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The Mechanical Properties of Skin
The Mechanical Properties of Skin
$3tnop$i$--Threemechanical properties of the skin are defined, their empirical study des-
cribed, and the results related to the structures causing them in terms of elementary model
systems.
Elastic extension
/
4 I
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2 4 I e e
Slack =I
I
Viscousslip
The sameapparatusmay be used to study viscousslip as was devised
for elasticextension;
all that is requiredis that the loadbeleft on.Ridgeand
Wright (7) showedthat therewasa very rapidstressrelaxationonextension,
lastingonly a few seconds; the data citedabovewereall obtainedafterthis
relaxation. Harknessand Harkness {3, 11) on the other hand, were con-
cernedwith the much smallerand moreprolongedslip of collagenous tissue
heldunderconstantloadfor severalhours(Fig. 2, lowerline).Thisprocess
Break
• 6o
,ø"• Normal
•Ogload
I I
0 50 100
Time, rain
Viscousflow
300
xx,•
x"•x•x•
x='='x7
x
200
'øø
l
0 20 40 60
Time , min
Figure 3 A, compressionof a fold of rat skin by a constant force (910g over 2 cruZ).
B, compression of the theoretical model system (cf. Fig. 6); the parameters used were
ho-----
400 •m; •1= 1.2 min-• [from (6)_•,
Removal of the fat and epidermisfrom excised skin has little effect
on its elasticmodulus (Ymax).The strength therefore lies in the dermis.
The only fibrousstructurein the dermisthat couldprovide this strengthis
collagen(the elastin is far too weak) and when the observedmodulusis
divided by the collagencontent it gives figuresin the order of 104N cm-2
which is similar to the values obtained from fully orientated collagenin
hydrated tendons(6). It is thereforevirtually certain that the strengthof
the skin lies in the collagen.The nature of the deformationof the collagen
structure is not so certain; X-ray diffraction has shownthat when rat tail
tendonis extendedthe tropocollagen moleculesthemselvesare elongated,
presumablyby bendingof the covalentbonds(17),but astheseexperiments
were on dried material and required much greater stressesthan can be
appliedto skin, it is possiblethat in the physiologicalstate there is another,
weaker link betweenthe tropocollagenmoleculeswhich is extended.What-
ever the exact molecularorigin, high extensionsof skin appearsto involve
extension of the collagen itself. This causes extrusion of fluid, as in
viscousflow (2) and a pronouncedchangein the stainingreaction of the
collagen(18).
In unstressed skin it has been noted that most of the histologically-
observablecollagenfibreslie along Langer'slines, the lines of pre-existent
force(19). When the excisedskin is stressed,on the other hand, the fibres
were found to line up alongthe new linesof force (2). It followsthat the
slackin excisedskinis probablydue to lining up of the collagenfibresin the
directionof pull; this explainswhy there is more slack acrossLanger's
linesthan alongthem.
It is not easy to seehow these histologically-observable fibres, which
are bands of parallel collagensfibrils, can be rotated to resist the tension
applied.Ridge and Wright (10) and Kenediet al (2) have independently
proposedmeshworkstructures,which can be pulled out straight in either
of two directions(Fig. •t). The difficultyabout a meshof this sort is that if
it isjointed(Fig. •IA) thenin the directionsof the linesof the meshitpossess-
esno slackat all. If the wiresof the meshare free to slidepast the joints
(Fig. •IB) this difficultyis avoided,but other geometricaldifficultiesarise.
Such a model explains the occurrenceof slack, its higher values across
Langer'slines, isovolumetryunder stress,and the orientationof collagen
along lines of force,whatever their direction. If one collagenfibre has to
slip past anotherto take up positionalongthe lines of force,it would also
THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SKIN 473
(o)
Set
i i / -Velocity
v
Set I Set n /
(b)
Rods
ofset
i+l-•"•0• h-2r
o,
s,,, o
Figure 5 Model of slipping collagenfibres. They are assumedto move at a constant velocity
[for details see (6)].
OUTLOOK
(1) Rothman, S. Physiologyand biochemistryof the skin (1954) (University Press, Chicago).
(2) Gibson,T., Kenedi, R. M. and Craik, J. E. Brit. J. Surg., õ9,764 (1965).
(3) Harkness, M. L. R. and Harkhess, R. D. J. Physiol., 148 524 (1959).
(4) Ridge, M.D. and Wright, V. Med. Biol. Engng., 4 533 (1966).
(5) Dick, J. C. J. Physiol., 119,109.(1951).
(6) Tregear, R. T. Physicalfunctionso.fskin (1966) (AcademicPress,London).
(7) Ridge, M.D. and Wright, V. Biorheology,9,67 (1965).
(8) Rollhauser, H. Gegenbauers Morph. Jb., 00 9.49 (1950).
(9) Ridge, M.D. and Wright, V. Engineering, 199 363 (1965).
(10) Ridge, M.D. and Wright, V. J. Invest. Dermatol.,415341 (1966).
(11) Harkness,M. L. R. and Harkness,R. D. Nature, 18111821 (1959).
(12) Fry, P., Harkhess,M. L. R., Harkness, R. D. and Nightingale, M. J. Physiol., 115477
(1962).
(13) Wenzel, H. G. Zentr. ,,Illgem.Pathol.Phathol.,4nat., 85 117 (1948).
(14) Schade,H. Z. Exptl. Path. Ther., II 369 (1912).
(15) Kirk, E. and Kvorning, A. S. J. Gerontol.4 273 (1949).
(16) Tregear,R. T. and Dirnhuber, P. J. Invest.Dermatol.,45 119 (1965).
(17) Cowan,P.M., North, A. C. T. and Randall, J. T. Syrup.Soc.Exptl. Biol., 9 115 (1955).
(18) Craik, J. E. New Scientist,$1 88 (1966).
(19) Cox, H. T. Brit. J. Surg., 9,9234 (1942).
(20) Vlasblom, D.C. Skin Elasticity (1967) (Doctoralthesis, Utrecht University).
DISCUSSION
PROFESSOR
F. J. EBL1NG:Nothing was said about elastic fibres. Could we have a
note about this?
T}m LECTUI•Ea:I kno•v nothing certain about the role of elastic fibres. However,
it is evident that the extension of skin is elastic, even at low degreesof extension
xvhereall the collagenfibreshave not beenpulled out taut. If one assumesa meshwork
hypothesis,then somethinghas to pull the mesh back to its original angle when the
stressis removed. This restoring force could conhefrom elastic fibres running across
the meshwork, and hence strained by a much greater percentagethan the overall
strain on the skin, or it could come from local compressionof the tissue.More work
is needed before one can decide between these suggestions.
Mi•. N.J. VAN A•eg: I shouldlike to refer to page 472, particularly the tniddle
paragraph and the first sentence, where you say that most of the histologically-
THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SKIN 477
observable collagen fibres lie along the lines of pre-existent force. Do you not think
that in the light of what has been said about collagen, this could be put that the
strains in the collagen can dictate the pattern of histological staining? In other words,
that the collagen fibres are an artefact of histology, and if you then accept the concept
that collagenis a gel, how will this fit in with your difficulties in the next paragraph?
THE LECTURER:This is a long-standing controversy. The evidence concerneddoes
not come from my work, but, as I understand it, during stressone seesin fixed tissue,
a great many more "fibres" cut in cross-sectionacrossthe line of stressthan along it.
This is plain observation and is not, I think, controversial. The controversy is whether
or not these optically-observable fibres were produced on fixation. I would suggest
that the difference between stressed and unstressed tissue can hardly be due to
fixation, since the stresswas applied, and I believe removed, before fixation.
A further point is that the orientation of fibrils is also seen within the electron
microscope, i.e. the appearance of fibres in the optical micrographs represents a
preferred orientation of the fibrils. While the parallel aggregation of these fibrils
into discretefibres with spacesbetween them may be an artefact, it is hardly likely
that the changein preferred orientation of the fibrils under stressis one.
MR. 1NI.j. VAN ABBI•: I would have thought you could get just the sanheeffects
with the electron microscopeas with the optical microscope.
THE LECTURE•:The optical microscopecan give artefacts about things shrinking,
hence this long-standingcontroversy about gelation. The electron microscopeis,
however,not giving artefactual fibrils;they can alsobe observedin X-ray diffraction
of fresh tissue, and are aggregatesof the tropocollagenmolecules,some 50nm across.
If I can seethese orientated in oneway when unstressed,and in another when stressed,
then I feel justified in saying that they turned round.
DR. T. J. ELLIOTT: What are your opinions on the application of mechanical
forces to the skin, as conducted by the forms of vibro-massageor massagecreams?
Are theselikely to have any permanenteffect upon the area of the skin that we are
interested in?