2) (a) Charge Simulation Method (CSM)

Basic Principle of CSM: When the conductor is excited by an applied voltage, charges appear on the
surface of the conductor. These charges produce an electric field outside the conductor, while at the same
time maintains the conductor at equipotential. Similarly, when a dielectric is excited by an external field,
it gets polarized, i.e. the charged particles of the molecules of the dielectric get shifted from their neutral
state to produce a volume of dipoles

2b) Stress intensification factor:

(3 ) Finite Element Method (FEM) Finite Element Method is widely used in the numerical solution
of electric field problems, and became very popular. In contrast to other numerical methods, FEM is a
very general method and therefore is a versatile tool for solving wide range of electric field problems
 4 (a) PASCHENS LAW:

Paschen's law is an equation that gives the breakdown voltage, that is, the voltage necessary to start
a discharge or electric arc, between two electrodes in a gas as a function of pressure and gap length
gives the breakdown voltage, that is, the voltage necessary to start a discharge or electric arc, between
two electrodes in a gas as a function of pressure and gap length.

In uniform fields, the Townsend's criterion for breakdown in electropositive gases is given by
the following equation,
(eαd -1 ) = 1
or αd = ln (1/ + 1)
where the coefficients α and γ are functions of E/p and are given as follows:

and
where E0 is the applied electric field, and p the gas pressure. In a uniform field electrode
system of gap distance d, 4(b)

where Ub is the breakdown voltage and Eb the corresponding field intensity. Eb is equal to the
electric strength of the dielectric under given conditions. When the applied field
intensity E0 = Eb , the Townsend's criterion for breakdown in electropositive gases in uniform
field can be represented in terms of the product of the gas pressure and the electrode gap
distance 'pd' as,

or
(5)(a)
(5)(b)
6)(A):-
6(B)
 7) Optimum Number of stages(n) :

In Cock-croft Walton voltage multiplier circuit,

Output current = 5mA

Max. Volatge = 100KV
Capacitor rating= 0.1micro- farads
Frequency supply= 50Hz

i) Optimum No. of stages(n) = Sqt[Vmax f C / I ]

= Sqt[ 100 x 103 x 50 x 0.1 x 10 -6
/ 5 x 10-3 ]
= 10

ii) Ripple voltage = [ n(n+1) / 2 ] I/ f C

= [ 10 (11) / 2] x 5 x 10-3 / 50 x 0.1 x 10 -6
]
= 55 KV

8) Power Frequency Overvoltages in Power Systems

The power frequency overvoltages occur in large power systems and they are of much concern in EHV
systems, i.e. systems of 400 kV and above. The main causes for power frequency and its harmonic
overvoltages are
(a) sudden loss of loads,
(b) disconnection of inductive loads or connection of capacitive loads,
(c) Ferranti effect, unsymmetrical faults, and
(d) saturation in transformers, etc.

Overvoltages of power frequency harmonics and voltages with frequencies nearer to the operating
frequency are caused during tap changing operations, by magnetic or ferro-resonance phenomenon in
large power transformers, and by resonating overvoltages due to series capacitors with shunt reactors or
transformers. The duration of these overvoltages may be from one to two cycles to a few seconds
depending on the overvoltage protection employed.
(a) Sudden Load Rejection
Sudden load rejection on large power systems causes the speeding up of generator prime movers. The
speed governors and automatic voltage regulators will intervene to restore normal conditions. But initially
both the frequency and voltage increase.
The voltage at the sending end is affected by the line length, short circuit MVA at sending end bus, and
reactive power generation of the line (due to line capacitive reactance and any shunt or series capacitors).
Shunt reactors may reduce the voltage to 1.2 to 1.4 p.u.

(c) Ground Faults and Their Effects

Single line to ground faults cause rise in voltages in other healthy phases. Usually, with solidly grounded
systems, the increases in voltage (phase to ground value) will be less than the line-to-line voltage. With
effectively grounded systems, i.e. with ^n ^n
T^S 3.0 and ^£1.0 X1 X1 (where, RQ and XQ are zero sequence resistance and reactance and X] is the
positive sequence reactance of the system), the rise in voltage of the healthy phases does not usually
exceed 1.4 per unit.

(d) Saturation Effects

When voltages above the rated value are applied to transformers, their magnetizing currents (no load
currents also) increase rapidly and may be about the full rated current for 50% overvoltage. These
magnetizing currents are not sinusoidal in nature but are of a peaky waveform. The third, fifth, and
seventh harmonic contents may be 65%, 35%, and 25% of the exciting current of the fundamental
frequency corresponding to an overvoltage of 1.2 p.u. For third and its multiple harmonics, zero
sequence impedance values are effective, and delta connected windings suppress them. But the shunt
connected capacitors and line capacitances can form resonant circuits and cause high third harmonic
overvoltages. When such overvoltages are added, the voltage rise in the lines may be significant. For
higher harmonics a series resonance between the transformer inductance and the line capacitance can
occur which may produce even higher voltages.
9. Principles of Insulation Coordination in High Voltages:
10.
11.