Is She A Doctor?

BASIC GRAMMAR REFERENCE
1. be
We use the verb to be

 to talk about somebody’s job, nationality, I am a Doctor.
relationships or name. He isn’t Portuguese.
We are friends.
Is she a Doctor?
 to describe people, animals and things. Tony is nice.

The dog isn’t big.
What color are the books? They’re blue.
We often use the short form when we talk, but we I’m Hannah.
don’t use it for questions and short answers. He’s from Britain.
Are you German? Yes, I am.
We use be with personal pronouns (I, you, he, she, it, Janet Jones is a teacher.
we, they) or other words for people, animals and You are friends.
things. The cat is brown.
The room is big.
2. Who…?/Where…?
We use Who…? To ask about people and Where…? Who is she?

to ask about places. Where are the teachers?
3. The Indefinite Article
We use the indefinite articles a and an

 With singular nouns. a pen.
an orange.
 To talk about one person, animal or thing in Helen is an aunt.

general. Ben is a dog.
It’s a cell phone.
We use a before words that begin with a consonant Harry is a cook.

and an before words that begin with a vowel. It’s an apple.
Sometimes there is an adjective before a noun. We She’s a nice aunt.

use a when the adjective starts with a consonant, and It’s an old photo.
an when the adjective starts with a vowel.
Note: Be careful with words that begin with h and u. a hat

When the h or u sounds like a consonant, we use a but
before the word. When the h or u sounds like a an hour
vowel, we use an. a hat but an hour; an umbrella but a university
a university. but
an umbrella
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4. The Definite Article
We use the definite article the
 to talk about specific people, animals or things The men with glasses are brothers.
(singular or plural). The chair is in the photo.
 before unique nouns. The moon is big.
 before musical instruments. Where is the guitar?
 before the names of mountain ranges, oceans, The Mississippi River is very long.
seas, rivers, deserts, theaters, hotels, etc. The Grand Hotel is over there.
 with some countries. The USA is a big country.

My friend is from the United Kingdom.
 before morning, afternoon and evening. Dad is at work in the evening.

We do not use the
 with plural nouns when we talk about people, Dogs are nice animals.
animals or things in general. Cars are useful.
 before the names of cities, islands, most countries, London is in Britain.

lakes and mountains.
 before a person’s name. Jan is young.
 before subjects of study. Math is a great subject.
 before nationalities and languages. He is English.

She speaks Spanish.
 before games and sports. Football is a great sport.
 before days and months. Grandma is at home on Wednesdays.
Breakfast is a very important meal.

 before meals.
5. Regular Plurals
We add
 -s to nouns to make them plural. girl girls
 -es to nouns that end in –s, -ss, -sh, -ch, and –x bus buses
and some (but not all) that end in –o. class classes
watch watches
box boxes
potato potatoes
but
photo photos
For nouns that end in a consonant and –y, we take off party parties
the –y and add –ies. For nouns that end in a vowel and but
–y, we just add –s. boy boys
For some (but not all) nouns that end in –fe/f, we take knife knives
off –fe/f and add –ves. but
roof roofs
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6. Irregular Plurals
Some nouns have irregular plurals. foot feet

sheep sheep
fish fish
7. Prepositions of place
We use prepositions of place to show where someone The bikes are behind the house.
or something is. The house is between the school and the post office.
The new café is in the train station.
A car is in front of the house.
The public phone is near the library.
The bike path is next to the road.
The dog is on the road.
The parking garage is under the department store.
8. What…?/Which…?
We use What…? to ask about things and actions and What is in the neighborhood?
Which…? to ask about someone or something from a Which museum is on Center Street?
group.
9. there is/there are
We use there is/there are to talk about what exists in There is a park near the school.
the present. There are two museums in the town.
Are there any supermarkets here?
10. some/any
We use some with nouns in affirmative sentences. There are some great cafes in the town.
We use any in negative sentences and questions. There aren’t any new houses in the neighborhood.
Are there any children in the park?
11. have got
We use have
 to talk about belongings. I have a comfortable sofa.
 To describe people, animals or things Tony has long hair.

The dog has long ears.
The house doesn’t have an attic.
 To talk about a health problem. You have a bad cold.
We can use question words with have. Who has a big house?
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12. Possessive ‘s
We use ‘s to show that

 something belongs to someone. The brown shirt is Tom’s.
 someone has a particular relationship with someone The man is Sarah’s brother.
or something.
We use s’ after names or singular nouns. It’s Susan’s handbag.
We use s’ after plural nouns, but we use ‘s when the My two cousins’s friends are nice.
noun has an irregular plural. The children’s clothes are expensive.
13. Possessive adjectives
We use possessive adjectives before nouns to show that

 something belongs to someone. Your socks are on the table.
 someone or something has a relationship with Sarah is our new model.

someone or something else. His new job is great.
Note: The possessive adjective its does not have an apostrophe. It’s means it is or it has.
Note: Be careful not to confuse their with they’re (they are) and there.
14. Possessive pronouns
A possessive pronoun replaces a possessive adjective

and a noun. We use possessive pronouns to show that
 something belongs to someone. The red jacket is hers.
 Someone or something has a particular relationship He’s my child. He’s mine.

with someone or something else.
Note: Be careful not to confuse there’s (there is) with theirs.
15. Demonstratives
We use this (singular) and these (plural) to show that This belt is his.
someone or something is near us. These aren’t my shoes.
We use that (singular) and those (plural) to show that That is your backpack.
someone or something is further away. Those shirts aren’t ours.
16. Whose…?
We use Whose…? to ask who or what something Whose car is that?

belongs to.
Note: Be careful not to confuse Whose…? with Who’s…? (Who is …?).
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17. Simple Present
We use this tense for

 permanent situations. We teach at this college.
 habits and things we often do. Students take a test every month.
 general truths and the laws of science and nature. The sun rises in the east.
We often use time expressions like adverbs of

frequency, today, every day/month/year, on They study French on Saturdays.
Mondays, etc. at the beginning or at the end of Every month I visit the library.
sentences with the simple present.
Note: We can use question words with the simple Where do you go to college?
present.
Spelling Rules for the third person singular
1. We add –s to the verb in the third person singular meet he/she/it meets
of the affirmative (he, she, it). close he/she/it closes
2. We add –es to verbs that end in –ss, -sh, -ch, -x and miss he/she/it misses
–o in the third person singular. crash he/she/it crashes
match he/she/it matches
mix he/she/it mixes
do he/she/it does
3. For verbs that end in a consonant + -y, we take off carry he/she/it carries
the –y and add –ies to the third person singular.
4. For verbs that end in a vowel + -y, we just add –s play he/she/it plays
to the third person singular.
18. Why…?
We use Why…? to ask about the reason for something. Why do you study biology?
19. Adverbs of frequency
We use adverbs of frequency to talk about how often He never uses a computer at work.
something happens. We sometimes play football with friends.
Do you often get free meals?
What do you usually do on weekends?
Employees always wear uniforms.
Adverbs of frequency go before the main verb, but they The manager sometimes trains staff.
go after the verb to be. He is never at home in the morning.
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20. Prepositions of time
We use prepositions of time to talk about when They meet at 12 o’clock.

something happens. I often go to the office on weekends.
Students never study in August.
We usually work in the autumn.
They never eat in the morning.
The restaurant needs extra staff on Saturdays.
The meeting is on October 21st.
She goes out on her birthday.
Note: Time expressions can go at the beginning or at They train every week.
the end of a sentence. In the afternoon there’s a meeting.
21. When…?
We use When…? to ask about time. When do you meet your friends?
22. Adverbs of manner

Adverbs of manner are words that describe how we do He is a quick worker. He works quickly.
something.
Spelling rules
1. We add –ly to most adjectives to form adverbs. patient patiently
2. For adjectives that end in –y, we take off the –y and heavy heavily
add –ily to form the adverb.
3. For adjectives that end in –le, we take off the –e terrible terribly
and add –y.
4. Some adverbs have the same form as the adjective. hard hard
early early
fast fast
late late
straight straight
5. Some adverbs are irregular. good well
Note: Some adjectives end in –ly (lively, friendly, ugly, silly) and don’t have adverbs. We say in a friendly way
etc. instead.
23. How…?
We use How…?
 before an adverb to ask about the way, speed etc. How fast does the dog run?
that someone does something.
 before an adjective to ask about the amount, degree How full is the Internet café?
etc. of something.
 to ask about someone’s health. How is your mom now?
 to ask somebody’s age. How old are you?
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24. Present Continuous

 things that are happening at the moment. The boys are playing football over there.
 temporary things happening in the present, or things He’s working at the college this year.
that are in progress around the time of speaking.
We often use time expressions like now, at the They are watching TV at the moment.
moment, at present, today, tonght, these days, this This year we are studying French.
year, etc. at the beginning or at the end of sentences
with the present continuous.
Spelling Rules
1. For verbs that end in –e, we take off the –e and add speak am/are/is speaking
–ing. make am/are/is making
2a. For verbs that end in consonant-vowel-consonant, sit am/are/is sitting

we double the consonant when the stress is on the
last syllable.
2b. When the stress is not on the last syllable, we don’t listen listening
double the consonant.
3. For verbs that end in –ie, we take off the –ie and add die am/are/is dying
–ying.
Note: Don’t forget to use am/are/is before the verb +ing to form the Present Continuous.
25. Present Continuous question
We can use question words with the present continuous. Why are you playing basketball?
26. Can for ability and permission
We use can + the base form

 to talk about ability in the present and the future. Susan can see well.
 to ask for or give permission to someone to do Can I go now? No, you can’t.
something in the present and the future. You can see the doctor now.
The negative form of can is cannot or can’t. Jenny can’t help you.
Note: We can use question words with can. What can I do for you?
27. Must for obligation

We use must + the base form to talk about obligations You must wear glasses.
in the present and the future.
The negative form of must is must not. We use must Doctors must not leave the hospital.
not. to talk about things we are not allowed to do in the
present or the future.
We don’t usually use must in questions.
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28. The Imperative
We use the imperative when we want to give instructions Take my photo, Jane.
or orders. It takes the same form as the base form. It is the Go outside, children.
same when we talk to one person or to many people.
We use Don’t before the imperative when we ask Don’t order a hamburger for me.
someone not to do something. Don’t talk!
We often use please with the imperative to be more polite. Please book a table for dinner.
29. Let’s
We use Let’s + the base form. With a verb when we want Let’s go to that restaurant.
to suggest something to someone. Let’s make dinner now.
30. Object Pronouns
We use object pronouns

 to replace an object in a sentence. The police officer is with the girl. The police
officer is with her.
 to refer to something in a previous sentence. These people are hurt. We must help them.
Note: Object pronouns come after verbs or prepositions. We can help you.
Come with me!
31. Simple Past: to be
We use the simple past of to be to talk about people, It was cold last night.
animals, things or situations that existed in the past. The dogs were scared in the storm.
Was Bill outside in the rain?
Note: We can use there and question words with the There weren’t any sunny days last week.
simple past of to be. How was the weather yesterday?
32. Simple Past – Irregular Verbs
Some verbs are irregular and do not follow the spelling eat ate
rules in 33. find found
fly flew
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33. Simple Past – Regular Verbs
We use the simple past with

 things that happened in the past when the time is She moved the plant yesterday.
important.
 past habits and thing we often did in the past. We studied in the evening.
 things that happened one after the other in the past. He watered the plants, opened the door and walked
away.
We use time expressions like yesterday, last night, last We looked after the dogs last week.
week, last summer, ago, etc. with the simple past.
Spelling Rules
1. We add –ed to verbs to form the simple past. talk talked

For verbs that end in –e, we just add –d. move moved
2a. For verbs that end in a consonant + -y, we take off the carry carried
–y and add –ied.
2b. For verbs that end in a vowel + -y, we add –ed. stay stayed
3a. For verbs that end in consonant-vowel-consonant prefer preferred

where the final syllable is stressed, we double the last
consonant and add –ed.
3b. For verbs that end in consonant-vowel-consonant happen happened

where the final syllable is not stressed, we do not
double the last letter.
34. Simple Past – Negative Question
We can use question words with the simple past. Why did he feed the dog?
35. Count Nouns
Count nouns are nouns that we can count. They can be The trip was great.
singular or plural and they take a singular or plural verb The trips were great.
form.
We can use a few, many, a lot of or some before count There are a few tourists in the dining room.
nouns to show an indefinite number. They don’t have many waiters at the café.
A lot of hotels offer a bus service to town.
36. Noncount Nouns
Noncount nouns are nouns that we cannot count.

They are singular and they take a singular verb form. There isn’t any information about the price.
information
luggage
We can use a little, much, a lot of and some before There is a lot of luggage in the car.
noncount nouns to show how much we have. There wasn’t much furniture in my hotel room.
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37. How much…? How many…?
We use How many …? to ask about count nouns. How many rooms are there in the hotel?
We use How much …? to ask about noncount nouns. How much juice do we have?
38. some- /any- /no- /every- + -body (one)/ -thing/ -where
 We use the words somebody/someone, something There’s somebody in the car.

and somewhere to talk about one unspecified They want something nice for breakfast.
person, thing or place. We usually use the words that Put the table somewhere near the window.
begin with some- in affirmative sentences.
 We use the words anybody/anyone, anything and Is there anybody in the room?
anywhere to talk about one unspecified person, Is there anything on your plate?
thing and or place. We usually use the words that I’m not going anywhere.
begin with any- in sentences and negative questions.
 We use the words nobody/no one, nothing and There is nobody in the room.
nowhere to talk about one unspecified person, thing There is nothing in the refrigerator.
or place. We use the words that begin with no- when The book is nowhere in the house.
the verb is affirmative but the sentence has a
negative meaning.
 We use the words everybody, everything and Is everybody here?

everywhere to talk about all the people, things and Is everything OK, Mr. Dean?
places. We usually use the words that begin with There are tourists everywhere in summer.
every- in affirmative sentences and questions.
39. Comparative
We use the comparative of adjectives to compare two or This robot is newer than your robot.
more people, animals or things. We often use the word
than after the comparative.
Spelling Rules
1. For short adjectives which have one syllable and warm warmer than
some adjectives which have two syllables, we add
–er to the adjective to form the comparative.
2. For short adjectives that end in –e, we just add –r. nice nicer than
3. For short adjectives that end in –y, we take off the funny funnier than
–y and add –ier.
4. For short adjectives that end in consonant-vowel- fat fatter than
consonant, we double the last consonant and then
add –er.
We use the word more before many adjectives that have fantastic more fantastic than
two syllables, and before all adjectives that have three or
more syllables. We do not add –er.
We can use both forms of the comparative with some simple simpler/more simple than
two-syllable adjectives. clever cleverer/more clever than
The comparative form of some adjectives is irregular. good better than
bad worse than
far farther/further than
much more than
many more than
a little less than
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40. Superlative
We use the superlative form of adjectives to This is the newest robot in the shop.
compare one person or thing with many others This is your worst gadget.
of the same type. We use the or a possessive
adjective before the superlative.
Spelling Rules
1. For short adjectives which have one syllable and warm the warmest
some adjectives which have two syllables, we add
–est to the adjective to form the superlative.
2. For adjectives that end in –e, we just add –st. nice the nicest
3. For short adjectives that end in –y, we take off the funny the funniest
–y and add –iest.
4. For short adjectives that end in consonant-vowel- fat the fattest

consonant, we double the last consonant and then
add –est.
We use the word most before many adjectives that have fantastic the most fantastic
two syllables, and before all adjectives that have three or
more syllables. We don’t add –est.
We can use both forms of the superlative with some simple the simplest/the most simple
two-syllable adjectives. clever the cleverest/the most clever
The superlative form of some adjectives is irregular. good the best

bad the worst
far the farthest/furthest
much the most
many the most
a little the least
41. be going to
We use be going to + base form to talk about

 future plans and arrangements. They’re going to have a party on Saturday.
 predictions based on evidence we have now. Look at the clouds. It’s going to rain.
We often use time expressions like soon, tomorrow,

next week/month/year, this evening, in the I’m going to study this evening.
morning/afternoon/evening, tonight, next weekend, They’re going to leave in the morning.
etc. with be going to.
We can use there and question words with be going to. There’s going to be a concert tomorrow.
When are you going to have a party?
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42. Future with Will

 future facts. She’ll be twenty tomorrow.
 predictions. He will win the game.
 sudden decisions. I’m hungry. I will have dinner.
 promises, threats and warnings. Don’t be late again! You’ll lose your job.
 after hope, think, perhaps, sure, etc. I think I will sell my car.
We often use time expressions like tomorrow, next This evening I’ll go out.
week/month/year, next weekend, this evening, He will come home late tonight.
tonight, etc. at the beginning or end of sentences with
the Future with Will.
We can use there and question words with the Future There will be lots of new robots in the stores.
with Will. Where will you buy their presents?
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PREINTERMEDIA GRAMMAR REFERENCE
1. be, have
We use the verb be

 to talk about someone’s job, nationality, relationship I am a teacher. You are my students.
or name. Shoko is Japanese. Are Miguel and Carmen Mexican?
She’s my aunt. She isn’t my grandmother.
Hi! I’m Robert. Are you Mary?
 to describe people, animals and things. My father is tall and slim.

Are the dogs friendly?
We use have
 to show what belongs to someone. I have a TV in my room.
Mr. Smith doesn’t have a beard.
 To describe people, animals and things. Jashua’s dogs have a red ball.
Our house has three bedrooms.
Note: In American English we also use the form

have/has got, but not as often as have/has. Have/has
got is more common in British English.
2. Simple Present
We use this for

 Things that are true in general. My uncle drives a BMW.
 The laws of science and nature. Water freezes at 0 Celsius.

Spelling Rules
1a. In the third person singular affirmative (he, she, it), walk walks
we add –s to the verb. sit sits
1b. We add –es to verbs that end in –ss, -sh, -ch, -x and dress dresses
–o in the third person singular affirmative. push pushes
catch catches
fix fixes
do does
2. When a verb ends in a consonant + -y, we take off carry carries

the –y and add –ies in the third person singular study studies
affirmative.
3. When a verb ends in a vowel + -y, we just add –s in play plays

the third person singular affirmative.
We use do and does to form questions and negative Do you live with your parents?
statements. My brother doesn’t go to bed early.
We also use the Simple Present with words like always, My mother always goes shopping on Fridays.
often, sometimes, never, etc., to say how often My cousin is never at home on Saturday night!
something happens. They come before the main verb,
but after the verb be.
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We use this for

 actions that are in progress now. The children are having an Italian lesson now.
 actions that are in progress around the time of My aunt is learning French.
speaking.
4. Simple Past
We use this for

 States or completed actions in the past when the I went to the movies with my best friend last Saturday.
time is important.
 Actions that happened one after the other in the past. Jane arrived at the party, took off her coat and started
to dance.
We use did to form questions and negative statements. Did you enjoy the party?
Sally didn’t come to the theater with us.
Spelling Rules
1. We form most regular verbs in the Simple Past by help helped

adding –ed. Verbs ending in –e add –d. dance danced
2a. Regular verbs ending in consonant-vowel- rob robbed

consonant double the consonant before the ending –ed control controlled
when the stress is on the final syllable.
2b. When the stress is not on the last syllable, the final listen listened
consonant is not doubled.
3a. Verbs ending in a consonant and –y change the –y carry carried

to an –i before the ending –ed.
3b. When the verb ends in a vowel and –y, the –y play played
doesn’t change.
Note: Some verbs are irregular and do not follow these come came
spelling rules. hit hit
say said
5. Used to
We use used to + the base form of a verb to talk about Jane used to go to a youth club every Saturday evening.
an action that happened often in the past. It does not
happen now.
The negative form of used to is didn’t use to. David didn’t use to dance very well.
6. Past Continuous
We use this for
 actions that were in progress at a certain time in the Penny and Natalie were having a tennis lesson at 11
past. o’clock yesterday morning.
 two or more actions that were in progress at the Lucy was watching a movie on TV while I was making
same time in the past. lunch.
 an action that was in progress in the past and was Justin was playing football when his friend arrived.
interrupted by another action.
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7. Present Perfect
We use this for

 completed actions and states when the time is not I have seen the Loch Ness monster.
important. Have you ever gone to a hypnotist?
 actions that started in the past and continue now, or They have lived in a haunted house for ten years.
actions that happened in the past but are still My car keys have disappeared; we’ll have to go by
important now. bus.
8. Review the Present Perfect and Simple Past
9. Future with Will
We use this for

 making predictions. The new building will be the best in town.
 making promises. The restaurant at the Hyatt Hotel is fantastic. I’ll take
you there on your birthday.
 making threats. “Stop making so much noise or I will ask you to leave
the hotel,” said the hotel manager.
 making a sudden decision. “Let’s go away next weekend.”

“OK. I’ll reserve a room for us at a hotel.”
We often use this form with the verbs think and believe I’m sure we’ll have a nice view from our room.
and also with phrases like I’m sure … to make guesses
or give our opinion about what will happen in the future.
The negative of will is will not (won’t). She won’t stay in that hotel because it’s too expensive.
10. Simple Present (Future Meaning)
We use this for scheduled events in the future. The show finishes at 10 p.m.
11. Present Continuous (Future Meaning)
We use this to talk about somebody’s plans for the Peter and Lucy are taking their children to the circus
future. this weekend.
Note: There must be a word or phrase in the sentence I’m going to the movies on Saturday. Would you like
that talks about future time, unless we can understand to come with me?
this from the context.
12. be going to
We use be going to for

 plans and arrangements for the future. Paul’s going to buy tickets for the ice show.
 making predictions for the future based on evidence Darren is going to be famous one day; he’s a really
in the present. good actor.
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13. Modals - Ability
We use can to talk about ability in the present. It is We can walk for miles because we’re very fit.
followed by the base form of a verb. The negative form John can’t ride a horse but he wants to learn.
of can is cannot or can’t.
We use could to talk about ability in the past. It is My grandpa could drive a tractor when he was 12.
followed by the base form of a verb. The negative form Terry couldn’t feed the chickens yesterday because he
of could is couldn’t. was sick.
14. Modals - Necessity
We use must and have to to talk about necessity. You must take your dog for a walk every day.
They are followed by the base form of a verb. David has to water the plants today.
The negative form of must is must not. We use must Children must not play football on the grass.
not to talk about things that you are not allowed to do.
Note: The form mustn’t exists, but it is rare in

American English. It is much more common in British
English.
The negative form of have to is don’t have to. Laura doesn’t have to take a tent when she goes
Don’t have to means you can choose whether you do camping; she can sleep in Mary’s tent.
something or not.
The past form of must and have to is had to. John had to walk two miles to find a telephone when
his car broke down in the country.
15. Relative Clauses
Relative clauses give more information about the subject or the object of a sentence. Most of the examples in this
reference are relative clauses that add extra information about a noun. They are called non-defining relative clauses.
We usually put commas around them to show the information is extra.
Here are some of the words that can appear of the

beginning of a non-defining relative clause:
 who for people The nurse, who is my mom’s friend, was very kind.
 which for things or ideas The medicine, which tasted horrible, made me feel
better immediately.
 where for places Saint Peter’s hospital, where I work now, is very small.
Note: In formal English, we sometimes use which after The People’s Drugstore, from which I bought this
the prepositions at, on, in or from when we talk about medicine, is on the corner of Main and Oak.
places.
In less formal English we can use where instead. The People’s Drugstore, where I bought this medicine,
is on the corner of Main and Oak.
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16. Count Nouns
Count nouns are nouns that we can count. They can be This house is the biggest in town.
singular or plural and take both singular and plural verb These houses are very expensive.
forms.
Some nouns have irregular plural forms. child children

fish fish
We use a/an with singular count nouns, but not with Is there a parking lot near the train station?
plural count nouns. This town needs more parking lots.
We can use some with plural count nouns in statements, Some stores stay open late on Thursdays.
and we can use any in questions or negative sentences. Do you have any friends in Boston?
There aren’t any restaurants in this part of town.
17. Noncount Nouns
Noncount nouns are nouns that we cannot count. They

are singular, and they take a singular verb form.
bread homework luggage salt Traffic is a problem in most large towns.

cheese information milk time
fire juice music traffic
food knowledge news water
We don’t use a/an with noncount nouns. Tourist information is available in most large towns.
We can use some with noncount nouns in affirmative I listened to some music on my way into town.
statements, and we can use any in questions and Do you have any time to go sightseeing today?
negative statements. We don’t have any information about trains yet.
We use the indefinite article a/an with singular count Does this town have a museum?
nouns when we talk in general or when we talk about The town has a museum and a theater. The museum is
something for the first time. on Oak Road, and the theater is on Broadway.
We don’t use a/an with plural count nouns or noncount Susan spends a lot of money on tickets to the opera.
nouns. This restaurant serves food from India.
We use the definite article the with singular and plural Kelly bought the skirt from Top Shop.
count nouns and with noncount nouns. The hotels in this city are all very good.
The money was stolen from the bank on Crown Street.
We use the
 to talk about something specific. The library is at the end of this street.
 before nationalities. The Spanish have built some beautiful cities.
 before superlatives. She lives in the biggest house in the street.
 before unique nouns. The Colosseum is one of Rome’s most famous
buildings.
 before musical instruments. Kevin is learning to play the piano.
 before the names of theaters and hotels. The Ambassador Hotel opens this week.
 before morning, afternoon and evening. The city looks lovely in the evening.
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We do not use the
 to talk about something in general. Big towns can be very noisy places.
 before names of countries, cities, streets, islands and Tokyo is the capital of Japan.
continents (exception: names with common nouns: Toronto is in Canada. It is not in the United States.
e.g. the Czech Republic, the United States).
 before a person’s name. Mary is moving to Toronto next month.
 before subjects of study. Can you study economics at Harvard University?
 before names of sports and games. I play tennis at the sports center in town twice a week.
 before names of days and months. I’m going to Tokyo on Tuesday.
 before languages (when they are not followed by the When I visited London, I heard people talking French,
word language). German, Spanish and all kinds of other languages.
 before words like school, class, prison, college, If you steal, you will go to prison.
court, church and bed in prepositional phrases with Is he going to college next year?
in or to, when the speaker refers generally to a place The lawyer will be in court all day.
and does not have a specific building in mind.
 before meals. We’re having dinner in a restaurant near the river.
20. Tag Questions
Tag questions are short questions at the end of an We can’t go to the movie, can we?
affirmative or negative sentence. They are formed with Jenny didn’t pass her test, did she?
modal or auxiliary verbs and a personal pronoun.
Note: When the main verb is a form of be, we use the Our school is the biggest in the area, isn’t it?
same form in the tag question. Sentences with I am are He was sick yesterday, wasn’t he?
an exception. They require an irregular tag question. In I’m late, aren’t I?
sentences with I am not, the tag question is regular. I’m not late, am I?
Affirmative sentences use negative tag questions. Our new teacher is nice, isn’t she?
Negative sentences use affirmative tag questions. Students can’t eat in the classroom, can they?
We use tag questions

 when we want someone to agree with what we are Our math homework was hard, wasn’t it?
saying.
 to make sure that what we are saying is right. School starts again on Monday, doesn’t it?
21. so, because
We use so to join two clauses into one sentence when Our chemistry teacher was ill, so we didn’t have class
the second clause is the result of the first clause. today.
We use because to join two clauses into one sentence James did well in his exams because he worked hard all
when the second clause is the reason for the first clause. year.
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22. Modals - Advice
We use should to give advice. It is followed by the base You should take your umbrella today because it’s going
form of a verb. to rain.
The negative form is should not (shouldn’t). Kerry shouldn’t leave the lights on all the time. It
wastes electricity.
23. Modals - Possibility
We use may and might to talk about possibility. I may listen to the concert on the radio after lunch.
They are followed by the base form of a verb. Olivia might visit a television studio with her school.
The negative forms are may not and might not. The story may not be on the news tonight.
Luke might not buy a TV guide this week.
24. First Conditional
We use the first conditional to talk about something that If the woman is guilty, she will go to prison.
will probably happen in the future. If it rains, we won’t go on a picnic.
If + Simple Present, Future with will.
Note: When the if clause comes first, we use a comma. If the police find the criminal, they will arrest him.
When the result clause comes first, we do not use a The police will arrest the criminal if they find him.
comma.
25. Second Conditional
We can use the second conditional to talk about If Mary’s house had a spare bedroom, we would stay
something that is impossible in the present or the future. with her.
We also use it to talk about something that is possible They would buy a bigger house if they won the lottery.
but that is unlikely to happen.
If + Simple Past, would + base form of the verb.
Note: When we use the verb be in the if clause, we If I were you, I’d move to a bigger house.
usually use were for all subjects. If Al were here now, he would help us paint.
Remember: When the result clause comes first, we do Lynn would move if she wanted to live downtown.
not use a comma.
26. Gerund
We use the gerund (-ing) form after

 prepositions. I’m looking forward to seeing the magician.
 certain verbs. Emily enjoys learning new card tricks.
Here are common verbs that take gerunds:
avoid dislike mind Magicians avoid telling people their secrets.
consider imagine practice Do you dislike doing housework?
enjoy keep suggest My son keeps asking me to buy him a magic book.
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27. Infinitive
We use the infinitive (i.e., to + base form of verb) after

certain verbs.
afford hope plan I can’t afford to buy an electric car.
agree learn (how) promise Henry has decided to travel by train.
allow manage refuse Paul is learning how to fly a helicopter.
ask offer seem I was planning to call you tonight.
decide persuade want Susan wants to drive a racing car!
Note: We can follow the verbs begin, continue and It started to rain when we arrived at the train station.
start with the gerund or the infinitive. It started raining when we arrived at the train station.
28. Comparatives and Superlatives
We use the comparative and superlative form of adjectives and adverbs to compare two or more places, people or
things. We make comparatives and superlatives in the following ways:
 We add –er/-est to adjectives/adverbs tall taller tallest

with one or two syllables. quick quicker quickest
 We double the last consonant for fat fatter fattest

one-syllable adjectives/adverbs with big bigger biggest
consonant-vowel-consonant. red redder reddest
 For one or two syllable adjectives/adverbs dry drier driest

that end in –y, the –y changes to i and then easy easier easiest
we add –er/-est. muddy muddier muddiest
 We use more/most or less/least with dangerous more dangerous most dangerous

adjectives/adverbs with more than two syllables. beautiful less beautiful least beautiful
Some adjectives/adverbs are irregular. You must learn the comparative and superlative forms shown below.
Adjective/Adverb Comparative Superlative
a lot of more most

bad (ly) worse worst
far farther/further farthest/furthest
good/well better best
little less/smaller least/smallest
many/much more most
 We use than with the comparative when we Sally likes brighter colors than Tina.
compare two people, groups, places or things.
 We use the superlative when we are comparing one Red is the best color for a sports car.
person, group, place or thing with more than one of
the same type. We always use the word the.
29. too, enough

Enough means as much as is necessary. It comes Those blue jeans aren’t long enough for you.
after an adjective.
Too means more than is necessary. It comes before I don’t like this color; it’s too dark.
an adjective.
Note: We can use the infinitive after adjective + These curtains aren’t colorful enough to put in the
enough and too + adjective. children’s playroom.
The red leather jacket was too expensive to buy.
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30. Passive Voice
We form the passive with the verb be and a past Lunch is served at 1 p.m. every day.
participle.
We use the passive when we are more interested in The spaghetti is boiled for 12 minutes.
the action than in who does it (the agent).
We change an active sentence into a passive sentence The French Bakery makes the best cakes.
in the following way: The object of the active verb The best cakes are made by the French Bakery.
becomes the subject of the passive verb. The verb
be is used in the correct form together with the past The farmer sells fresh fruit.
participle of the active verb. Fresh fruit is sold by the farmer.
We form the Simple Present passive with am/are/is I am given homemade jam by my neighbor.
and a past participle. This meat isn’t cooked enough.
Are these cookies sold at the supermarket?
We form the Simple Past passive with was/were and The salad was made by my mother.
a past participle. Julie wasn’t invited to the dinner party.
Was the birthday cake ordered?
When we want to mention the agent, we use the Laura reserved the table at the restaurant.
word by before it. The table at the restaurant was reserved by Laura.
31. Simple Present

*
We use this form for
 things that are true in general. My father works in a bank.
 how often something happens. David’s sister plays tennis twice a week.
 the laws of science and nature. Water boils at 100 Celcius.
We use do and does to make the question and Does your brother go to college?
negative forms. I don’t work on Sundays.

 actions in progress at the time of speaking. My brother is washing his car at the moment.
 actions in progress around the time of speaking. They are learning to play the guitar.
33. Stative Verbs
We don’t usually use stative verbs in the Present Does your sister belong to a sailing club?
Continuous or in other continuous forms.
believe mean He doesn’t believe that I have six brothers and sisters.
belong need That van belongs to my brother.
hate prefer He prefers pop music, while his sisters prefer rock
hear remember music.
know seem I remember you; you’re Jan’s friend!
like understand Do you know when we are going to Aunt Linda’s?
They don’t understand why their mother is so upset.
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34. Simple Past

 states or completed actions in the past when the time William Wallace died in 1305.
is important.
 actions that happened one after the other in the past. Robin Hood robbed the rich and gave to the poor.
We use did to make the question and negative forms. Did King Alfred burn the cakes?
King Arthur didn’t kill Lancelot.
Spelling Rules
1. We form most regular verbs in the Simple Past watch watched

by adding –ed. Verbs ending in –e add –d. save saved
2a. Regular verbs ending in consonant-vowel-

consonant double the consonant before the control controlled
ending –ed when the stress is on the final stop stopped
syllable or when there is only one syllable.
2b. When the stress is not on the last syllable, open opened
the final consonant is not doubled.
3a. Verbs ending in a consonant and –y change marry married

the –y to an –i before the ending –ed.
3b. When the verb ends in a vowel and –y, stay stayed
the –y doesn’t change.
Note: Some verbs do not follow the spelling rules. pay paid
say said
35. Past Continuous

 actions in progress at a certain time in the Robert the Bruce was hiding in a cave when he saw a
past. spider.
 two or more actions in progress at the same time While the king was fighting abroad, his enemy was
in the past. planning his revenge.
 an action in progress in the past that was The little girl was hiding under her bed when the
interrupted by another action. firefighter went into the burning building.
Remember: We don’t use the Past Continuous with stative verbs.
36. used to
We use used to + the base form of a verb to talk about Knights used to ride horses and wear armor.
an action that was repeated in the past.
The negative form of used to is didn’t use to. Kings and queens didn’t use to care about the poor.
37. Present Perfect

 completed actions and states when the time is The painter has exhibited in many galleries.
not important or not mentioned.
 actions that started in the past and continue Rose has worked in this studio for five years.
now, or actions that happened in the past but I’ve seen his new sculpture. It’s beautiful.
are still important now.
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38. Present Perfect Continuous
We use this form

 for actions that started in the past and have John has a good tan because he has been going to the
happened repeatedly or continuously until now. beach every day.
 to say how long something has been in progress. She has been swimming in the lake since 10 o’clock.
Remember: We don’t use the Present Perfect Continuous with stative verbs.
39. Past Perfect
We use this form for an action or state that existed She called her grandmother because she hadn’t spoken
before another action, state or time in the past. to her for a long time.

 making predictions. More species will become extinct in the future.
 making promises. “We’ll walk the dog every day, Mom.”
 making threats. “Eat your dinner or I’ll give it to the dog,” she said.
 making a sudden decision. Where’s the cat?” “I’ll look for her.”
We often use this form after the verbs think and believe We believe you won’t be disappointed.
and after phrases like I’m sure … to make guesses or I’m sure your son will love the dog.
give our opinion about what will happen.
41. be going to
We use be going to for

 plans for the future. “We’re going to join Greenpeace tomorrow,” they said.
 making predictions for the future based on Karen’s dog is well trained. It’s going to win the
a present situation. competition.
42. Present Simple (Future Meaning)
We use this form for programmed future events (e.g., on I can’t believe that my vacation starts next week.
a schedule or calendar).
43. Present Continuous (Future Meaning)
We use this form for plans and arrangements I’m going to the job center tomorrow. Do you want to
in the near future. come, too?
Note: There must be a word or phrase in the I’m having a meeting with my boss on Monday.
sentence that talks about future time, unless
this can be understood from the context.
Remember: We don’t use the Present Continuous with stative verbs.
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Review of Verb Form
44. Count Nouns
Count nouns are nouns that can be counted. They This coin is from India.
can be singular or plural and take both singular These coins are very rare; they are worth a lot of money.
and plural verb forms
Some nouns have irregular plural forms. child children

person people
We use a/an with singular count nouns, but not I’m going to the bank to ask for a loan.
with plural count nouns. More and more people get loans these days.
We can use some with plural count nouns in Some people prefer to pay for things by check.
statements, and we can use any in questions or Do you have any old coins?
in negative statements. I didn’t pay any bills last week.
45. Noncount Nouns
Noncount nouns are nouns that cannot be counted. Money has been used for thousands of years.
They are singular and take a singular verb. Tonight’s news was all about the economy.
cheese knowledge news The new equipment is worth thousands of dollars.
equipment luggage salt
furniture milk time
homework money traffic
information music water
We don’t use a/an with noncount nouns. He loves music, so he spends all his money on CDs.
We can use some with noncount nouns in statements, Please find some information about the history of
and we can use any in questions or in negative money for tomorrow’s lesson.
statements. Is there any milk, or should I go to the store?
I didn’t have any time to buy you a present.
We use the indefinite article a/an with singular count Have you got a checkbook?
nouns that we talk about for the first time.
We don’t use it with plural count nouns or noncount Helen spends a lot of money on shoes.
nouns. Salt used to be used as money in Tibet.
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We use the definite article the with singular and plural There is a lot of money in the briefcase.
count nouns and with noncount nouns. The stores in this area are very expensive.
The money on the table is mine.
We use the
 to talk about something specific.  The documentary about banking was fascinating.
 before nationalities.  The Chinese produced the first paper banknotes.
 before ordinal numbers.  When were the first modern banks established?
 before unique nouns.  It’s not cheap to send a rocket to the moon.
 before musical instruments.  My parents paid for me to learn the violin.
 before superlatives.  Was it the most expensive painting in the gallery?
 before names of theaters, hotels and ships.  How much did it cost to build the Globe Theater?
 before names of rivers, deserts and mountain ranges.  He paid a lot of money to cruise the Nile.
 before morning, afternoon and evening.  Don’t forget to go to the bank in the morning.
We do not use the

 to talk about something in general.  Do you know the proverb “Money is the root of all evil”?
 before names of countries, cities, streets, mountains,  The euro is not yet legal currency in Great Britain.
islands and continents.  How much does it cost to climb Mount Everest?
 before proper nouns.  Daniel is very good at saving money.
 before subjects of study.  Sarah’s brother is studying economics.
 before names of sports and games.  Playing football can earn you a lot of money.
 before names of days and months.  Department stores make a lot of money in December.
 before languages (when they are not followed by the  Barry wants to learn French, but he can’t afford it.
word language).
 before the words home, work, school, prison and  Why are you in bed? You should be at work so you can
bed in phrases that refer to a place generally. earn some money!
48. Modals - Ability
We can use can to talk about ability in the present. You can swim really well. Were you ever a lifeguard?
It is followed by the base form of a verb. The negative Jonathan knows that he wants a job in one of the emergency
form of can is cannot or can’t. services, but he can’t decide which one.
We use could to talk about ability in the past. It is My grandfather was a lifeguard when he was young;
followed by the base form of a verb. The negative form he could swim 100 meters in 60 seconds.
of could is could not or couldn’t. The ambulance couldn’t get to the scene of the accident
because it was stuck in traffic.
We can use be able to to talk about ability in the Will the firefighters be able to rescue the people?
present, past and future. Was the rescue team able to reach the climber?
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49. Modals - Necessity
We use must and have to to talk about necessity. You must try to be calm in an accident.
They are followed by the base form of a verb. You have to be a good driver to drive an ambulance.
The negative forms of must and have to are must not You must not put water on a frying pan if it catches on
and do not (don’t) have to. The form musn’t is rare in fire.
American English. You don’t have to be a professional to learn first aid.
Must not means you’re not allowed to do something. You must not panic in an emergency.
Don’t have to means you can choose whether you do You don’t have to train as a nurse to do volunteer work
something or not. for your local ambulance service.
The past form of must and have to is had to. The firefighter had to complete a tough training course.
The negative form of had to is didn’t have to. Alice didn’t have to take the first aid course because she
had already taken one in college.
50. Determiners
 We use a little with noncount nouns. Could you buy a little cheese when you go to the
It means a small amount of. supermarket?
 We use a few with plural nouns. I’ve still got a few eggs, so you don’t need to buy any.
It means a small number of.
 We use a lot of with plural count nouns and There are a lot of department stores downtown.
noncount nouns. It means a large number of. It’s Friday night, so there will be a lot of traffic in town.
 We use both for two people, things, etc. I think I’ll buy both the black skirt and the jeans.
It means one and the other.
 We use none (of) for three or more people, things, None of the shoe stores I went to had anything I liked.
etc. It means not any (of).
 We don’t use all by itself as the subject of a verb. They all/All of them liked their presents.
We use it with a personal pronoun. We all thought the new shopping center was impressive.
 All goes before the main verb but after the verb be. We were all impressed by the new shopping center.
 We use either with or. It means one or the other. Colin is going to buy either a digital camera or a new
TV with the money he won.
 We use neither with nor. It means not one and not Neither Samantha nor Jamie likes shopping.
the other. Neither my brothers nor my sisters like shopping.
 We can also use neither as the opposite of both. Olivia said that neither of the dresses suited her, but I
thought she looked really nice.
We use the first conditional to talk about things that will If you visit the planetarium, you will learn a lot about
probably happen in the future. the universe.
If + Simple Present, Future with Will.
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We use the second conditional to talk about things that If we spent less money on space exploration, there would
probably can’t happen now or in the future. be more money to help poor people.
With the verb be, we usually use were for all subjects.
If + Simple Past, would + the base form of a verb If I were rich, I would go on a tour with Space Vacations!
53. Modals - Advice
We use should and ought to to give advice. You should train harder if you want to be on the team.
They are followed by the base form of a verb. His grades are good; he ought to apply to college.
The negative form of should is should not (shouldn’t). You shouldn’t listen to her; you know she’s just jealous
The negative form of ought to (i.e., ought not to) of your success.
is rare in American English.
54. Modals - Possibility
We use may and might to talk about possibility. They may choose her for the team.
They are followed by the base form of a verb. I might get promoted next year.
The negative forms are may not and might not. He may not get the job.
I think you should apply for the job; they might not need
someone with experience.
55. Wishes
We use wish to talk about a situation or an action that

we are sorry about.
 We use wish + Simple Past to express a desire in the He wishes he knew more about the Pyramids.
present or the future. With the verb be, we usually I wish I were better informed about the Yeti.
use were for all subjects.
 We use wish + Past Perfect to express a regret about She wishes she had seen the Loch Ness Monster when
the past. she was in Scotland.
 We use wish + would + the base form of a verb to I wish they would tell us more about the Bermuda
talk about something we would like to change in the Triangle.
future. We also use it to express annoyance. I wish you would stop talking about UFOs.
Remember: We usually do not use wish + would when we talk about our own behavior.
56. Modals - Certainty
We use must and can’t to talk about certainty. He must be the murderer.
They are followed by the base form of a verb. He can’t have a photo of the Yeti.
We use must when we are sure that something is true. She must know that the photo isn’t real.
We use can’t when we are sure that something is not It can’t be a ghost. There’s no such thing!
true.
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57. Passive
The passive is formed with the verb be in the correct form and a past participle.
We use the passive when we are more interested in the action than in who was responsible for it (the agent).
We change an active sentence into a passive sentence in the following way. The object of the active verb becomes
the subject of the passive verb. The verb be is used in the correct form together with the past participle of the active
verb.
E.g. The volunteers organized the party. The party was organized by the volunteers.
The table below shows how active verb forms change to passive verb forms.
Active Form Passive Form
Simple Present change/changes am/are/is changed

Present Continuous am/are/is changing am/are/is being changed
Simple Past changed was/were changed
Past Continuous was/were changing was/were being changed
Present Perfect have/has changed have/has been changed
Past Perfect had changed had been changed
Future with Will will change will be changed
be going to am/are/is going to change am/are is going to be changed
modals must change must be changed
The Present Perfect Continuous is not usually used in the passive form.
When it doesn’t matter who the agent is or when we do not know who the agent is, we do not mention it.
E.g. $10,000 has been donated to the hospital.
When we want to mention the agent, we put the word by before it.
E.g. The cards were designed by children from a local children’s home.
58. Reported Speech - Statements
We use reported speech to say what someone else has said. When the reporting verb is in the past, the verb forms
used by the speaker change.
Direct Speech Reported Speech
Simple Present Simple Past

“I work at a private clinic,” he said. He said (that) he worked at a private clinic.
Present Continuous Past Continuous

“I am training to be a nurse,” she said. She said (that) she was training to be a nurse.
Present Perfect Past Perfect

“She has seen the doctor,” he said. He said (that) she had seen the doctor.
Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous

“I have been working for 16 hours,” she said. She said (that) she had been working for 16 hours.
Simple Past Past Perfect

“I had an operation,” he said. He said (that) he had had an operation.
Past Continuous Past Perfect Continuous

“He was looking for the doctor,” she said. She said (that) he had been looking for the doctor.
Remember: Changes must also be made to personal pronouns, possessive pronouns and possessive adjectives.
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59. Other Changes
can could
“They can’t do anything about it,” he said. He said (that) they couldn’t do anything about it.
must had to
“We must take Sam to the doctor,” he said. He said (that) they had to take Sam to the doctor.
will would
“I will start the diet on Monday,” she said. She said (that) she would start the diet on Monday.
Sometimes there are changes in time and places in reported speech.
today that day

“I want to make an appointment today,” she said. She said (that) she wanted to make an appointment that day.
yesterday the day before
“I went to the dentist yesterday,” he said. He said (that) he had been to the dentist the day before.
last week/month/year/etc. the week/month/year/etc. before
“I gave up smoking last year,” she said. She said (that) she had given up smoking the year before.
tomorrow the following day
“I’m going to the optician’s tomorrow,” he said. He said (that) he was going to the optician’s the following day.
next week/month/year/etc. the following week/month/year/etc.
“He’s getting out of the hospital next week,” She said (that) he was getting out of the hospital the following week.
she said.
ago before
“I first tried reflexology six months ago,” she said. She said (that) she had first tried reflexology six months before.
now then
“They’re in the ambulance now,” he said. He said (that) they were in the ambulance then.
at the moment at that moment
“The doctor is seeing a patient at the moment,” He said (that) the doctor was seeing a patient at that moment.
he said.
this/these that/those
“This is the operating room,” he said. He said (that) that was the operating room.
here there
“I’ll leave the chart here,” she said. She said (that) she would leave the chart there.
Remember: The reporting verb say is used without an object, but tell is used with an object.
60. Reported Speech - Questions
The changes in verbs are the same as the ones we make in reported statements. We usually use the reporting verb ask.
When a direct question has a question word like who, “When did you decide to become an actor?” he asked.
what, how, etc., this word is used in the reported question. He asked when I had decided to become an actor.
When a direct question doesn’t have a question word like “Are you planning to go on tour?” she asked.
who, what, how, etc., if/whether is used in the reported She asked if/whether we were planning to go on tour.
question.
Remember: In reported questions the verb follows the subject, as in ordinary statements. We do not use a question mark.
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We use the comparative and superlative form of words to compare two or more places, people or things. We make
comparatives and superlatives in the following ways:
 We add –er/-est to adjectives/adverbs with one or long longer longest

two syllables. slow slower slowest
 The last consonant is doubled for one-syllable big bigger biggest

adjectives/adverbs with consonant-vowel- hot hotter hottest
consonant.
pretty prettier prettiest
 For one or two syllable adjectives/adverbs that end happy happier happiest
in –y, the –y changes to -i and then we add –er/-est.
expensive more expensive most expensive
 For adjectives/adverbs of more than two syllables,
we use more/most or less/least.
Some adjectives/adverbs are irregular.
Adjective/adverb Comparative Superlative
a lot of more most

bad(ly) worse worst
few fewer fewest
many/much more most
old older/elder oldest/eldest
 We use than with the comparative when two people, This restaurant is nicer than the restaurant we went to
groups, places or things are compared. last month.
 We use the with the superlative when one person, I think this is the best club in the city!
group, place or thing is being compared to three or
more things of the same type.
62. Relative Clauses
Relative clauses give more information about the subject or the object of a sentence. In this book we look at defining
relative clauses: i.e., clauses that provide essential information about a noun. Defining relative clauses begin with the
following relative pronouns and relative adverbs:
 who for people (that can also be used) That’s the man who is in the new cell phone ad.
 that for things (which can also be used, especially in Adco is the company that made the commercial.
British English)
 whose for belongings Ed is the person whose idea the client liked best.
 which after prepositions (in formal English) That’s the commercial for which they won an award.
 when for time April 1st is the date when the ad must be ready.
 where for places Do you know the studio where the ad will be filmed?
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63. Gerund
Here are some common verbs that can be followed by a gerund (i.e., the –ing form of a verb used as a noun):
admit enjoy keep practice He admits having a fear of spiders.

avoid fancy mind risk I don’t mind being high up; I’m not afraid of heights.
consider imagine miss suggest Would you consider flying in a helicopter?
Here are some expressions that are followed by a gerund:
It’s (not) worth … … can’t help … It’s worth getting help if you have a phobia.
It’s no use/good … … can’t stand … It’s no use inviting her. She’s afraid of crowds.
There’s no point in … There’s no point in telling Carol not to be afraid.
Note: We often use a gerund after prepositions. He must learn to deal with being in closed spaces.
64. Infinitive
Here are some verbs that are followed by an infinitive (i.e., to + the base form of a verb):
afford decide learn plan seem He agreed to try and travel by plane.
agree fail manage promise want My therapist plans to take me up in a plane next week.
attempt hope offer refuse Sarah has decided to get help with her fear of spiders.
65. Gerund and Infinitive
Some verbs can be followed by either a gerund or infinitive without a change in meaning.
begin He has begun feeling/to feel better about his phobia.

continue The therapist will continue helping/to help me.
start I started shaking/to shake when I boarded the plane.
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INTERMEDIA GRAMMAR REFERENCE
66. Simple Present
We use this for

 things that are true in general. Many people live in the heart of the city.
 the laws of science and nature. In winter some trees lose all their leaves.
 how often something happens. Linda cleans her house twice a week.
The Simple Present is used with the stative verbs on the Believe, belong, hate, hear, know, like, mean, need,
right. They appear only in simple forms. prefer, remember, seem, suppose, understand.
Do and does are used to form question and negative Does she share a bedroom with her sister?
forms. I don’t like living near this busy road. It’s very noisy.
We use this for actions that

 are in progress at the time of speaking. Michael is painting the kitchen at the moment.
 are in progress around the time of speaking. They are saving up to buy a new carpet.
68. Adverbs of Frequency
Adverbs of frequency are used to say how often We always leave the light on at night.
something happens. They come before the main verb, I am never late for school.
but after the verb be.
Here are some common adverbs of frequency. always, never, often, rarely, seldom, sometimes, usually.
69. Tag Questions
Tag Questions are short questions at the end of an She walks to work, doesn’t she?
affirmative or negative sentence.
We use tag questions when we want
 Someone to agree with what we are saying. They lived in Denver, didn’t they?
 To make sure that what we are saying is right. He won’t make the curtains, will he?
They are formed with modal and auxiliary verbs. You can send a fax, can’t you?
Remember: When have is used as a main verb, we use the verb do to make the tag question.
70. Simple Past

We use this for
 A state or completed action in the past when the time is She passed her driving test last month.
important. We sold the house two years ago.
 A series of completed actions in the past. He sat down, took out a pen and started writing.
Did is used to form question and negative forms. Did you send them a postcard when you were on vacation?
They didn’t watch TV last night.
Spelling Rules
1. Most regular verbs in the Simple Past are formed by adding – look looked
ed. Verbs ending in –e add –d. save saved
2a. Regular verbs ending in consonant-vowel-consonant double stop stopped
the consonant before the ending –ed when the stress is on the prefer preferred
final syllable.
2b. When the stress is not on the last syllable, the final consonant visit visited
is not doubled.
3a. Verbs ending in a consonant and –y change the –y to an –i
before the ending –ed.
3b. When the verb ends in a vowel and –y the –y doesn’t change.
Note: that these verbs do not follow the spelling rules. lay – laid pay – paid say - said
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71. Past Continuous
We use this
 for actions that were in progress at a certain time in We were playing cards at 10 o’clock last night.
the past. Amy was writing a letter when I arrived.
 for two or more actions that were in progress at the I was washing the floor and Jack was working in the
same time in the past. garden.
 for an action that was in progress in the past and was I was writing a letter when my boss arrived.
interrupted by another action.
 to describe things in the past. The reporters were asking the star questions.
The Past Continuous often follows as and while. The lights went out while she was typing.
Remember: We don’t use the Past Continuous with stative verbs.
We use this to
 make predictions, promises and threats. I think an astronaut will walk on Mars in the next
It is often used with verbs like think and believe, twenty-five years.
as well as phrases like I am sure … I am sure you will like the new CD.
 offer to do something for someone. I will give you a lift to the concert.
 ask someone to do something. Will you turn the music down, please?
 make a sudden decision. “What can I get for Jane? I know. I’ll get her a CD.”
73. Present Continuous with a future meaning

We use this for future plans and arrangements. We’re having a ballet lesson after work.
74. be going to
We use be going to
 for plans and arrangements for the future. They are going to see that new rock band tonight.
 to make a prediction for the near future based on a Mark’s band has the highest score. They are going to
present situation. win the talent contest.
75. Future time clauses with when

 Future verb forms cannot be used in a future clause I’ll give her your message when she wakes up.
with when. We use present forms. I’ll listen to my new CD when I’m driving to work.
 The same is true of future time clauses with as soon She’ll give you a call as soon as the musician arrives.
as, after, before, until, while and by the time.
76. Modals – Ability, Obligation and Necessity

 We use can to talk about ability in the present. She can design hats quite well now.
It is followed by the base form of a verb. She can’t change my bag because I’ve lost the receipt.
The negative form of can is cannot or can’t.
 We use could to talk about ability in the past. He could run quite fast when he was at college.
It is followed by the base form of a verb. We couldn’t find a bag to match the dress.
The negative form of could is could not (couldn’t).
 We use be able to to talk about ability in the past, She hasn’t been able to model since March.
present and future. Will you be able to get a job if you go to the USA?
 We use must to talk about obligation and necessity. We must take photos of Jane during the fashion show.
It is followed by the base form of a verb. You mustn’t steal other people’s designs!
The negative form of must is must not.
Must not means you’re not allowed to do
something.
 The past form of must is had to. I had to stay late at work to finish making the dress.
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 We also use have to to talk about obligation and I have to buy a new dress for the wedding.
necessity. The negative form of have to is don’t You don’t have to wear a skirt; you can wear pants.
have to. Don’t have to means you can choose
whether you do something or not.
 The past form of have to is had to. We had to repair the necklace.
77. although, despite, in spite of

 We use although, despite, and in spite of to talk Although she is tall, she wears high heels.
about something that is unexpected because of Despite/In spite of having the best models, the fashion
certain facts. show was a disaster.
 We use although with a subject and a verb. Although it was very cold, he didn’t wear a coat.
 We use despite and in spite of with a noun or a Despite/In spite of having a lot of money, she rarely
gerund (-ing form). buys expensive clothes.
78. Present Perfect

We use this for actions and states
 that are completed when the time is not important. I’ve stayed at that hotel before so I know what it’s like.
There is a connection with now. She’s worked in Sydney so she knows what to expect.
 that started in the past and are still true now. I have lived here since 1989.
This form is used with already, just and yet. They have already been to the Sahara.
He’s just heard the news. Have you heard about it yet?

We use this
 For actions that began in the past and have recently He’s tired because he’s been working in the garden.
stopped.
 To say how long something has been in progress. She has been studying geography for two years.
Remember: We don’t use the Past Perfect Continuous with stative verbs.
80. have been to, have gone to
 We use have been to when somebody has visited a Michael has been to California many times, so he can
place and has come back. recommend somewhere to stay.
 We use have gone to when somebody is visiting a Susan has gone to Austin, but she’ll be here next week.
place and hasn’t come back yet.
81. for and since

 We use for and since with the Present Perfect to They’ve been spending their vacations in Mexico since
talk about how long an action has they were children.
been in progress or how long a state has I’ve been in Russia for two weeks and I’ll stay until the
existed until now. end of the month.
 Since is followed by a specific point in time. We have stayed in this hotel every summer since 1995.
 For is followed by a period of time. Kate hasn’t had a vacation for three years.
82. Past Perfect

We use this for an action or state that existed before I hadn’t played golf until I went on vacation to Boston.
another event, state or time in the past. By the time we arrived, the game had already finished.
83. Past Perfect Continuous

We use this for actions that were in progress until a We had been sitting in the stadium for about an hour
certain time in the past. when the team came onto the field.
Remember: We don’t use the Past Perfect Continuous with stative verbs.
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84. Passive
We use the passive when we are more interested in the action than who or what is responsible for it (the agent).
Verb Form Active Form Passive Form
Simple Present take/takes am/are/is taken
Present Continuous am/are/is taking am/are/is being taken
Simple Past took was/were taken
Past Continuous was/were taking was/were being taken
Present Perfect have/has taken have/has been taken
Past Perfect had taken had been taken
Future with will will take will be taken
Modals must take must be taken
Infinitive to take to be taken
Gerund taking being taken
The passive is formed with the verb be and a past participle.
We change an active sentence into a passive sentence in the following way. The object of the verb in the active
sentence becomes the subject of the verb in the passive sentence. The verb be is used in the correct form together
with the past participle of the main verb in the active sentence.
E.g. They have never recorded rain in this area. Rain has never been recorded in this area.
In this example we do not know who has recorded the rain and the information is not very important, so we do not
include the word they in the passive sentence.
Sometimes we want to know who or what is responsible for the action. In a passive sentence the word by comes
before this information.
E.g. The sun warms the earth during the day. The earth is warmed by the sun during the day.
85. Adjectives ending in –ing or -ed

 Adjectives that describe things, places, The thunderstorm was amazing.
situations, events and people end in –ing. Listening to the weather forecast is boring.
 Adjectives that describe how someone feels I was interested in the experiment.
end in –ed. She was surprised to see snow in June.
86. Adjectives: Word Order

When we use two or more adjectives, we usually
put them in a set order.
opinion, size, age, shape, color, nationality, Look at those lovely pink flowers she planted.
material + noun I don’t like that big square plastic box you bought.

We use the comparative and superlative form of words to compare two or more places, people or things.
 We usually add –er/-est to adjectives/adverbs tall taller tallest
with one or two syllables. fast faster fastest
 The last consonant is doubled for one syllable hot hotter hottest
adjectives with consonant-vowel-consonant. red redder reddest
 For one or two syllable adjectives/adverbs that dry drier driest
end in –y, the –y changes to –I before we add happy happier happiest
–er/-est. early earlier earliest
 We use more/most or less/least with sensible more/less sensible most/least sensible

adjectives/adverbs of more than two syllables. carefully more/less carefully more/least carefully
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These comparative and superlative forms of irregular adjectives/adverbs must be learned.
a lot of more most
bad(ly)/ill worse worst
few fewer fewest
many more most
much more most
 We use than with the comparative when two people, Tigers are more dangerous than rhinos.
groups, places or things are compared.
 We can also make comparisons using (not) as + The Indian elephant is not as big as the African elephant.
adjective + as.
88. Reported Speech (statements)

When the reporting verb is in a past form, the verbs used by the speaker usually change as follows:
“I want ice cream,” she said. She said (that) she wanted ice cream.
“He is working out in the gym,” she said. She said he was working out in the gym.
“We have never played tennis,” they said. They said they had never played tennis.
“I have been dieting for two weeks,” he said. He said he had been dieting for two weeks.
“I put your shoes in the closet,” said John. John said he had put my shoes in the closet.
“She was preparing a salad for lunch,” he said. He said she had been preparing a salad for lunch.
We also make other changes
can could
“I can’t go with you because I am too tired,” said Mark. Mark said he couldn’t go with me because he was too tired.
may might
“I may go to the health club later,” he said. He said he might go to the health club later.
must had to
“I must get more sleep,” she said. She said she had to get more sleep.
will would
“He will be tired after training,” she said. She said he would be tired after training.
don’t not to
“Don’t go because Mom will worry,” he said. He told me not to go because Mom will worry.
Note: that when we talk about something that is still “London is the capital of England.” Our teacher told us.
true or is a fact, the verb forms do not change. Our teacher told us that London is the capital of England.
Sometimes there are changes in time and place in reported speech. Changes are as follows:
today that day
“I’ll start my exercises today,” he said. He said he’d start his exercises that day.
yesterday the day before
“I arrived early yesterday,” she said. She said she had arrived early the day before.
last week/month/year/etc. the week/month/year/etc. before
“He saw his doctor last week,” she said. She said he had seen his doctor the week before.
tomorrow the following day
“I’ll buy the vitamins tomorrow,” she said. She said she’d buy the vitamins the following day.
next week/month/year/etc. the following week/month/year/etc.
“The gym will open next month,” he said. He said the gym would open the following month.
36
ago before
“He joined the gym two years ago,” she said. She said he had joined the gym two years before.
now then
“He’s learning golf now,” he said. He said he was learning golf then.
at the moment at that moment
“We’re eating salad at the moment,” they said. They said they were eating salad at that moment.
this/these that/those
“These are my football shoes,” he said. He said those were his football shoes.
here there
“He’s been waiting here for an hour,” she said. She said he’d been waiting there for an hour.
Remember: We do not use quotation marks with reported speech.
Other reporting verbs

Sometimes we use other verbs to report speech.
agree/refuse/decide/offer + verb with to “I will come with you to the dentist,” she said.
She agreed to come with me to the dentist.
apologize + for + verb in the gerund form (-ing) “I’m sorry I arrived late,” she said.
She apologized for arriving late.
blame + object + for + verb in the gerund form (-ing) “Brenda caused the accident,” said Alice.
Alice blamed Brenda for causing the accident.
accuse + object + of + verb in the gerund form (-ing) “Larry stole the tennis racket,” said Alec.
Alec accused Larry of stealing the tennis racket.
suggest + that + subject + (should) + base form. “Why don’t you go to the beach, Paul?” said Carol.
Carol suggested that Paul should go to the beach.
suggest + that + subject + verb in the Simple Past “You should see a doctor, Mark,” said Jane.
Jane suggested that Mark saw a doctor.
Note: that suggest can be followed by a gerund when “Let’s play a game.” Said Ben.
the speaker is involved in the action. Ben suggested playing a game.
89. Reported Speech (questions)

When a direct question has a word like who, what, “Where is the post office?” he asked.
how, we use this word in the reported question. He asked where the post office was.
When a direct question doesn’t have a word like who, “Can I send the package by mail?” he asked.
what, how, we use if/whether in the reported question. He asked if/whether he could send the package by mail.
Remember: In reported questions, the verb follows the subject, as in ordinary statements.
We do not use question marks.
90. used to, would

We use used to + verb to talk about past habits or She used to go to work by bus when she was younger.
states. He used to be interested in old airplanes.
The negative form of used to is didn’t use to. I didn’t use to travel by ferry, but now I go to the
islands this way every summer.
We also use would + the base form of a verb to talk He would catch the early morning train to work.
about past habits.
Remember: We cannot use would + the base form of a verb to talk about past states
91. be/get used to

We use be/get used to when we want to talk about
 habits and states that are not strange or Don’t worry! I am used to driving on the left.
new to us. She is used to the noise from the main road now.
 things that became familiar in the past. I soon got used to flying when I started working for an
They are followed by a gerund (-ing form) or a noun. airline.
37
We use the first conditional to talk about things that will If the weather is fine, we’ll go away for the weekend.
probably happen now or in the future. If they give us the money, we can go to Disneyland.
We may go to San Antonio if Mary gets a job there.
If + present form, will/can/may + base form
Unless can be used in this conditional. Unless means the If I don’t have time to visit, I will call instead.
same as if not. Unless I have time to visit, I will call instead.

We use the second conditional to talk about things
 that probably won’t happen now or in the future. If she had more money, she would travel first class.
 we know will not happen. I might visit my uncle if I had time off work.
If + past form, would/could/might + base form If I lived nearby, I could visit more.
Remember: When we use be in the if clause, we usually use were for all subjects.
94. Third Conditional

We use the third conditional to talk about the past.
These are always hypothetical things because we cannot If I had listened to you, I would have paid less.
change the past. If we had booked our plane tickets earlier, we could
have found the dates we really wanted.
If + Past Perfect, would/could/might + have + past If she hadn’t been so sick, she might have enjoyed the
participle vacation.
95. Relative clauses

Relative clauses give more information about the subject or the object of a sentence. In some relative clauses the
information is necessary and in others it is extra.
Relative clauses with necessary information
This type of relative clause gives us information that we The woman who is paying for her bread now is my mom.
need to understand who or what the speaker is talking The building that looks like a castle is actually a store.
about. We do not use commas. This type of clause is The park where we had our picnic is now a shopping center.
called a defining relative clause. The man whose uncle is a friend of mine got a job here.
This center was opened in the year when I left school.
Relative clauses with extra information

This type of relative clause gives us extra information. Mrs. Brown, who lives next door, owns a corner store.
We use commas to separate it from the rest of the Tesco, which is a supermarket chain, has three stores.
sentence. This type of clause is called a non-defining She opened a store in Rio, where she met her husband.
relative clause. Laura Jenkins, whose store is popular, is thinking of retiring.
This center opened in 1995, when I was 21.
96. Future Continuous

We use this
 for an action that will be in progress at a specific This time next week, we will be enjoying a meal at the
time in the future. new Indian restaurant in town.
 for a plan for the future. He’ll be taking a friend to dinner on Saturday.
 to find out about somebody’s plans when we want to Will you be going shopping tomorrow because I need
ask them a favor. some bread and milk?
Remember: We don’t use the Future Continuous with stative verbs.
97. Future Perfect

We use this to talk about something that will have They will have finished all their tests by the end of the week.
happened before a certain time in the future. He won’t have returned from the library by noon.
Will she have given them their grades by half past one?
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98. Future Perfect Continuous
We use this to talk about how long something will have By 2015, I will have been living here for 25 years.
been in progress at a certain time in the future. By 7:00, I will have been writing reports for hours!
Remember: We don’t use the Future Perfect Continuous with stative verbs.
99. Gerund
Here are some common verbs that are followed by a
gerund (-ing) form:
admit finish like miss When did you finish writing the report?
avoid imagine love practice I don’t mind waiting for you to finish the experiment.
enjoy keep mind risk Can you imagine being a famous inventor?
Here are some expressions that are followed by a
gerund:
It’s not worth … can’t help It’s no use inviting Tia; she’s working late.
It’s no use … can’t stand I can’t stand reading computer magazines.
There’s no point … There’s no point buying a new computer now.
Note: that we often use the gerund after prepositions. I am interested in taking a computer course.
How about going to the science museum?
100. Infinitive
Here are some common verbs that are followed by an
infinitive (to + base form).
afford decide manage refuse Do you want to buy a chemistry set for John?
agree fail offer seem I couldn’t afford to get a printer for my computer.
allow hope plan threaten They hope to discover a new medicine this year.
attempt learn promise want He failed to find a cure for the common cold.
Note: that some common verbs can be followed by
either a gerund or an infinitive without a change in She began cooking.
meaning. For example: begin, continue, and start. She began to cook.
101. Modals – Possibility and Certainty

Could and might are used to talk about possibility.
 When we talk about the present or future, could and He could go to prison for a very long time.
might are followed by the base form of a verb. She might meet her lawyer this afternoon.
 When we talk about the past, could and might are They could have seen the bank robbery on the way
followed by have and a past participle. home last night.
Must and can’t are used to talk about certainty.
Must means that we are sure something is, was or will She must be upset because her car was stolen.
be true. Can’t means we are sure something isn’t, He can’t be guilty because he was away at the time of
wasn’t or won’t be true. the robbery.
 When we talk about the present or the future, we use He must be a police officer because he’s wearing a
must and can’t with the base form of a verb. uniform.
 When we talk about the past, we use must and can’t It can’t have been a man who broke into the house
with have and a past participle. because the window was too small.
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102. Wishes and Certainty
We use wish to talk about a situation or an action we are I wish I didn’t argue all the time with my parents.
sorry about.
 Wish is followed by a past form when we talk about She wishes she could get a job as a counselor.
the present or the future. When we use be, we I wish I were a famous artist.
usually use were for all subjects. I wish you had come to David’s house last night.
 Wish is followed by a past perfect form when we I wish I hadn’t forgotten my brother’s birthday.
talk about the past. I wish you would wash your hands before you eat.
 Wish is followed by would and a base verb form I wish he wouldn’t speak with his mouth full.
when we talk about other people’s annoying habits
or to say that we would like something to be
different in the future. We use it for actions, not
states.
Remember: We cannot use would when we talk about our own behavior.
103. Modals - Advice

should, ought to and had better are used to give advice. He should read the newspaper more often.
They are followed by a base form of a verb. We ought to watch that new TV drama.
They had better get these microphones repaired soon.
The negative forms are should not (shouldn’t), ought She shouldn’t spend so much money on clothes.
not to and had better not. You ought not to let them watch so much TV.
He’d better not miss my first radio show tonight.
We use should + have + past participle when we You should have arrived at the studio half an hour ago.
criticize our own behavior or somebody else’s. You’re late!
We use it to say that something was the right thing to
do, but wasn’t done.
The negative form is shouldn’t + have + past He shouldn’t have used had language on TV.
participle. We use it when we want to say that
something happened although it wasn’t a good idea.
104. The Causative Form

We use the causative form when we want to say that The movie star had his picture taken for a magazine.
we have arranged for somebody to do something for us.
 We use have + object + past participle. She’s going to have her hair cut before the party.
We can also use get + object + past participle. He is getting the costumes made by a designer.
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ADVANCE GRAMMAR REFERENCE
105. Simple Present
 things that are true in general. Large cities are very busy places.
 the laws of science and nature. Fish live in water.
 how often something happens. My parents plant new flowers in our garden every
spring.
This tense is used with the stative verbs below, which
normally appear in simple forms.
 emotion: adore, dislike, fear, forgive, hate, like, I absolutely adore your apartment.
love, need, want, and wish.
 Measurement: cost, equal, measure, and weigh. How much does a two-bedroom apartment in
New York cost?
 mental activity: appear, believe, depend, doubt, He doesn’t understand why she moved to a new house.
expect, forget, guess, hope, imagine, know, mean,
mind, prefer, realize, remember, seem, suppose,
think, and understand.
 possession: belong to, have, owe, own, and possess. That house belongs to my grandfather.
 senses: feel, hear, notice, recognize, see, smell, Do you hear the dog barking?
sound, and taste.

 actions that are in progress at the time of speaking. At the moment, I am cleaning my room.
 actions that are in progress around the time of John’s uncle is building a house near the sea.
speaking.
This tense can also be used with words like always, Martin’s neighbors are always making too much noise.
forever and continuously to complain about habitual
behavior.
107. Stative Verbs

Some stative verbs can be used in continuous forms, but there is always a change in meaning. Instead of describing
a state, they describe an activity.
State Activity
Your house appears to need a coat of paint. The famous architect is now appearing at the town hall.
Most houses have solid foundations. Angela is having problems with her landlord.
I see that you got a new fence. We are seeing a plumber about the central heating
problems.
When we cook food on our barbeque, it always tastes I’m tasting the cheese because it smells funny.
fantastic.
We think your designs are very good. We are thinking of moving from this area.
108. Present Perfect

 completed actions and states when the time is not Helen has used those builders and she says they’re
important. There is always a connection with the present. good.
 actions and states that started in the past and still continue. He has lived here most of his life.
 giving new information or announcing a recent event. My sister has just bought a new bungalow.
 saying how many times an action has happened. I have never seen such a beautiful house.
This tense is used with words like already, just, and yet and We have just called the estate agent.
with phrases such as It’s the first/second/last time …, this It’s the first time I have lived in an apartment.
morning/evening (when the period of time hasn’t finished),
etc.
This tense can be used with for and since.
for + a period of time They have lived here for three years.
since + a point in time He has made a lot of friends since he moved here.
41
Remember: Don’t use this tense with words and phrases that refer to specific past time
such as yesterday, in 1972, last year, etc.

 actions that began in the past and have recently John has been gardening and he now needs a shower.
stopped. There is a connection with now.
 emphasizing how long an action has been in We have been painting the house for almost two
progress. weeks.
This tense can also be used with for and since. He has been living in London for three years.
She has been decorating her house since Christmas.
Talking about the past

110. Simple Past
 a state or completed action in the past when the time Andrew started his job four months ago.
is important.
 a series of completed actions in the past. She turned on the computer and inserted a disk.
 the main events in a story. He walked into the office and closed the door.
 an action that interrupted another action that was in The telephone rang while we were having a meeting.
progress in the past.
111. Past Continuous

 actions that were in progress at a certain time in the Sheila was working on a project when her boss asked
past. her to come into his office.
 two or more actions that were in progress at the Anna was typing the reviews while Sally was entering
same time in the past. information into the computer.
 an action that was in progress in the past and was She was driving home from work when the police
interrupted by another action. stopped her for speeding.
 describing things in the past. The firemen were putting out the fire while the police
were asking people what had happened.
112. Past Perfect

We use this tense for an action or state that existed The doctor saw the patient after he had looked at the X-
before another event, state, or time in the past. ray.
This tense is used with words like already, just and yet I had just closed the office door when the telephone
and with phrases such as It was the first/second/last rang.
time … . It was the first time Tony had been for an interview.
This tense can be used with for and since. They had worked together for three years when they
decided to start a company together.
Chris had wanted to become a policeman since he was
at school.
113. Past Perfect Continuous

 an action that was in progress before another action Naomi had been waiting for half an hour when the
in the past. office manager finally had time to see her.
 an action that had just finished at a certain time in They had been interviewing people for ages and still
the past but was still relevant at that time. couldn’t find the right person.
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114. would, used to
We use used to + bare infinitive to talk about
 an action that happened regularly in the past but no Secretaries used to use typewriters to write letters but
longer happens. now they have computers.
 past states. She used to have an office of her own.
The negative form of used to is didn’t use to. Women didn’t use to work as often as they do now.
Used to can be replaced by would to talk about actions He would always have a coffee and look at the paper
that happened regularly in the past. It cannot be replaced before he started work.
by would when it talks about past states.
115. be/get used to

Be used to + noun/gerund talks about habits and states Martin is used to working overtime at the hospital.
that are not strange or new to us.
Get used to + noun/gerund talks about the process of She soon got used to taking responsibility for the other
something becoming familiar to us. members of staff.
Talking about the Future

116. Future with will
 making predictions, promises, and threats. I’ll make you the most beautiful dress you have ever
 offering to do something for someone. seen.
 asking someone to do something. I will help you decide which belt to buy.
 making a sudden decision. Will you pass me that checked scarf, please?
I will take the red dress, please.
It is often used with the verbs think, believe, etc. and I think long dresses will be in fashion again next year.
phrases like I am sure … to make guesses or give our
opinion about what will happen in the future.
117. Future Continuous

We use this tense to
 talk about an action that will be in progress at a Mary will be watching the fashion show then, so she
specific time in the future. can’t come to lunch.
 talk about an arrangement for the future. I will be shopping for my wedding dress on Saturday.
 find out about somebody’s plans when we want to Will you be wearing your leather jacket tomorrow?
ask them a favor. If not, can I borrow it?
118. Future Perfect Simple

We use this tense to talk about something that will have The fashion show will have ended by the time we get
happened before a certain time in the future. there.
119. Future Perfect Continuous

We use this tense to talk about how long something will This time next year, James will have been working for
have been in progress at a certain time in the future. that fashion house for ten years.
120. Simple Present with a future meaning

We use this tense for schedules and programmed events. The fashion show starts at 3 o’clock in the afternoon.
121. Present Continuous with a future meaning

We use this tense for plans and arrangements for the We are attending a fashion show tomorrow evening.
future. There must be a word or phrase in the sentence
that talks about future time unless this can be understood
from the context.
43
122. be going to
We use be going to + bare infinitive for
 plans and arrangements for the future. Sandra is going to meet me at the boutique.
 making a prediction for the future based on a present She is going to become a very successful designer one
situation. day.
123. Future clauses with when

Future tenses cannot be used in a future clause with When you see Ruth, will you tell her to call the shop?
when. We use a present tense. I’ll look for a new bag when I’m shopping over the
weekend.
Note: That we use the Present Perfect when we need to I will give you back the pencil when I have finished
emphasize that one action must be completed before the with it.
next one starts.
The same is true of future clauses with as soon as, after, As soon as you see her new haircut, tell her it looks
before, until, while, by the time, and no matter nice.
what/who/where/etc. No matter where we go, I’ll wear my new suit.
Review of Tenses I
124. Modals – Ability, Obligation and Necessity
 We use can to talk about ability in the present or Young people can have a great time on adventure
future. It is followed by a bare infinitive. vacations.
 The negative form of can is cannot (can’t). The travel agent can’t change your flight dates.
 We use could to talk about a general ability in the I used to have lots of free time, so I could go away for
past. It is followed by a bare infinitive. short breaks.
 The negative form of could is could not (couldn’t). A hundred years ago, people couldn’t go on all-
inclusive vacations.
 Other forms of can are formed using the verb be I’ll be able to meet you in London next Saturday.
able to. Sorry, but I wasn’t able to book the flight to Paris.
 We use must and have to to talk about obligation You must be careful when you cross the road.
and necessity. They are followed by a bare You have to take your passport when you travel abroad.
infinitive.
 The negative forms of must and have to are must You mustn’t park near the crossroads.
not (mustn’t) and do not (don’t) have to. Mustn’t You don’t have to take a taxi. Take the bus instead.
means that you are not allowed to do something, but
don’t have to means you can choose whether you
do something or not.
 The past form of must and have to is had to. We had to turn right as the road was blocked.
 The negative form of had to is didn’t have to. You didn’t have to stay in the most expensive hotel in
the city.
 We use need to to talk about something that is You need to buy some film to take pictures of the
necessary. It is followed by a bare infinitive. village.
 The negative form is don’t need to. We can also use The guide says that we don’t need to take umbrellas
needn’t. with us.
 The past form is needed to. We needed to wait for the local ferry to take us across
 We use didn’t need to when somebody knew that it the river.
was not necessary to do something. He didn’t need to be home early so he drove along the
 We use needn’t have + past participle when coast road.
somebody did something unnecessary in the past, You didn’t need to take so many photographs as there
but they didn’t know it was unnecessary at the time. are some beautiful postcards available at the gift shop.
44
125. Passive
The passive is made with the verb be and a past participle.
We change an active sentence into a passive sentence in the following way. The object of the active verb becomes the
subject of the passive verb. The verb be is used in the correct form together with the past participle of the active verb.
E.g. Their most expensive player scored the goal.
The goal was scored by their most expensive player.
The table below shows how active verb forms change to passive verb forms.
Tense Active Form Passive Form
Simple Present give/gives am/are/is given
Present Continuous am/are/is giving am/are/is being given
Simple Past gave was/were given
Past Continuous was/were giving was/were being given
Present Perfect have/has given have/has been given
Past Perfect had given had been given
Future will give will be given
Future Perfect will have given will have been given
Modals should give should be given
Modals (past) should have given should have been given
Infinitive to give to be given
Gerund giving being given
be going to am/are/is going to give am/are/is going to be given
The Present Perfect Continuous, Past Perfect Continuous, Future Continuous, and Future Perfect Continuous tenses are
not usually used in the passive form.
Sometimes we want to know who or what was responsible for the action (the agent). In a passive sentence the word by
comes before this information.
E.g. The team is managed by Sir Alex Ferguson.
We use the word with when we want to say what the agent used to do something.
E.g. The swimming pool was cleaned with special chemicals.

We make comparatives and superlatives in the following ways:
 We add –er/-est to adjectives/adverbs with one or short shorter shortest
two syllables. clever cleverer cleverest
 The last consonant is double for one syllable big bigger biggest
adjectives/adverbs with consonant-vowel-
consonant. crazy crazier craziest
 For one or two syllable adjectives/adverbs that end in
–y, the y changes to i and then we add –er/-est. comfortably more/less most/least
 We use more/most or less/least with comfortably comfortably
adjectives/adverbs of more than two syllables.
Some adjectives/adverbs are irregular and the comparative and superlative forms shown in the table below must be learned.
a lot of more most
bad/badly worse worst
few fewer fewest
ill worse worst
many more most
much more most
 We use than with the comparative when two A Ferrari is faster than a Renault Clio.
people, groups, places, or things are compared. It is slightly more expensive to travel by train than by bus.
 Slightly, a bit, much and a lot can be used with It was a bit cheaper to go from Athens to Crete by ferry than by plane.
the comparative form to give us more information. It is much more comfortable to travel first class on the plane.
There are a lot more cars in Los Angeles than in Dallas.
45
127. Other Comparative Structures
 (not) as + adjective/adverb + as The new departure lounge at the airport is not as comfortable
as the old one.
 the + comparative, the + comparative The faster he drives, the sooner he will get home.
 comparative + and + comparative Cars are getting faster and faster.
 prefer + gerund / noun + to + gerund / noun Some people prefer taking the metro to driving to the city.
She prefers her Ford to her husband’s Porsche.
 would rather + bare infinitive + than + bare infinitive Many passengers on the bus would rather stand than sit.
Passive II
128. Impersonal and Personal Structures
Believe, consider, expect, hope, know, report, say, think, etc. can be used in the following passive structures:
 Impersonal Structure
It + passive verb + that + clause It is believed that the problem of litter is getting worse.
 Personal Structure
subject + passive verb + full infinitive The problem of litter is believed to be getting worse.
129. Verbs with two objects

Some active verbs have two objects. The villagers sent the minister letters of protest.
We usually use the personal object as the subject in a The minister was sent letters of protest by the villagers.
passive sentence.
Note: the use of the word to when the impersonal object Letters of protest were sent to the minister by the
becomes the subject of the passive sentence. villagers.
Questions
130. Question Tags
Questions tags are short questions at the end of a positive or negative sentence. They are formed with modal and
auxiliary verbs.
We use questions tags You exercise every day, don’t you?
 when we want someone to agree with what we are Those pills give pain relief, don’t they?
saying. He can’t pay by check, can he?
 to make sure that what we are saying is right. She used to work in that hospital didn’t she?
Note: the way the following tags are formed.
 I am …, aren’t I ? I’m in good shape, aren’t I?
 Let’s …, shall we? Let’s go jogging, shall we?
 Imperative …, will you? / won’t you? Call the doctor, will you/won’t you?
 This/That is …, isn’t it? This is the medicine the doctor recommended, isn’t it?
 These/Those are …, aren’t they? Those are bad habits that made him sick, aren’t they?
131. Subject/Object questions

When who, what, or which is the object of a question, Who did she see about her sore tooth?
the word order changes. What did the doctor tell him?
When who, what, or which is the subject of a question, What made her do that?
the word order does not change. Who called the ambulance?
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132. Indirect questions
An indirect question is a question introduced by one of the following phrases:
Could you let me know …?
Can you tell me …?
Do you know …?
Have you any idea …?
I would like to know …
I wonder if you know …
I would like to ask you …
I don’t suppose you know …
Note: that the word order of a direct question changes when it becomes an indirect question.
Direct Indirect
Where is the hospital? Can you tell me where the hospital is?
When should she take the medicine? I’d like to know when she should take the medicine.
Why did the nurse speak so rudely? Have you any idea why the nurse spoke so rudely?
133. Negative questions

We make negative questions with not. Didn’t you take the doctor’s advice?
We use negative questions
 to express surprise. Didn’t the dentist take the tooth out in the end?
 to show we are annoyed. Didn’t I tell you to call me if she needed any assistance?
 when we expect the answer to be yes. Didn’t we see the surgeon last year?
Reported Speech
134. Statements
When the reporting verb is in a past tense, the tenses used by the speaker change as follows:
“I work at the local library,” she said. She said (that) she worked at the local library.
“We are meeting the social worker soon,” Mark said. Mark said they were meeting the social worker soon.
“He has wanted that job for ages,” she said. She said he had wanted that job for ages.
“I have been waiting for the repair man,” he said. He said he had been waiting for the repair man.
“I renewed my library card,” she said. She said she had renewed her library card.
“she was waiting for two hours to see the mayor,” he She said she had been waiting for two hours to see the
said. mayor.
Other changes are as follows:
can: “I can help you,” she said could: She said she could help me.
may: “I may be able to visit her,” he said. might: He said that he might be able to visit her.
must: “You must see the dentist about your tooth,” he said. had to: He said I had to see the dentist about my tooth.
will: “I will help you raise the money for charity,” he said. would: He said he would help me raise the money for charity.
don’t: “Don’t expect the police to help you,” she said. not to: She told me not to expect the police to help me.
If we report something and we know that it is still true, we “I have a lovely niece,” he said.
do not need to change the verb tenses. He said he has a lovely niece.
“The police are there to help,” they said.
They said the police are there to help.
When direct speech talks about a law of science and nature, “The earth goes around the sun,” said the library assistant.
the tenses do not change when it is reported. The library assistant said the earth goes around the sun.
47
Sometimes there are time and place changes in reported speech. Changes are as follows:
today: that day:
“I will be available to see you today,” he said. He said he would be available to see me that day.
yesterday: the day before:
“She gave some money to charity yesterday,” he said. He said she had given some money to charity the day
before.
last week/month/year,etc.: the week/month/year before etc.:
“We met the counselor last week,” they said. They said they had met the counselor the week before.
tomorrow: the following day:
“We can go to the town hall tomorrow,” they said. They said they could go to the town hall the following
day.
next week/month/year, etc.: the following week/month/year, etc.:
“You can expect the letter from the organization next He said I could expect the letter from the organization
week,” he said. the following week.
this/these: that/those:
“These are my library books,” he said. He said those were his library books.
ago: before:
“We went to the health center two weeks ago,” they They said they had gone to the health center two weeks
said. before.
now: then:
“We need the money now,” he said. He said they needed the money then.
here: there:
“I will be here tomorrow,” he said. He said he would be there the next day.
at the moment: at that moment:
“I am too busy to see you at the moment,” said the The manager said she was too busy to see me at that
manager. moment.
135. Questions
The changes in tenses are the same as the ones we make in reported statements.
When a direct question has a question word like who, “Where is the police station?” I asked.
what, how, etc., this word is used in the reported I asked where the police station was.
question.
When a direct question doesn’t have a question word “Do you do any volunteer work?” he asked.
like who, what, how, etc., if/whether is used in the He asked me if/whether I did any volunteer work.
reported question.
Remember: In reported questions, the verb follows the subject, as in ordinary statements.
We do not use question marks.
136. Other reporting verbs

Sometimes we use other verbs to report speech.
agree/refuse/decide/offer + full infinitive “Yes, I can see you tomorrow,” she said.
She agreed to see me the next day.
“I will not allow you to volunteer for that job,” he said.
He refused to allow me to volunteer for that job.
apologize + for + gerund “I am sorry for making such a mistake,” he said.
He apologized for making such a mistake.
accuse + object + of + gerund “You broke the window on purpose,” they said.
They accused me of breaking the window on purpose.
blame + object + for + gerund “It was Andrew who started the fire,” said David.
David blamed Andrew for starting the fire.
congratulate + subject + on + gerund “You did a wonderful job,” she said to the policeman.
She congratulated the policeman on doing a wonderful
job.
48
suggest (that) + subject + (should) + the bare infinitive “Let’s collect some money for the poor people in
Africa,” they said.
They suggested (that) they (should) collect some
money for the poor people in Africa.
suggest (that) + subject + verb in Past Simple “Why don’t we visit the old people’s home,” he said.
He suggested (that) they visited the old people’s home.
Note: that suggest can be followed by a gerund when “Let’s buy charity Christmas cards,” said John.
the speaker is involved in the action. John suggested buying charity Christmas cards.
137. Relative Clauses I

Relative clauses give more information about the subject or the object of a sentence.
Relative clauses are introduced by the following words
(relative pronouns):
Who for people There are people who have survived natural disasters.
Which for things The flood which happened last month was the worst in a
decade.
Whose for belongings Those are the boys whose money was sent to the flood
victims.
When for time There comes a time when we need to offer our support to
those in need.
Where for places The building where they keep the fire engines is
spotlessly clean.
138. Relative Clauses II

In some relative clauses, the information is necessary and in others it is extra.
Defining relative clauses
This type of relative clause gives us information that we The man who told us about the hotel was very helpful.
need to be able to understand who or what the speaker is
talking about. We do not use commas to separate it from There are many vacations available that aren’t too
the rest of the sentence. expensive.
The woman whose sister is my best friend has been

working in Africa for two years.
I remember a time when vacations abroad were not

common.
Non-defining relative clauses
This type of relative clause gives us extra information. My father, who travels a lot on business, has visited
We use commas to separate it from the rest of the many countries.
sentence.
While we were in Santorini we saw the black sand,
which is a result of a volcanic eruption thousands of
years ago.
The offices of Go Tours, whose vacations are really

good, are next to the town hall.
In 1972, when I first went to France, my brother was

born.
She went to the Caribbean, where she enjoyed the

natural beauty all around her.
49
139. Conditionals I
Conditional sentences talk about the results of real or imagined actions or states.
Zero Conditional
The zero conditional talks about habitual facts in the If Angela goes jogging, she takes a bottle of water with
present or the future. When can be used instead of if. her.
If/When + present tense, present tense When she has a problem with her weight, she tries to do
more exercise.
First Conditional
The first conditional talks about things that will If Anna continues to eat lots of chocolate, she will put
probably happen now or in the future. on weight.
If + present tense, will/can/may + bare infinitive If John gets himself fit, he can play for us next week.
You may hurt yourself if you try to lift those weights.
Note: that unless can be used in this conditional. We’ll go swimming unless it rains.
Unless means the same as if not.
Second Conditional
We use the second conditional to talk about things If you ate less, you might be thinner.
 that probably won’t happen now or in the future. If you wanted, you could take up tennis.
 we know will not happen. If I were asked to play for Manchester United, it would
be a dream come true.
If + past tense, would/could/might + bare infinitive
Third Conditional
We use the third conditional to talk about the past. If they had scored that penalty, they would have won
It always talks about hypothetical things because we the cup last year.
cannot change the past. My grandfather could have been an athlete if he’d
trained harder.
Graff might have been the best tennis player in the
If + past perfect, would/could/might + have + past world, if she had not had so many injuries.
participle
140. Conditional II
We can use provided (that) and as long as in the first Provided (that) the referee arrives on time, the game
conditional instead of if. will start at seven.
I will let you borrow my exercise bike as long as you
promise to be careful with it.
We can use even if in the first, second, and third I won’t play with her again even if she changes her style.
conditional to mean it doesn’t matter if. Even if he changed tactics, the team would never win.
They wouldn’t have beaten Real Madrid even if they had
had Beckham and Giggs.
We use in case to explain why somebody does

something. In case can be used to talk about the present,
the future, or the past. It is not followed by a future
tense.
in case + present tense (present/future time) Take your jacket when you go jogging in case it starts
raining later.
in case + past tense (past time) She advised her son to wear two pairs of socks in case
the weather changed.
50
141. Articles
A / An is used
 with singular countable nouns. I would like a can of lemonade, please.
 to mean per/each, in expressions of frequency. We buy meat once a week, usually on Saturday.
 to mention something for the first time. I had a sandwich for lunch. (The sandwich had chicken
(When we continue talking about it we use the.) and tomato in it.)
 to show job, status, etc. She works as a dietician in a health club in the city.
The is used with singular and plural, countable and I made a cake and some cookies yesterday.
uncountable nouns, to talk about something specific The cake had been eaten by lunchtime!
when the noun is mentioned for a second time.
It is also used before

 unique nouns The sun was shining for our picnic.
 names of cinemas, theaters, ships, hotels, etc. The Titanic had the finest restaurants ever built on a ship.
 names of rivers, deserts, mountain ranges, and The Amazon is the largest river in the world, although it
names or nouns with of is not the longest.
 musical instruments Would you play the piano for us after dinner, Sidney?
 nationalities The Italians are famous for their pizza.
 adjectives used as nouns It is very important that the young eat a balanced diet
while they are growing.
That is the finest wine we have ever drank.
 superlatives
Shall we take some sandwiches with us when we go to
 beach, countryside, station, jungle, etc.
the beach later?
In the morning, Nancy likes to have some milk and toast
 morning, afternoon, evening, and night
for breakfast.
The is not used before

 proper nouns Christopher prefers eggs for breakfast.
 names of sports, games, colors, days, months, Lunch will be served at one o’clock, so don’t be late.
drinks, holidays, meals, and languages (not followed
by the word language)
 subjects of study A friend of mine is studying food science at college.
 names of countries (the Argentine, the USA), cities, You will find a magnificent bistro halfway along George
streets (the M5, the High Street), squares, bridges Street.
(the Golden Gate Bridge), parks, stations, individual
mountains, islands, lakes, continents
 bed, church, school, hospital, prison, university, She’s taking a catering course at college and wants to
college, court when we talk about the reason they open her own restaurant one day.
exist. (Work never takes the)
 means of transportation in expressions like by car, When we went out for a meal last Saturday, we went by
etc. (in the car) taxi to the restaurant.
51

Is She A Doctor?

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BASIC GRAMMAR REFERENCE

We use the verb to be

 to describe people, animals and things. Tony is nice.

We use Who…? To ask about people and Where…? Who is she?

3. The Indefinite Article

We use the indefinite articles a and an

 To talk about one person, animal or thing in Helen is an aunt.

We use a before words that begin with a consonant Harry is a cook.

Sometimes there is an adjective before a noun. We She’s a nice aunt.

Note: Be careful with words that begin with h and u. a hat

 before unique nouns. The moon is big.

 before musical instruments. Where is the guitar?

 with some countries. The USA is a big country.

 before morning, afternoon and evening. Dad is at work in the evening.

 before the names of cities, islands, most countries, London is in Britain.

 before a person’s name. Jan is young.

 before subjects of study. Math is a great subject.

 before nationalities and languages. He is English.

 before games and sports. Football is a great sport.

 before days and months. Grandma is at home on Wednesdays.

Breakfast is a very important meal.

Some nouns have irregular plurals. foot feet

9. there is/there are

11. have got

 To describe people, animals or things Tony has long hair.

 To talk about a health problem. You have a bad cold.

We use ‘s to show that

We use s’ after names or singular nouns. It’s Susan’s handbag.

13. Possessive adjectives

We use possessive adjectives before nouns to show that

 someone or something has a relationship with Sarah is our new model.

14. Possessive pronouns

A possessive pronoun replaces a possessive adjective

 Someone or something has a particular relationship He’s my child. He’s mine.

Note: Be careful not to confuse there’s (there is) with theirs.

We use Whose…? to ask who or what something Whose car is that?

Note: Be careful not to confuse Whose…? with Who’s…? (Who is …?).

We use this tense for

We often use time expressions like adverbs of

19. Adverbs of frequency

We use prepositions of time to talk about when They meet at 12 o’clock.

22. Adverbs of manner

1. We add –ly to most adjectives to form adverbs. patient patiently

5. Some adverbs are irregular. good well

 to ask about someone’s health. How is your mom now?

 to ask somebody’s age. How old are you?

We use this tense for

2a. For verbs that end in consonant-vowel-consonant, sit am/are/is sitting

25. Present Continuous question

26. Can for ability and permission

We use can + the base form

27. Must for obligation

We don’t usually use must in questions.

30. Object Pronouns

We use object pronouns

31. Simple Past: to be

32. Simple Past – Irregular Verbs

We use the simple past with

1. We add –ed to verbs to form the simple past. talk talked

3a. For verbs that end in consonant-vowel-consonant prefer preferred

3b. For verbs that end in consonant-vowel-consonant happen happened

34. Simple Past – Negative Question