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AL3 Espaços PDF
AL3 Espaços PDF
Espaço Vetorial
1.1 Introdução
❱❡"♦$❡% !♦ ❡♥%❡ ♠❛%❡♠(%✐❝♦ +✉❡ ❡ ❝❛-❛❝%❡-✐③❛♠ ♣♦- ♣♦ ✉✐- ✉♠❛ ✐♥%❡♥ ✐❞❛❞❡✱ ✉♠❛ ❞✐-❡2!♦ ❡ ✉♠
❡♥%✐❞♦✳ ❙!♦ ✉%✐❧✐③❛❞♦ ✱ ♣♦- ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ♣❛-❛ -❡♣-❡ ❡♥%❛- ❣-❛♥❞❡③❛ ❢9 ✐❝❛ ✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❢♦-2❛ ❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞❡✳
◆❡ %❡ ❝✉- ♦ ❞❡ ➪❧❣❡❜-❛ ▲✐♥❡❛-✱ ❝♦♥ ✐❞❡-❛-❡♠♦ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♠ ✈❡%♦- ❝❛❞❛ ✉♠ ❞♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥%♦ ❞❡ ✉♠
❡ ♣❛2♦ ✈❡%♦-✐❛❧ ❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛-❡♠♦ ❞❡ ❡%❝❛❧❛$ +✉❛❧+✉❡- ❡❧❡♠❡♥%♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❝♦-♣♦ ✶
K✳ ◆❡ %❡ ❝✉- ♦✱
✐-❡♠♦ ❝♦♥ ✐❞❡-❛- K = R ✭♦ ❝♦-♣♦ ❞♦ ♥@♠❡-♦ -❡❛✐ ✮ ♦✉ K = C ✭♦ ❝♦-♣♦ ❞♦ ♥@♠❡-♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡①♦ ✮✳
❆ ❡❣✉✐- ❛♣-❡ ❡♥%❛-❡♠♦ ❛ ❞❡✜♥✐2!♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡ ♣❛2♦ ✈❡%♦-✐❛❧ ❡ ❞❛-❡♠♦ ❛❧❣✉♥ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦ ❝❧( ✐❝♦ ✳
D❛-❛ ❛❧❣✉♥ ❞❡ ❡ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦ ✐-❡♠♦ ❛♣-❡ ❡♥%❛- ❛ ♣-♦✈❛✱ ❞❡ +✉❡ ♦ ♠❡ ♠♦ !♦ ❡ ♣❛2♦ ✈❡%♦-✐❛✐ ✱
❥( ♦ ❞❡♠❛✐ ✜❝❛-!♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❡①❡-❝9❝✐♦ ♣❛-❛ ♦ ❛❧✉♥♦✳
✭ A1 ✮ u+v=v+u ❝♦♠✉"❛"✐✈✐❞❛❞❡ ✮
✭
✭ A2 ✮ u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w ✭❛%%♦❝✐❛"✐✈✐❞❛❞❡ ✮
✭A3 ✮ ❊①✐ %❡ ✉♠ ✈❡%♦- θ ∈ V✱ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞♦ ✈❡"♦$ ♥✉❧♦✱ %❛❧ +✉❡ u + θ = u✳ ✭ ❡①✐%"/♥❝✐❛ ❞♦
❡❧❡♠❡♥"♦ ♥❡✉"$♦ ✮
✭A4 ✮ ❉❛❞♦ ♦ ✈❡%♦- u ∈ V✱ ❡①✐ %❡ ♦ ✈❡%♦- −u ∈ V ✱ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞♦ ✈❡"♦$ ♦♣♦%"♦✱ %❛❧ +✉❡
u + (−u) = θ✳ ✭ ❡①✐%"/♥❝✐❛ ❞♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥"♦ %✐♠1"$✐❝♦ ✮
• ▼✉❧"✐♣❧✐❝❛34♦ ♣♦$ ❊%❝❛❧❛$✿ ❆ ❝❛❞❛ ♣❛- α ∈ K ❡ v ∈ V✱ ❝♦--❡ ♣♦♥❞❡ ✉♠ ✈❡%♦- α×v ✱
❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞♦ ♣-♦❞✉%♦ ♣♦- ❡ ❝❛❧❛- ❞❡ α ♣♦- V ✱ ❛%✐ ❢❛③❡♥❞♦ ❛ ❡❣✉✐♥%❡ ♣-♦♣-✐❡❞❛❞❡ ✿
✭ME1 ✮ α × (u + v) = α × u + α × v
✶ ❈♦"♣♦ $ ✉♠❛ ❡)*"✉*✉"❛ ♠❛*❡♠+*✐❝❛ ♥❛ /✉❛❧ ❡)*+ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ❞✉❛) ♦♣❡"❛34❡) )❛*✐)❢❛③❡♥❞♦ ❛❧❣✉♠❛) ♣"♦♣"✐❡❞❛❞❡)
2 1. Espaço Vetorial
✭ME2 ✮ (α + β) × u = α × u + β × u
✭ME3 ✮ (α × β) × u = α(β × u)
✭ME4 ✮ 1 × u = u✳
◆❛ ❞❡✜♥✐*+♦ ❛♥-❡.✐♦.✱ 0✉❛♥❞♦ K = R ❞✐③❡♠♦4 0✉❡ V 5 ✉♠ ❡4♣❛*♦ ✈❡-♦.✐❛❧ .❡❛❧✳ 9♦. ♦✉-.♦ ❧❛❞♦✱
4❡ K = C✱ ❞✐③❡♠♦4 0✉❡ V 5 ✉♠ ❡4♣❛*♦ ✈❡-♦.✐❛❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡①♦✳ ❊♠ ✉♠ ❡4♣❛*♦ ✈❡-♦.✐❛❧ V✱ ♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥-♦
♥❡✉-.♦ ❡ ♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥-♦ ♦♣♦4-♦✱ ❞❛4 ♣.♦♣.✐❡❞❛❞❡4 ✭❆✸✮ ❡ ✭❆✹✮✱ .❡4♣❡❝-✐✈❛♠❡♥-❡✱ 0✉❛♥❞♦ ❡①✐4-❡♠✱ 4+♦
@♥✐❝♦4 ✭✈❡. ❊①❡.❝A❝✐♦ ✶✮✳
❉❡♠♦♥%&'❛)*♦✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ u = (u , u , . . . , u
n
1 2 n )✱ v = (v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ) ❡ w = (w1 , w2 , . . . , wn )
✈❡-♦.❡4 ❞♦ R ✳ ❊♥-+♦✱
❆❧5♠ ❞✐44♦✱
1.3. Exemplos de Espaços Vetoriais 3
u + (v + w) = (u1 , u2 , . . . , un ) + (v1 + w1 , v2 + w2 , . . . , vn + wn )
= (u1 + v1 + w1 , u2 + v2 + w2 , . . . , un + vn + wn )
= (u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 , . . . , un + vn ) + (w1 , w2 , . . . , wn )
= (u + v) + w.
θ + u = (0 + u1 , 0 + u2 , . . . , 0 + un ) = (u1 , u2 , . . . , un ) = u.
9♦' ♦✉,'♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ ♣❛'❛ ❝❛❞❛ u = (u1 , u2 , . . . , un )✱ ❡①✐%,❡ ♦ ✈❡,♦' −u = (−u1 , −u2 , . . . , −un )
2✉❡ %❛,✐%❢❛③
α(u + v) = α(u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 , . . . , un + vn )
= (αu1 + αv1 , αu2 + αv2 , . . . , αun + αvn )
= α(u1 , u2 , . . . , un ) + α(v1 , v2 , . . . , vn )
= αu + αv;
(α + β)u = (α + β)(u1 , u2 , . . . , un )
= (αu1 + βu1 , αu2 + βu2 , . . . , αun + βun )
= (αu1 , αu2 , . . . , αun ) + (βu1 , βu2 , . . . , βun )
= α(u1 , u2 , . . . , un ) + β(u1 , u2 , . . . , un )
= αu + βu; e
(αβ)u = αβ(u1 , u2 , . . . , un )
= (αβu1 , αβu2 , . . . , αβun )
= α(βu1 , βu2 , . . . , βun )
= α(βu).
9♦' ✜♠✱
4 1. Espaço Vetorial
1 · u = 1 · (u1 , u2 , . . . , un )
= (u1 , u2 , . . . , un )
= u.
♣❛'❛ /♦❞♦ p(t), q(t) ∈ P2 (t)✳ ❆❣♦'❛✱ ♣❛'❛ ♠♦%/'❛' @✉❡ ✭❆✷✮ /❛♠❜1♠ ✈❛❧❡✱ ✈❡❥❛ @✉❡
1.3. Exemplos de Espaços Vetoriais 5
θ(t) = 0t2 + 0t + 0,
$ "❛❧ 4✉❡
♣❛2❛ "♦❞♦ p(t) ∈ P2 (t)✳ ▲♦❣♦✱ ♦ ♣♦❧✐♥6♠✐♦ ✐❞❡♥"✐❝❛♠❡♥"❡ θ(t) = 0t2 + 0t + 0 $ ♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥"♦
♥❡✉"2♦ ❞❛ !♦♠❛ ❞❡ ♣♦❧✐♥.♠✐♦! ❡♠ P2 (t)✱ ❡ ❛!!✐♠ ❛ ♣2♦♣2✐❡❞❛❞❡ ✭❆✸✮ "❛♠❜$♠ ❡!"= ✈❡2✐✜❝❛❞❛✳
❆❣♦2❛ ♥♦"❡✱ 4✉❡ ♣❛2❛ ❝❛❞❛ ♣♦❧✐♥.♠✐♦ p(t) = a2 t2 + a1 t + a0 ∈ P2 (t)✱ ❡①✐!"❡ ♦ ♣♦❧✐♥.♠✐♦
2
−p(t) = −a2 t − a1 t − a0 ∈ P2 (t) "❛❧ 4✉❡
❆❣♦2❛✱ ♣❛2❛ ✈❡2✐✜❝❛2♠♦! ❛ ✈❛❧✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❛! ♣2♦♣2✐❡❞❛❞❡! ✭▼❊✶✮✲✭▼❊✹✮✱ ✈❡❥❛ 4✉❡ ♣❛2❛ "♦❞♦
α, β ∈ R ❡ ♣❛2❛ "♦❞♦ p(t), q(t) ❡♠ P2 (t)✱ "❡♠♦!✿
α(β(p(t))) = α(β(a2 t2 + a1 t + a0 ))
= α(βa2 t2 + βa1 t + βa0 )
= αβa2 t2 + αβa1 t + αβa0
= (αβ)(a2 t2 + a1 t + a0 )
= (αβ)p(t)
6 1. Espaço Vetorial
(α + β)p(t) = (α + β)(a2 t2 + a1 t + a0 )
= (α + β)a2 t2 + (α + β)a1 t + (α + β)a0
= αa2 t2 + αa1 t + αa0 + βa2 t2 + βa1 t + βa0
= α(a2 t2 + a1 t + a0 ) + β(a2 t2 + a1 t + a0 )
= αp(t) + βp(t),
❡ ❛""✐♠✱ ✭▼✷✮ . ✈0❧✐❞❛✳ 4❛&❛ ♠♦"6&❛& 8✉❡ ✭▼❊✸✮ 6❛♠❜.♠ . ✈0❧✐❞❛✱ ❢❛③❡♠♦"✿
❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥6❡✱
1 · p(t) = 1 · (a2 t2 + a1 t + a0 )
= 1 · a2 t2 + 1 · a1 t + 1 · a0
= a2 t2 + a1 t + a0
= p(t)
♣❛&❛ 6♦❞♦ p(t) ∈ P2 (t)✳ ▲♦❣♦✱ ❛ ♣&♦♣&✐❡❞❛❞❡ (ME4) 6❛♠❜.♠ . ✈0❧✐❞❛ ❡✱ ♣♦&6❛♥6♦✱ ♠♦"6&❛♠♦"
8✉❡ P2 (t) . ✉♠ ❡"♣❛B♦ ✈❡6♦&✐❛❧ &❡❛❧✳
✻✳ ❊!♣❛$♦ ❱❡(♦)✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❋✉♥$0❡!✳ ❉❛❞♦" ♥E♠❡&♦" &❡❛✐" a ❡ b ❝♦♠ a < b✱ ❝♦♥"✐❞❡&❡ ♦ ✐♥6❡&✈❛❧♦
❞❛ &❡6❛ X = [a, b] ✭♦✉ "❡❥❛✱ X . ✉♠ "✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥6♦ ❞❡ R✮✳ ❉❡♥♦6❡♠♦" ♣♦& F(X, R) ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥6♦
❢♦&♠❛❞♦ ♣♦& 6♦❞❛" ❛" ❢✉♥BH❡" &❡❛✐" ❝♦♠ ❞♦♠I♥✐♦ X ❡ ✐♠❛❣❡♥" &❡❛❧✳ ■"6♦ .✱ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥6♦ ❢♦&♠❛❞♦
♣♦& 6♦❞❛" ❛" ❢✉♥BH❡"
f : X → R.
y
y
(x, (f + g)(x))
f+g
αf(x)
(x, g(x)) g αf
f f
(x, f(x)) f(x)
a x x a x b x
b
y
y
f(x) f
a x b x
a b x −f(x) −f
❉❡ ♠♦❞♦ ❛♥'❧♦❣♦✱
[f+(g+h)](x) = f(x)+(g+h)(x) = f(x)+g(x)+h(x) = (f+g)(x)+h(x) = [(f+g)+h](x),
♣❛,❛ -♦❞♦ x ∈ X✳ ▲♦❣♦✱ f + (g + h) = (f + g) + h✱ ❡ ❛00✐♠✱ ❛ 0♦♠❛ ❞❡ ❢✉♥45❡0 6 ❛!!♦❝✐❛%✐✈❛✳
❊①✐0-❡ ❛ ❢✉♥49♦ f : X → R✱ -❛❧ :✉❡✱ f(x) = 0 ♣❛,❛ -♦❞♦ x ∈ X✳ ❚,❛-❛✲0❡ ❞❛ ❢✉♥49♦ ♥✉❧❛✱ :✉❡
0❡,' ❞❡♥♦-❛❞❛ ♣♦, θ✳ ❆00✐♠✱ ♣❛,❛ -♦❞♦ x ∈ X ❡ ♣❛,❛ -♦❞❛ f ∈ F(X, R) -❡♠♦0
(θ + f)(x) = θ(x) + f(x) = 0 + f(x) = f(x).
❖✉ 0❡❥❛✱ ❡①✐0-❡ ❛ ❢✉♥49♦ θ(x) ∈ F(X, R) -❛❧ :✉❡
θ+f=f
♣❛,❛ -♦❞❛ f ∈ F(X, R)✳ ❆ ❢✉♥49♦ ♥✉❧❛ 6 ♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥%♦ ♥❡✉%,♦ ❞❡0-❛ ♦♣❡,❛49♦✳
@❛,❛ ❝❛❞❛ ❢✉♥49♦ f : X → R ❞❛❞❛✱ ❛ ❢✉♥49♦ −f : X → R✱ :✉❡ -,❛♥0❢♦,♠❛ ❝❛❞❛ x ∈ X ❡♠
−f(x) 6 -❛❧ :✉❡
[f + (−f)](x) = f(x) + (−f(x)) = 0 = θ(x).
▲♦❣♦✱ ❞❛❞❛ ❢✉♥49♦ f ∈ F(X, R)✱ ❡①✐0-❡ ❛ ❢✉♥49♦ −f ∈ F(X, R) -❛❧ :✉❡ f + (−f) = θ✳ ■0-♦ 6✱ ❛
❢✉♥49♦ −f 6 ♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥%♦ !✐♠-%,✐❝♦ ❞❛ 0♦♠❛ ❞❡ ❢✉♥45❡0✳
❆❣♦,❛ 0❡❥❛♠ α, β ∈ R ❡ f, g ∈ F(X, R)✳
α(βf)(x) = α(βf(x)) = (αβ)f(x) ♣❛,❛ -♦❞♦ x ∈ X✳ ▲♦❣♦✱
α(βf) = (αβ)f.
((α + β)f)(x) = (α + β)f(x) = αf(x) + βf(x) = (αf + βf)(x) ♣❛,❛ -♦❞♦ x ∈ X✳ ▲♦❣♦✱
(α + β)f = αf + βf.
(α(f + g))(x) = α(f + g)(x) = α(f(x) + g(x)) = αf(x) + αg(x) = (αf + αg)(x) ♣❛,❛ -♦❞♦
x ∈ X✳ ▲♦❣♦✱
α(f + g) = αf + αg.
❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥-❡✱ 1 · f(x) = f(x) ♣❛,❛ -♦❞♦ x ∈ X✳ ▲♦❣♦✱
1 · f = f.
❉❡00❛ ❢♦,♠❛✱ ❛0 ♦♣❡,❛45❡0 ❞❡ 0♦♠❛ ❞❡ ❢✉♥45❡0 ❡ ♠✉❧-✐♣❧✐❝❛49♦ ♣♦, ❡0❝❛❧❛, 0❛-✐0❢❛③❡♠ ❛0 ♦✐-♦0
♣,♦♣,✐❡❞❛❞❡0 ❞❛ ❞❡✜♥✐49♦✱ ❡ ♣♦,-❛♥-♦✱ ∈ F(X, R) 6 ✉♠ ❡0♣❛4♦ ✈❡-♦,✐❛❧ 0♦❜,❡ R✳
❈♦♥0✐❞❡,❡ ♦ 0✐0-❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛, ❤♦♠♦❣J♥❡♦✱ ♥❛ ❢♦,♠❛ ♠❛-,✐❝✐❛❧✱ AX = 0 ❡ S = {X ∈ M(n, 1);
AX = 0} 0❡♥❞♦ A ∈ M(m, n) ❡ 0 ❛ ♠❛-,✐③ ♥✉❧❛ ❞❡ M(m, n)✳ ❖ ❝♦♥❥✉♥-♦ S✱ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥-♦
❢♦,♠❛❞♦ ♣❡❧❛0 0♦❧✉45❡0 ❞❡ AX = 0✱ 6 ✉♠ ❡0♣❛4♦ ✈❡-♦,✐❛❧✳
❉❡♠♦♥%&'❛)*♦✳ @,✐♠❡✐,♦ ♦❜0❡,✈❡ :✉❡ 0❡ X1 ❡ X2 09♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥-♦0 ❞❡ ❙✱ ❡♥-9♦ X1 + X2 -❛♠❜6♠
♣❡,-❡♥❝❡ ❛ S✳ ❈♦♠ ❡❢❡✐-♦✱
A(X1 + X2 ) = AX1 + AX2 = 0 + 0 = 0
❆❧6♠ ❞✐00♦✱ ❞❛❞♦ α ∈ R✱ A(αX1) = αAX1 = α · 0 = 0
■0-♦ 6✱ 0❡ X1 ∈ S✱ ❡♥-9♦ αX1 -❛♠❜6♠ ❛ S✳ ❉❡00❛ ❢♦,♠❛ S 6 ❢❡❝❤❛❞♦ ❡♠ ,❡❧❛49♦ ❛ 0♦♠❛ ❞❡
♠❛-,✐③❡0 ❡ ❛♦ ♣,♦❞✉-♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡0❝❛❧❛, ♣♦, ✉♠❛ ♠❛-,✐③✳
◆❛-✉,❛❧♠❡♥-❡✱ ❛0 ♣,♦♣,✐❡❞❛❞❡0 A1 − A4 ❡ ME1 − ME4 09♦ 0❛-✐0❢❡✐-❛0✱ ❥' :✉❡ ♥❡0-❡ ❝❛0♦✱ X 6
✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥-♦ ❞❡ ♠❛-,✐③❡0✳
1.4. Exercícios Propostos 9
✻✳ ❙❡❥❛ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥+♦ R2 = {(x, y); x, y ∈ R}✳ ▼♦'+,❡ 6✉❡ R2 ♥B♦ 1 ✉♠ ❡'♣❛)♦ ✈❡+♦,✐❛❧ ❝♦♠ ❛'
♦♣❡,❛)?❡' ❛''✐♠ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛'✿
✼✳ ▼♦'+,❡ ❛ '❡❣✉✐♥+❡ ❛✜,♠❛)B♦✿ ❊♠ ✉♠ ❡'♣❛)♦ ✈❡+♦,✐❛❧ V ❡①✐'+❡ ✉♠ I♥✐❝♦ ✈❡+♦, ♥✉❧♦ ❡ ❝❛❞❛
❡❧❡♠❡♥+♦ ❞❡ V ♣♦''✉✐ ✉♠ I♥✐❝♦ ✈❡+♦, ♦♣♦'+♦✳