locus. Then the value of open loop gain
required to position a closed loop pole at "s" is:

(s + z1) s
K =1
(s + p1) (s + p 2 ) V1 V3
S-Plane

(s + p1) (s + p 2 )
K=
(s + z 1) V2

V 2V 3
K= -z1 -p1 -p2
V1

Examples

1.

ϑi (s ) K ϑo(s)
+
-
(s + 2)

a. Using the angle criterion determine whether the point s = −1 + j is on the root locus.

Angle Criterion s = −1 + j S-Plane

1
= −180°
(s + 2)
45o
− 45° ≠ −180°
-2
Therefore the point s = −1 + j is not on the root locus.

Control 1: S-Plane Techniques

11
b. Using the angle criterion determine whether the point s = −4 is on the root locus.

Angle Criterion S-Plane

s = −4
1
= −180° 180o
(s + 2)
− 180° = −180°
-2
Therefore the point s = −4 is on the root locus.
Further it can be seen that any point on the real
axis to the left of the pole satisfies the angle ( s + 2) s=−4 = 2
criterion. Thus the root locus is confined to the
real axis to the left of the pole, see example 1 on page 7.

c. Using the magnitude criterion determine open loop gain required to position the closed loop
pole at s = −4 .

Magnitude Criterion

1
K =1
(s + p1)
(s + p1)
K= = (s + 2) s = −4
1
K =2

2.

ϑi (s ) K (s + 2 ) ϑo(s )
+
-
(s + 5 )

a. Using the angle criterion determine whether the point s = −3 + j is on the root locus.

Control 1: S-Plane Techniques

12
Angle Criterion

s = −3 + j S-Plane

135o
o
26.56

-5 -2

(s + 2) = −180°
(s + 5 )
135 − 26.56° ≠ −180°

Therefore the point s = −3 + j is not on the root locus.

b. Using the angle criterion determine whether the point s = −4 is on the root locus.

Angle Criterion S-Plane

s = −4
(s + 2) = −180°
180o
(s + 5 ) 0o
180° − 0° = −180°
-5 -2
Note -180o = 180o.

Therefore the point s = −4 is on (

s + 5) s= −4 = 1 ( s + 2) s= −4 = 2
the root locus. Further it can be
seen that any point on the real axis to the right of the pole and to the left of the zero satisfies
the angle criterion. Thus the root locus is confined to the real axis between the pole and zero,
see example 2 on page 8.

c. Using the magnitude criterion determine open loop gain required to position the closed loop
pole at s = −4 .

Magnitude Criterion

(s + z 1 )
K =1
(s + p1)
(s + p1) (s + 5) s = −4
K= =
( s + z 1 ) ( s + 2 ) s = −4
K = 0.5

Control 1: S-Plane Techniques

13
3.

ϑi ( s ) K ϑo( s )
+
- (s + 8)(s − 2)

Determine, using the angle criterion and magnitude criterion, the open loop gain required to
position a pair of closed loop poles at s = −3 ± j12 .

Check that s = −3 ± j12 is on the root locus.

Angle Criterion s = −3 + j12

S-Plane
1
= −180°
(s − 2)(s + 8) 13
j12

− 112.62 − 67.38° = −180° 13

67.38o 112. 62o

-8 -3 2
Therefore the point s = −3 + j12 is on
the root locus.
-j12
s = −3 − j12

Using the magnitude criterion determine open loop gain required to position the closed loop
pole.

Magnitude Criterion

1
K =1
( s − 2 ) (s + 8 )
K = 13 * 13
K = 169

This is confirmed by example 3 on pages 8 and 9.

Control 1: S-Plane Techniques

14
4.

ϑi (s ) 64 K ϑo(s)
+
- (s + 1)(s + 4)(s + 16)

Determine, using the angle criterion and magnitude criterion, the value of K required to take the
system to the limit of stability.

If the system can go unstable then the root locus must, at some point, cross into the right hand
side of the S-Plane. This is the point we must find. We will therefore search along the imaginary
axis of the S-Plane using the angle criterion.

Pick a point on the imaginary axis, i.e., let ω = 5.

Then from the Angle Criterion S-Plane

−θ1 − θ 2 − θ3 = −180°
jω
−78.69°−51.34°−17.35° = −147.4° ≠ −180°
Therefore the point s = j5 is not on the root locus.

Chose a new point on the imaginary axis, i.e., let ω = -16 -4 -1 θ1

10. θ3
θ2
Then
−θ1 − θ 2 − θ3 = −180°
−84.29°−68.2°−32.0° = −184.5° ≠ −180°
This is closer.

Let ω = 9.
Then
−θ1 − θ 2 − θ 3 = −180°
−83.66°−66.0°−29.36° = −179° ≠ −180°
This is very close to the root locus.

Assuming the root locus passes through the point s = j9 then the gain that is required to place a
closed loop pole at the point can be found using the magnitude criterion.

Control 1: S-Plane Techniques

15
Magnitude Criterion

64
K =1 S-Plane
V 1V 2V 3 V3 j9
12 + 9 2 4 2 + 9 2 16 2 + 9 2
K= V2 V1
64
K = 25.6
-16 -4 -1
Check using Routh Hurwitz.

The closed loop characteristic equation is

64 K
1+ =0
(s + 1)(s + 4)(s + 16)
(s + 1)(s + 4)(s + 16) + 64 K = 0
s 3 + 21s 2 + 84s + 64(1 + K ) = 0

1 84 0
21 64(1 + K ) 0
(21 * 84 − 64(1 + K )) 0
21
64(1 + K ) 0
0

∴ (1764 − 64(1 + K )) = 0
1764
K= − 1 = 26.5625
64

The root locus method gives an approximate answer because we did not find the exact point at
which the root locus passed across the imaginary axis.

Control 1: S-Plane Techniques

16
Rules for Root Locus construction

A number of rules can be developed to aid the sketching of root locus diagrams. The rules are
summarised below. For more information see any good control book, e.g., Control System
Engineering, second edition, by Nise page 390.

Note, the rules only apply to physically realisable systems, i.e., the number of poles 'n' must be
greater the number of zeros 'm'. For any real system this will always be the case.

• The number of loci or branches is equal to the number of open loop poles.

• The loci begin at the open loop poles, when K = 0, and end at the open loop zeros or for (n-
m) loci at implied zeros at infinity, when K = ∞. In the case of a qth order pole, q loci emerge
from it, for a qth order zero q loci terminate on it.

• The real axis is part of the locus when the sum of the number of poles and zeros to the right
of the point on the real axis are odd. A qth order pole or zero is counted q times. Complex
poles and zeros occur in complex conjugate pair and their angle contributions cancel out.

• There are (n-m) loci, which approach, as K → ∞ , asymptotically (n-m) straight lines,
radiating from the 'centre of gravity' of the poles and zeros of the open loop transfer function.
The centre of gravity is given by:

n m

∑ Pj − ∑ zi
j =1 i =1

(n − m )

This can be interpreted as the sum of the real part of the poles minus the sum of the real part
of the zeros divided by the number of pole minus the number of zeros.

π (2k + 1)
The asymptotes make angles of, k = 0,1,2......(n − m − 1) , with the real axis, and are
(n − m)
2π
equally spaced at angles, , to each other.
(n − m)

Control 1: S-Plane Techniques

17
Controller action and Root Locus

The effect of controller terms on the closed loop response of a system may be examined using
root locus. Consider the following control system:

L(s)
Kl Gl(s)

ϑd (s ) ε(s) + ϑo(s)
+ Kc Gc(s) Kp Gp(s) +
-

0.03Kc Gc( s)
The open loop transfer function equals , where Kc is the controller gain
(s + 1)(2s + 1)
Proportional control

0.03Kc 0.015Kc
The open loop transfer function becomes = .
(s + 1)(2s + 1) (s + 1)(s + 0.5)

S-Plane Time Response

Root Locus Step Response
2 1.4

Kc = 250
1.5
1.2
Kc = 150
Kc = 250
1
Kc = 50 1
Kc = 4.167
0.5 critical damping
mag Axis Kc = 2 0.8

0 Amplitude Kc = 150
Kc = 2 0.6
-0.5
Kc = 50
Kc = 50 0.4
-1 Kc = 4.167
Kc = 150
-1.5 0.2 Kc = 2
Kc = 250
-2 0
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Real Axis Time (sec)

This system has only two roots that become complex for high values of Kc; they always remain
in the left-hand side of the S-Plane. The system is therefore second order and always stable no
matter what positive value Kc takes.

A proportional controller cannot change the shape of the root locus it can only move closed loop
poles along the loci.

Control 1: S-Plane Techniques

18
Proportional plus Integral action

The transfer function for a P+I controller is:

⎛ 1 ⎞
Gc( s ) = Kc⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟ .
⎝ s Ti ⎠

The open loop transfer function therefore equals

⎛ 1⎞
0.015Kc⎜ s + ⎟
⎝ Ti ⎠
.
s(s + 1)(s + 0.5)
Consider the system with Ti = 0.5

S-Plane Time Response

Imag Axis Output Ti = 0.5

1.6
3 Kc = 20
Kc = 100 1.4
2 Kc = 20 Kc = 5
Kc = 5 1.2
1
Kc = 1.5
1
0
0.8
-1
0.6
-2 Kc = 1.5
0.4
-3
0.2
-2 -1 0 1
0
Real Axis 0 10 20 30 40
Time (secs)
1
P+I adds a pole at the origin of the S-Plane and a zero at . The system will be unstable for
Ti
large values of gain. Changing Ti moves the position of the zero and changes the shape of the
root locus.

4
Consider Ti = .
3

The open loop transfer function therefore equals

⎛ 3⎞
0.015 Kc⎜ s + ⎟
⎝ 4⎠
.
s(s + 1)(s + 0.5)

Control 1: S-Plane Techniques

19
 S-Plane Time Response

Imag Axis
2 Output 4
Ti =
1.5
Kc = 100 1.4 3
Kc = 100
1 1.2
Kc = 10
0.5 1

0 0.8
-0.5 Kc = 5
0.6
-1 Kc = 5
0.4
-1.5 Kc = 10
0.2
-2
-2 -1 0
Real Axis 0
0 10 20 30 40
Time (secs)
The system will now be stable for all values of gain. Increasing the gain makes the loop settle
faster however damping is reduced.

Consider Ti = 4 .
The open loop transfer function becomes

0.015Kc(s + 0.25)
.
s(s + 1)(s + 0.5)
S-Plane Time Response

Imag Axis Output

2 1.4
Ti = 4
Kc = 200 Kc = 200
1.5 1.2
1 Kc = 50 Kc = 200
1
0.5
Kc = 10 Kc = 50 Kc = 50
0.8
0
0.6
-0.5 Kc = 10
0.4
-1 Kc = 10
-1.5 0.2

-2 0
-2 -1 0 1 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Real Axis Time (secs)

In this case the zero is close to the origin and the open loop pole situated there. At low gain this
pole dominates the response resulting in the long settling time. Increasing the system gain moves
this pole towards the zero and its effect is reduced. The system then responds more and more like
a second order system. Try this analysis using frequency response, i.e., find the gain and phase
margins of the above conditions and compare results.
Proportional plus Derivative action

Control 1: S-Plane Techniques

20
The transfer function for a P+D controller is:
Gc( s ) = Kc(1 + s Td ) .

The open loop transfer function therefore equals

0.03Kc(sTd + 1)
.
(s + 1)(2s + 1)
Consider the system with Td = 0.5. The open loop transfer function becomes

0.0075Kc(s + 2)
.
(s + 1)(s + 0.5)

S-Plane Time Response

Imag Axis Output Kc = 500 Td = 0.5
1
4

3
Kc = 500 0.8
2 Kc = 150 Kc = 150
1 0.6

0
Kc = 5 0.4
-1
Kc = 5
-2 0.2
-3

-4 0
-4 -2 0 2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (secs)
Real Axis

Increasing the controller gain speeds up the system and reduces offset.

4
Td = . The open loop transfer function becomes
3

0.02 Kc(s + 0.75)

.
(s + 1)(s + 0.5)

Control 1: S-Plane Techniques

21
 S-Plane Time Response
Imag Axis
2 Output
0.6
1.5

1 0.5
Kc = 20 Kc = 50
0.5
Kc = 20 0.4
0
0.3
-0.5 Kc = 50
Kc = 20
-1 Kc = 50 0.2

-1.5
0.1
-2
-2 -1 0
Real Axis 0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (secs)

The system no longer has complex poles so the step response shows no overshoot.

Td = 4 The open loop transfer function becomes

0.06 Kc(s + 0.25)

.
(s + 1)(s + 0.5)
S-Plane Time Response
Imag Axis
1 Output
0.7
Kc = 50
0.6
0.5 Kc = 20
Kc = 50
0.5

0 0.4

Kc = 20 0.3
-0.5
Kc = 20
Kc = 50 0.2

0.1
-1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1
0
Real Axis 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (secs)

The open loop zero dominates this response causing the overshoot without the closed loop
system having any complex poles.

Note, if high gains are used the control engineer must be satisfied that the system will not
saturate or be damaged by the resulting signal levels.

Control 1: S-Plane Techniques

22
Root Locus in compensation design

To choose a suitable controller for a given system a design specification must be given. The
specification will be in two parts:

• Steady state requirements.

• Transient and stability requirements.

The steady state requirement is usually given by specifying the offset that is acceptable for a
given input or disturbance. From this, using the final value theorem, the steady state gain can be
determined. If no offset can be allowed then one or more integrators are required and the steady
state gain will be selected by transient considerations.

The transient response requirement must be translated into closed loop pole zero positions on the
s-plane. To simplify the design process it is usual to assume that the closed loop system is
dominated be a pair of complex poles. This assumption may be invalid and the final design must
be checked by testing a simulation or, better still, the physical system. If a dominant pair of poles
exists then the closed loop response will be close to that of a second order system. The closed
loop transfer function can then be approximated by:

k Kωn 2
=
(s + a + jb )(s + a − jb ) (s 2 + 2ςωns + ωn 2 )
The poles for this system are given by:
s = − a ± jb = −ςωn ± jωn 1 − ς 2

On the s-plane they are positioned as shown in S-Plane

the diagram.
ωn
From this diagram: b = jωn 1 − ς 2
ςωn θ
Cos (θ ) = =ς
ωn
− a = −ςωn
or
θ = Cos −1 (ς ) ωn
− b = − jωn 1 − ς 2

Recall, from Linear Systems, that for a second

order system overshoot is related to ς .

⎧⎪ − πς ⎫⎪
% overshoot = exp⎨ ⎬100%
⎪⎩ 1 − ς 2 ⎪⎭

ς 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0

% overshoot 70 50 25 10 5 1.6 0

Control 1: S-Plane Techniques

23
The settling time of a second order system is a function of ςωn . The real part of a pole gives the
settling time, i.e., within 1% of the final value in 5 time constants or within 2% of the final value
in 4 time constants. From the previous s-plane diagram a = ςωn and time constant of the
1
complex poles is therefore;
a

5 5
ς ≤ 1, 1% Settling Time = or ς > 1, 1% Settling Time =
ςωn do min ant pole
4 4
ς ≤ 1, 2% Settling Time = or ς > 1, 2% Settling Time =
ςωn do min ant pole

Thus, if the transient specification is given in terms of settling time and overshoot, a value for
ς and ωn can be found and the desired closed loop pole positions can be calculated. The root
locus can then be checked to see if it passes through the required points. If it does not additional
compensation must be designed as shown in the following example.

L = Change in ϑo = Change in outlet

inlet flow temperature

ϑd = Desired
TC Value

Steam

The control system is required to maintain the outlet temperature despite changes in inlet flow
rate.

The block diagram for the system is:

L(s)
Kl Gl(s)

ϑd ( s ) ε(s) + ϑo( s)
+ Kc Gc(s) Kp Gp(s) +
-

5 10
KlGl ( s) = KpGp( s ) =
(4s + 1)(s + 1) (4s + 1)(s + 1)(0.5s + 1)

Control 1: S-Plane Techniques

24
Case 1 Proportional Control (Kc)

The open loop transfer function is given by:

5 Kc
(s + 0.25)(s + 1)(s + 2)

Asymptote angles = 60o, 180o, 300o Imag Axis jω

4
Asymptotes cut the real axis at 3
−0.25 − 1 − 2
s= = 1083
. 2
3 o
1.658
1 66
Loci cuts the imaginary axis at ω = 1.658 s = 0.379 + j0.848
0
at gain Kc = 1.688
-1
Design for 25% overshoot, i.e., ς = 0.4
∴ -2

θ = Cos −1 (ς ) = 66.4° -3

-4
Searching along the line of constant -4 -2 0 2 4
Real Axis
damping using the angle criterion gave
the following result.

The point s = 0.379 + j 0.848 is on both the loci and the damping line.

The magnitude criterion can be used to position the poles at this point.

∏ pole distances = 0.848 2 + (0.379 − 0.25) 0.848 2 + (1 − 0.379 ) 0.848 2 + (2 − 0.379 )

2 2 2

Kc =
5 5
Kc = 0.33

There are no integrators in this loop therefore there will be a steady state error. This error can be
found using the final value theorem, assuming L = 1 kg min-1.

ε (s) Kl Gl ( s )
=−
L( s ) 1 + Kc KpGp( s )
1 − 5((4 s + 1)(s + 1)(0.5s + 1))
ε
t →∞
= Lim s
s →0 s (4s + 1)(s + 1)((4 s + 1)(s + 1)(0.5s + 1) + 3.3)
= −1.16

Control 1: S-Plane Techniques

25
 S-Plane Time Response
0
Imag Axis
4

2 -0.5

1
ε(t)
0
-1
-1
-1.16
-2

-3
-1.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
-4 Time (mins)
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Real Axis

Case 2

The system is to be improved so that the 2% settling time is approximately 5 minutes. Therefore
the design specification is:
25 % overshoot
4
2% settling time ≅ 5 minutes, i.e., = 5,∴ςωn = 0.8
ςωn

Imag Axis jω
4
To get the root locus to pass through the
point s = 0.8 + j18
. compensation must be 3 The zero
added. In this case a zero on the -ve real position is
2 j1.8
axis is required. an estimate
1 o
∴ KcG( s ) = Kc(sTd + 1)
66
0

The open loop transfer function, in pole -1

x 0.8
zero form, is given by:
-2

⎛ 1 ⎞ -3
5 KcTd ⎜ s + ⎟
⎝ Td ⎠ -4
(s + 0.25)(s + 1)(s + 2) -4 -2 0
Real Axis
2 4

The position of the zero can be found from the angle criterion.

(s + z1) = −180°
(s + p1)(s + p 2 )(s + p3)
(s + z1) = −180° + (s + p1) + (s + p 2 ) + (s + p3)
(s + z1) = −180° + 107° + 83.7° + 56.3° = 67°

Control 1: S-Plane Techniques

26
The zero position can now be calculated:

tan (67°) =
1.8
x
1.8
x= = 0.764
tan (67°)
∴ zero position = 0.8 + x = 1.564
1
= 1.564
Td
∴ Td = 0.64minutes

The controller gain is found from:

Kc =
∏ pole distances =
1.8 2 + (0.8 − 0.25)
2
1.8 2 + (1 − 0.8)
2
1.8 2 + (2 − 0.8)
2

5 * Td * zero distance 5 * 0.64 * 1.8 2 + (1.564 − 0.8)

2

Kc = 1.179

In pole-zero form the controller is therefore given by:

⎛ 1 ⎞
KcTd ⎜ s + ⎟ = 0.754(s + 1.564)
⎝ Td ⎠

There are still no integrators in this loop therefore there will be a steady state error. This error
can be found using the final value theorem, assuming L = 1 kg min-1, Kc = 1.179, Td = 0.64.

ε ( s) Kl Gl ( s )
=−
L( s ) 1 + KcGc( s ) KpGp( s)
1 −5
ε = Lim s
(4s + 1)⎡⎢1 + 1.179(0.64s + 1) ⎤
t →∞ s →0 s 10
⎣ (4s + 1)(s + 1)(0.5s + 1)⎥⎦
1 − 5((4s + 1)(s + 1)(0.5s + 1))
ε = Lim s s (4s + 1)[(4s + 1)(s + 1)(0.5s + 1) + 11.79(0.64s + 1)] = −0.39°C
t →∞ s →0

Control 1: S-Plane Techniques

27
 S-Plane Time Response
0
Imag Axis
4 -0.05

3 -0.1

-0.15
2
-0.2
1
-0.25
ε(t)
0 -0.3

-1 -0.35
-0.39 -0.4
-2
-0.45
-3
-0.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-4 Time (secs)
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Real Axis

Case 3
The system is to be improved so that there is no steady state error to changes in load 'L'.
Design specification:
No offset

25 % overshoot, i.e., ς = 0.8,θ = 66°

4
2% settling time ≅ 5 minutes, i.e., = 5,∴ςωn = 0.8
ςωn

The steady state specification indicates that an integrator is required. Case 2 also indicates that at
least one zero is required. Therefore we shall try a P+I controller.

⎛ 1⎞
⎜s + ⎟
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎝ Ti ⎠
∴ KcG ( s) = Kc⎜1 + ⎟ = Kc
⎝ Tis ⎠ s

Imag Axis jω
4
To get the root locus to pass through the
point s = 0.8 + j18
. a suitable position for 3 The zero
the zero must be found. position is
2 j1.8
an estimate
The open loop transfer function, in pole 1 o
66
zero form, is given by:
0

⎛ 1⎞ -1
5 Kc⎜ s + ⎟ x 0.8
⎝ Ti ⎠
-2
s(s + 0.25)(s + 1)(s + 2 )
-3

-4
-4 -2 0 2 4
Real Axis

Control 1: S-Plane Techniques

28
The position of the zero can be found from the angle criterion.

(s + z 1) = −180°
(s + p1)(s + p 2 )(s + p3)(s + p 4 )
(s + z1) = −180° + (s + p1) + (s + p 2 ) + (s + p3) + (s + p 4 )
(s + z1) = −180° + 107° + 83.7° + 56.3° + 114° = 181°

It is impossible to find the position of a zero that will give 181o contribution to the system.

Therefore consider two zeros, i.e.,

5Kc(s + v )
2

s(s + 0.25)(s + 1)(s + 2)

The angle is now shared equally between the two zeros.

The position of the zeros can now be calculated:

181°
= 90.5°
2
use180° − 90.5° = 89.5°

tan (89.5°) =
1.8
x
1.8
x= = 0.016
tan (89.5°)
∴ zero position = 0.8 − x = 0.784
v = 0.784

The controller gain is found from:

Kc =
∏ pole distances = 1.8 2 + (0.8 − 0.25)
2
1.8 2 + (1 − 0.8)
2
1.8 2 + (2 − 0.8)
2
1.8 2 + 0.8 2
5 * ∏ zero distance 5 * 1.8 2 + (0.8 − 0.784)
2
1.8 2 + (0.8 − 0.784)
2

Kc = 0.897

In pole-zero form the controller is therefore given by:

Kc (s + v ) 0.897(s + 0.784)
2 2
=
s s

Control 1: S-Plane Techniques

29
 S-Plane Time Response
Imag Axis
4
0
3
-0.05
2
-0.1
1
-0.15
0 ε(t)
-0.2
-1
-0.25
-2
-0.3
-3 -0.35

-4 -0.4
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 0 2 4 6 8 1
Real Axis Time (secs)

Time Response of the system output

to a step change in set point
Percentage overshoot does not apply to load 1.4
changes because there is now no steady state
error. However percentage overshoot will 1.2

apply to changes in set point. 1

θo(t)
0.8
The design specification has been met in terms
of settling time and offset. Overshoot is too big 0.6
at approx. 35%. This is due to the system no
0.4
longer being dominated by a single pair of
complex poles. 0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (secs)

Converting to a parallel algorithm P+I+D controller

⎡ ⎤ 0.897(s + 0.784)
s
1
Kc' ⎢1 + + Tds ⎥ =
⎣ Tis ⎦ s

= 0.897
(
s 2 + 1.568s + 0.6147 )
s
⎡ 0.6147 ⎤
= 0.897 ⎢ s + 1.568 +
⎣ s ⎥⎦
⎡ 1 ⎤
= 1.406⎢1 + + 0.6378s ⎥
⎣ 2.55s ⎦

Comparing coefficients gives:

Kc' = 1.406, Ti = 2.55, Td = 0.6378

Control 1: S-Plane Techniques

30