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3D Lagrangian Modelling of
Saltating Particles Diffusion in Turbulent Water Flow
Robert J. BIALIK1, Vladimir I. NIKORA2, Paweł M. ROWIŃSKI1
1
Institute of Geophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
e-mails: rbialik@igf.edu.pl (corresponding author), pawelr@igf.edu.pl
2
School of Engineering, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
e-mail: v.nikora@abdn.ac.uk
Abstract
A 3D Lagrangian model of the saltation of solid spherical particles
on the bed of an open channel flow, accounting for turbulence-induced
mechanisms, is proposed and employed as the key tool of the study. The
differences between conventional 2D models and a proposed 3D saltation
model are discussed and the advantages of the 3D model are highlighted.
Particularly, the 3D model includes a special procedure allowing genera-
tion of 3D flow velocity fields. This procedure is based on the assump-
tion that the spectra of streamwise, vertical and transverse velocity
components are known at any distance from the bed. The 3D model was
used to identify and quantify effects of turbulence on particle entrain-
ment and saltation. The analysis of particle trajectories focused on their
diffusive nature, clarifying: (i) the effect of particle mobility parameter;
(ii) the effect of bed topography; and (iii) the effect of turbulence. Spe-
cifically, the results of numerical simulations describing the above-
mentioned effects on the change in time of the variance are presented. In
addition, the change in time of the skewness and kurtosis, which are
likely to reflect the turbulence influence on the spread of particles, are
also shown. Two different diffusion regimes (local and intermediate) for
each of the investigated flow conditions are confidently identified.
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1640 R.J. BIALIK et al.
1. INTRODUCTION
Depending on the near-bed flow velocity, sediment particles on the bed may
slide, roll, or if the flow velocity exceeds some critical value, jump down-
stream. This latter form of sediment transport is called saltation. These
modes of bed-load transport were defined by Einstein (1937, 1950) who de-
veloped a stochastic theory for their description. His theory is directly
associated with the particle diffusion concept (Nikora et al. 2001), which
from a mathematical point of view defines a growth rate of the second cen-
tral moment of particle coordinates with time (note that higher order
moments are also useful to consider). During the last two-three decades, par-
ticle diffusion and the processes of sediment movement at different spatial
and time scales have received increasing attention (e.g., Drake et al. 1988,
Habersack 2001, Nikora et al. 2001, 2002, Marion et al. 2003,Wong et al.
2007, Bottacin-Busolin et al. 2008, Radice and Ballio 2008, Lukerchenko et
al. 2009b, Radice et al. 2009, 2010, Ancey 2010, Bradley et al. 2010, Ganti
et al. 2010, Tucker and Bradley 2010, and Bialik 2011b).
Nikora et al. (2001, 2002) defined three distinctly different scale ranges
of bed particle diffusion in bed-load transport: local, intermediate and global.
The local-range diffusion corresponds to short time intervals, where
X ′2 (t ) ~ t 2γ X with γx = 1.0 and Y ′2 (t ) ~ t 2γ with γy = 1.0; X ′2 and Y ′2 denote
Y
variances of particle positions, and γx, γy are the scaling exponents of particle
diffusion in streamwise X and transverse directions Y, respectively. The local
range corresponds to distances that a particle travels during a single jump.
The intermediate range of scales relates to longer time scales, involving
many jumps. Nikora et al. (2002) suggested that for the intermediate range
the particle motion may be either: (i) sub-diffusive when γx < 0.5 and
γy < 0.5; (ii) normally-diffusive when γx = 0.5 and γy = 0.5; or (iii) super-
diffusive when γx > 0.5 and γy > 0.5, depending on the dominating diffusion
mechanisms. From a physical point of view, the intermediate range corre-
sponds to durations between two successive periods of particle repose that
consist of many particle jumps. The global range of scales of saltating parti-
cle diffusion consists of many intermediate ranges, with γx < 0.5 and γy < 0.5.
Drake et al. (1988), based on the experimental data carried out in the Duck
Creek, suggested that at very long periods of time (“global range” of Nikora
et al. 2001) particle diffusion is Fickian, i.e., γx = 0.5 and γy = 0.5. However,
the reanalysis of their data set by Nikora et al. (2002) led to a different con-
clusion, supporting the sub-diffusion conjecture proposed in Nikora et al.
(2001). The factual support for the described three-range concept remains
limited, requiring more extensive studies.
The overall focus of the present paper, thus, is on the analysis of the
influence of turbulence on the entrainment and trajectories of saltating
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SALTATING PARTICLE DIFFUSION IN TURBULENT WATER FLOW 1641
⎛ ⎞
du p ρ f Ad CL ( urT2 − urB2 ) ⎜ w f − wp u f − up ⎟
m = ⎜ ⎟
dt 2 ur
(u − u p ) + (v f − vp )
2 2
⎜ ⎟
⎝ f ⎠
ρ f Ad CD ur2 ⎛ u f − u p ⎞
+
2
⎜
ur
⎟ + (ρ p − ρ f ) gd 3 sin α , (1)
⎝ ⎠
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1642 R.J. BIALIK et al.
⎛ ⎞
dv p ρ f Ad CL ( urT2 − urB2 ) ⎜ w f − wp v f − vp ⎟
m = ⎜ ⎟
dt 2 ur
(u − u p ) + (v f − vp )
2 2
⎜ ⎟
⎝ f ⎠
ρ f Ad CD ur2 ⎛ v f − v p ⎞
+ ⎜ ⎟, (2)
2 ⎝ ur ⎠
⎛ ⎞
dwp ρ f Ad CL ( urT2 − urB2 ) ⎜ w f − wp w f − wp ⎟
m = ⎜ ⎟
dt 2 ur
(u − u p ) + (v f − vp )
2 2
⎜ ⎟
⎝ f ⎠
ρ f Ad CD ur2 ⎛ w f − wp ⎞
−
2
⎜
ur
⎟ − (ρ p − ρ f ) gd 3 cos α , (3)
⎝ ⎠
dx p dy p dz p
= up , = vp , = wp , (4)
dt dt dt
where up , vp , wp denote streamwise, transverse and vertical components of
particle velocity, respectively; and uf , vf , wf represent streamwise, trans-
verse and vertical components of fluid velocity, respectively; the coordinates
xp , yp , zp describe particle position; CD denotes the drag coefficient and CL
stands for the lift coefficient; m = (ρp + Cmρf)πd 3/6, where Cm = 0.5 is the vir-
tual mass (added mass) coefficient, ρp and ρf are the particle and fluid densi-
ties; ur = [(up – uf)2 + (wp – wf)2 + (vp – vf)2 ]1/2 is the relative velocity of
particle and fluid; subscripts T and B refer to the top and the bottom of the
moving particle, respectively; Ad is the particle cross-sectional area; d is the
particle diameter; t is the saltation time; α is the angle of channel bed; and
g is gravity acceleration. The drag coefficient is calculated with use of the
empirical formula proposed by Yen (1992):
CD =
24
Re p
(
1 + 0.15 Re p + 0.017 Re p ) −
0.208
1 + 104 Re −p0.5
, (5)
where Rep = |ur| d/ν denotes the particle Reynolds number; and ν is kine-
matic viscosity. The lift coefficient is obtained with use of the formula given
by Lee at al. (2006):
CL = 1.45 × 10 −5 × Re1.7325
p . (6)
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SALTATING PARTICLE DIFFUSION IN TURBULENT WATER FLOW 1643
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1644 R.J. BIALIK et al.
Fig. 1. Levels at which velocity time series are generated (adapted from Bialik et al.
2010).
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SALTATING PARTICLE DIFFUSION IN TURBULENT WATER FLOW 1645
3. RESULTS
3.1 Numerical simulation details
The system of equations (1)-(4) is numerically solved using the fourth-order
Runge–Kutta method. The initial conditions are taken as up(t0) = 0,
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1646 R.J. BIALIK et al.
vp(t0) = 0, wp(t0) = 0, x(t0) = 0, and z(t0) = 0.5d. These conditions mean that
the saltating particle is on the bed and does not move (Fig. 3). Such initial
conditions differ from the usually used Abbott and Francis’ (1977)
conditions up(t0) = 2u∗, wp(t0) = 2u∗ and allow us to analyze the incipient
motion of a particle. The entrainment in our model occurs as a result of
velocity fluctuations which directly influence the drag on a particle and the
lift force (Fig. 4).
To explore and verify the hypotheses presented in the introduction to
this paper, the simulations were completed for the following conditions:
(i) the relative sizes of moving particles are selected to be d/D = 0.5, 1, and 2
(Fig. 5); and (ii) for each relative size of moving particles, the simulations
were carried out for three values of particle mobility parameter K = 1.1, 1.5,
and 2.5. The simulation scenarios are briefly summarized in Table 1.
Fig. 3. Particle entrainment in the situation when the particle is on top of bed.
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SALTATING PARTICLE DIFFUSION IN TURBULENT WATER FLOW 1647
Fig. 5. The relative sizes of moving particles (a) d/D = 2; (b) d/D = 1; (c) d/D = 0.5.
Table 1
Simulation matrix
Test series 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
K 1.1 1.5 2.5 1.1 1.5 2.5 1.1 1.5 2.5
d [mm] 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
d/D 2 2 2 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5
σ' 0; 0.3σ ; 0.7σ ; σ
In Table 1, D denotes the size of the particles on the bed, d stands for the
diameter of the saltating particle, σ′ is the turbulence intensity used in simu-
lations, σ is the turbulence intensity from Nezu and Nakagawa’s (1993) rela-
tionships, and K is the mobility parameter which is defined as
1 ρ u*2
K = , (14)
θ c ( ρ s − ρ ) gd
where θc = 0.05 is the critical value of the bed shear stress. The shear veloci-
ty u∗ required for generation of the turbulent velocity time series is obtained
based on the value of the mobility parameter.
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1648 R.J. BIALIK et al.
similar results using the 3D saltation model with rotation. They explained
their result by the transformation of the impulse force during the particle-bed
collisions in all three directions, which is impossible to achieve using the 2D
model.
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SALTATING PARTICLE DIFFUSION IN TURBULENT WATER FLOW 1649
Fig. 8. Time between initiation of particle movement (i.e., vibration) and entrain-
ment for one specific trajectory of a particle with d = 2 mm.
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1650 R.J. BIALIK et al.
Fig. 10. Particle trajectories (a) X(t)/d and (b) Y(t)/d for K = 2.5 and d/D = 1 without
inclusion of turbulence (σ′ = 0).
Fig. 11. Particle trajectories (a) X(t)/d and (b) Y(t)/d for K = 2.5 and d/D = 1 with
inclusion of turbulence (σ′ = σ).
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SALTATING PARTICLE DIFFUSION IN TURBULENT WATER FLOW 1651
Fig. 12. Change in time of the second-order moments of particle positions for
d/D = 2: (a) X′2(t) and (b) Y′2(t); E denotes entrainment as starting points of particle
trajectories.
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1652 R.J. BIALIK et al.
already well developed, i.e., the initial entrainment conditions were “forgot-
ten” by moving particles. Alternatively, the starting points of particle trajec-
tories can be chosen as entrainment points. In this latter case, the particle
behavior at small diffusion times may be strongly biased by the particular
entrainment mechanisms or entrainment conditions, i.e., the scaling diffusion
relationships at small diffusion times may be different from those in Nikora
et al.’s (2001, 2002) approach. To illustrate potential differences between
these approaches, Fig. 12 shows the scaling plots for both cases. As one can
see, for (tu∗)/d > 3 these approaches result in identical scaling behavior of
particle trajectories revealing local, intermediate and global ranges. Howev-
er, at smaller (tu∗)/d the plots differ from each other revealing much higher
scaling exponents when the starting trajectory points are defined at entrain-
ment points, compared to expected “ballistic” value of approximately 1 as in
Nikora et al. (2001, 2002). Clearly, this difference is due to the entrainment
effect which represents, essentially, some-kind of a “near-field” effect.
In our considerations below we use the second approach as it may provide
some additional information on entrainment effects on particle trajectories
shortly after particle detachment from the bed, typically observable at
(tu∗)/d < 3.
Fig. 13. Change in time of the second-order moments of particle positions for
d/D = 2: (a) X′ 2(t) and (b) Y′ 2(t).
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SALTATING PARTICLE DIFFUSION IN TURBULENT WATER FLOW 1653
Fig. 14. Change in time of the second-order moments of particle positions for
d/D = 1: (a) X′ 2(t) and (b) Y′ 2(t).
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1654 R.J. BIALIK et al.
isotropic while for intermediate and global is anisotropic (γX ≠ γY) and that
the boundary between the local and intermediate ranges of scales is the same
for X and Y coordinates
Fig. 15. Change in time of the second-order moments of particle positions for
K = 2.5 and d/D = 1 and for a range of turbulence intensities: (a) X′ 2(t) and (b) Y′ 2(t).
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SALTATING PARTICLE DIFFUSION IN TURBULENT WATER FLOW 1655
Fig. 16. Change in time of the normalized third-order moments of particle positions
for a range of turbulence intensities: (a) SkX and (b) SkY.
Fig. 17. Change in time of the normalized fourth-order moments of particle positions
for a range of turbulence intensities: (a) KuX and (b) KuY.
two moments deviate from the Gaussian distribution and tend to zero for
(tu∗)/d > 15. The high values of the skewness and kurtosis at small (tu∗)/d
reflect high level of intermittency of particle trajectories, in agreement with
Nikora et al. (2002). This intermittency is most likely the reason of high val-
ues of scaling exponents obtained for the near-field effect range of scales.
The simulations with turbulence switched off show zero skewness and kur-
tosis as one would expect for the Gaussian distribution for any given diffu-
sion time. This result suggests that turbulence plays a significant role in the
initiation of particles’ movement.
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1656 R.J. BIALIK et al.
Fig. 18. Change in time of the second-order moments of particle positions for
a range of relative particle sizes and K = 2.5: (a) X′ 2(t) and (b) Y′ 2(t).
4. CONCLUDING REMARKS
This paper reports the results of numerical simulations of saltating particles’
movement and their diffusion in turbulent water flows. Firstly, we confirmed
the conceptual model for diffusion of moving particles proposed by Nikora
et al. (2001, 2002), that consists of at least three ranges of scales, i.e., local,
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SALTATING PARTICLE DIFFUSION IN TURBULENT WATER FLOW 1657
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