Conventional Sources of Energy Non-conventional Sources of Energy

Conventional Sources of Energy have been in use for a Non-conventional Sources of Energy yet in development
long time over the past few years

Conventional Sources of Energy are exhaustible except Non-conventional Sources of Energy are inexhaustible.
water

Conventional Sources of Energy cause pollution. Non-conventional Sources of Energy are pollution free

Conventional Sources of Energy are expensive to be Non-conventional Sources of Energy less expensive
maintained, stored and transmitted

Conventional Sources of Energy used extensively Non-conventional Sources of Energy not used extensively
as conventional sources

Conventional Sources of Energy meet a major portion Non-conventional Sources of Energy meet our requirement
of our requirements on a limited scale

Examples of Conventional Sources of Energy are petrol Examples of Non-conventional Sources of Energy are solar
,coal. energy, wind energy.

Q/10: What is Nuclear Fission, Nuclear Fusion and Nuclear Chain Reaction? How can
it control?

Nuclear Fission: Nuclear Fission is the splitting of a large atom into two or more smaller
ones.Nuclear Fission reaction does not normally occur in nature. It Takes little energy to split
two atoms in a fission reaction. The energy released by fission is a million times greater
than that released in chemical reactions; but lower than the energy released by nuclear
fusion.One class of nuclear weapon is a fission bomb, also known as an atomic bomb or atom
bomb.
Nuclear Fission Example:
235
92U + 10n → 9038Sr + 14354Xe + 310n

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Nuclear Fusion: Nuclear Fusion is the fusing of two or more lighter atoms into a larger one.
Nuclear Fusion occurs in stars, such as the sun.For this High density, high temperature
environment is required. The energy released by fusion is three to four times greater than the
energy released by fission.One class of nuclear weapon is the hydrogen bomb, which uses a
fission reaction to "trigger" a fusion reaction.

Nuclear Fusion Examples:

The reactions which take place in the sun provide an example of nuclear fusion:
1H + 1H → 2He
1 2 3

2He + 2He → 2He + 2 1H

3 3 4 1

1H + 1H → 1H + +1β
1 1 2 0

Chain Reaction:
Uranium exists as an isotope in the form of U235 which is unstable.
When the nucleus of an atom of Uranium is split, the neutrons released hit other atoms and
split them in turn. More energy is released each time another atom splits. This is called a chain.
For example- the fission reaction of U235 by bombarding with neutron results into formation
of three more neutrons. These three neutrons further get bombard with U235atoms to perform
nuclear fission process, Thereby setting up a chain reaction. Hence, once nuclear fission
process started, it would be self sustaining accompanied by continues release of energy.
92U
235
+ 01n ——> 56Ba141 + 36Kr94 + 3 01n + Enormous energy

Control of chain Reaction:

Q/11: Describe principal parts of Nuclear REACTOR with Diagram.

Nuclear reactor. It is an apparatus in which nuclear fuel (U235) is subjected to nuclear fission.
It controls the chain reaction* that starts once the fission is done. If the chain reaction is not
controlled, the result will be an explosion due to the fast increase in the energy released.
A nuclear reactor is a cylindrical stout pressure vessel and houses fuel rods of Uranium,
moderator and control rods.
Nuclear Reactor important parts:

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Core : Here the nuclear fission process takes place.
Moderator : This reduces the speed of fast moving neutrons. Most moderators are graphite,
water or heavy water.
Control rods : Control rods limit the number of fuel atoms that can split. They are made of
boron or cadmium which absorbs neutrons.
Coolant : They carry the intense heat generated. Water is used as a coolant, some reactors use
liquid sodium as a coolant.
Fuel : The fuel used for nuclear fission is U235 isotope.
Radiation shield(thermal shielding) : To protect the people working from radiation and
radiation fragments.

Moderator: A moderator in a nuclear reactor is used to slow down the neutrons.

The neutrons produced by fission are very fast, around 2 MeV. (Neutron “speed” is generally
expressed by it's energy.) At that speed the probability of the neutron causing a fission in
another uranium or plutonium atom is fairly low. Neutrons lose energy by colliding with other
nuclei and transferring some kinetic energy. After several collisions, the neutron will have lost
enough energy to have a good probability of causing another fission.

Q/12: How COAL formed? Write the different types of COAL.

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Q/13: Describe Boiler accessories of STEAM POWER PLANT with Diagram.
Boiler Accessories
To increase the efficiency of the steam power plant and to help in the proper working of
the boiler, the following accessories are used.
◦ Superheater
◦ Economizer
◦ Air Preheater

Boiler Accessories

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 Super heater: A surface heat exchanger in which the wet steam is first dried at the same
temperature and pressure and then raised to temperature above the saturation temperature at
constant pressure.

Air Preheater: A waste heat recovery device in which the air on it’s way to furnace is raised
in temperature by utilizing the heat of the flue gases.

Q/15: Write a short note on the following:

(i) Connected load: It is the sum of continuous ratings of all the equipments connected to
supply system.
A power station supplies load to thousands of consumers. Each consumer has certain
equipment installed in his premises. The sum of the continuous ratings of all the equipments
in the consumer’s premises is the “connected load” of the consumer. For instance, if a
consumer has connections of five 100-watt lamps and a power point of 500 watts, then
connected load of the consumer is 5 × 100 + 500 = 1000 watts. The sum of the connected loads
of all the consumers is the connected load to the power station.

(ii) Maximum demand : It is the greatest demand of load on the power station during a given
period.
The load on the power station varies from time to time. The maximum of all the demands that
have occurred during a given period (say a day) is the maximum demand. Thus referring back
to the load curve of Fig. 3.2, the maximum demand on the power station during the day is 6
MW and it occurs at 6 P.M. Maximum demand is generally less than the connected load
because all the consumers do not switch on their connected load to the system at a time. The
knowledge of maximum demand is very important as it helps in determining the installed
capacity of the station. The station must be capable of meeting the maximum demand.
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(iii) Load Curve: The curve showing the variation of load on the power station with respect
to (w.r.t) time is known as a load curve.
The load on a power station is never constant; it varies from time to time. These load variations
during the whole day (i.e., 24 hours) are recorded half-hourly or hourly and are plotted against
time on the graph. The curve thus obtained is known as daily load curve as it shows the
variations of load w.r.t. time during the day.
Fig. 3.2. shows a typical daily load curve of a power station. It is clear that load on the power
station is varying, being maximum at 6 P.M. in this case. It may be seen that load curve
indicates at a glance the general character of the load that is being imposed on the plant. Such
a clear representation cannot be obtained from tabulated figures. The monthly load curve can
be obtained from the daily load curves of that month. For this purpose, average* values of
power over a month at different times of the day are calculated and then plotted on the graph.
The monthly load curve is generally used to fix the rates of energy. The yearly load curve is
obtained by considering the monthly load curves of that particular year. The yearly load curve
is generally used to determine the annual load factor.

(iv) Load factor: The ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a given period is

known as load factor i.e.,

The load factor may be daily load factor, monthly load factor or annual load factor if the time
period considered is a day or month or year. Load factor is always less than 1 because average
load is smaller than the maximum demand. The load factor plays key role in determining the
overall cost per unit generated. Higher the load factor of the power station, lesser* will be the
cost per unit generated.

(v) Plant capacity factor: It is the ratio of actual energy produced to the maximum possible
energy that could have been produced during a given period i.e.,

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Q/17: Define Depreciation.
Depreciation:The decrease in the value of the power plant equipment and building due to
constant use is known as depreciation.
If the power station equipment were to last for ever, then interest on the capital investment
would have been the only charge to be made. However, in actual practice, every power station
has a useful life ranging from fifty to sixty years. From the time the power station is installed,
its equipment steadily deteriorates due to wear and tear so that there is a gradual reduction in
the value of the plant.
This reduction in the value of plant every year is known as annual depreciation.

Q/19: Write the Methods of Determining Depreciation.

Methods of Determining Depreciation:
There is reduction in the value of the equipment and other property of the plant every year due
to depreciation. The following are the commonly used methods for determining the annual
depreciation charge :
(i) Straight line method ;
(ii) Diminishing value method ;
(iii) Sinking fund method.

Q/19: Diminishing value method.

Diminishing value method. In this method, depreciation charge is made every year at a fixed
rate on the diminished value of the equipment. In other words, depreciation charge is first
applied to the initial cost of equipment and then to its diminished value. As an example,
suppose the initial cost of equipment is Rs 10,000 and its scrap value after the useful life is
zero. If the annual rate of depreciation is 10%, then depreciation charge for the first year will
be 0·1 10,000 = Rs 1,000. The value of the equipment is diminished by Rs 1,000 and
becomes Rs 9,000. For the second year, the depreciation charge will be made on the diminished
value (i.e. Rs 9,000) and becomes 0·1 9,000 = Rs 900. The value of the equipment now
becomes 9000 − 900 = Rs 8100. For the third year, the depreciation charge will be 0·1
8100 = Rs 810 and so on.
Mathematical treatment,
Let, P = Capital cost of equipment
n = Useful life of equipment in years
S = Scrap value after useful life

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Suppose the annual unit* depreciation is x. It is desired to find the value of x in terms of P, n
and S.
Value of equipment after one year = P − Px = P (1 − x)
Value of equipment after 2 years = Diminished value − Annual depreciation
= [P − Px] − [(P − Px)x]
= P − Px − Px + Px 2
= P(x 2 − 2x + 1)
= P(1 − x) 2
∴ Value of equipment after n years = P(1 − x) n
But the value of equipment after n years (i.e., useful life) is equal to the scrap value S.
∴ S = P(1 − x) n
or (1 − x) n = S/P
or 1 − x = (S/P) 1⁄𝑛
or x = 1 − (S/P) 1⁄𝑛 ………………………………...(i)
From exp. (i), the annual depreciation can be easily found. Thus depreciation to be made for
the first year is given by :
Depreciation for the first year = xP
= P[1 − (S/P) 1⁄𝑛]

Graphical representation of diminishing value method:

Fig. for Diminishing value method

It is clear from the curve that depreciation charges are heavy in the early years but decrease to
a low value in the later years.
This method has two drawbacks-
 Low depreciation charges are made in the late years when the maintenance and repair
charges are quite heavy.

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  The depreciation charge is independent of the rate of interest which it may draw
during accumulation. Such interest moneys, if earned, are to be treated as income.

Q/20: How do you understand the tariff?What are the Objectives of tariff.
 Objectives of tariff: Like other commodities, electrical energy is also sold at such a
rate so that it not only returns the cost but also earns reasonable profit. Therefore, a
tariff should include the following items :
(i) Recovery of cost of producing electrical energy at the power station.
(ii) Recovery of cost on the capital investment in transmission and distribution
systems.
(iii) Recovery of cost of operation and maintenance of supply of electrical energy e.g.,
metering equipment, billing etc.
(iv) A suitable profit on the capital investment.

Q/2: Explain how physical quality of LIFE can be described by the per capita electricity
Consumption.
The modern society is so much dependent upon the use of electrical energy that it has become
a part and parcel of our life.Energy may be needed as heat, as light, as motive power etc. The
present-day advancement in science and technology has made it possible to convert electrical
energy into any desired form. This has given electrical energy a place of pride in the modern
world. The survival of industrial undertakings and our social structures depends primarily upon
low cost and uninterrupted supply of electrical energy. In fact, the advancement of a country
is measured in terms of per capita consumption of electrical energy.
Electrical energy is superior to all other forms of energy due to the following reasons :
(i) Convenient form. Electrical energy is a very convenient form of energy. It can be easily
converted into other forms of energy. For example, if we want to convert electrical energy into
heat, the only thing to be done is to pass electrical current through a wire of high resistance
e.g., a heater. Similarly, electrical energy can be converted into light (e.g. electric bulb),
mechanical energy (e.g. electric motors) etc.
(ii) Easy control. The electrically operated machines have simple and convenient starting,
control and operation. For instance, an electric motor can be started or stopped by turning on
or off a switch. Similarly, with simple arrangements, the speed of electric motors can be easily
varied over the desired range.
(iii) Greater flexibility. One important reason for preferring electrical energy is the flexibility
that it offers. It can be easily transported from one place to another with the help of conductors.
(iv) Cheapness. Electrical energy is much cheaper than other forms of energy. Thus it is
overall economical to use this form of energy for domestic, commercial and industrial
purposes.
(v) Cleanliness. Electrical energy is not associated with smoke, fumes or poisonous gases.
Therefore, its use ensures cleanliness and healthy conditions.
(vi) High transmission efficiency. The consumers of electrical energy are generally situated
quite away from the centres of its production. The electrical energy can be transmitted
conveniently and efficiently from the centres of generation to the consumers with the help of
overhead conductors known as transmission lines.
Q/7: What is turbine ? Name the types of turbine.
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A turbine is a rotating part which converts kinetic energy of a working fluid into useful
mechanical energy and/or electrical energy.
There are set of blades mounted on a rotor which helps in extracting energy from the moving
fluid. The efficiency of turbines depend on the design of the blades.
The 4 types of turbines are-
1.Water turbines
2.Steam turbines
3.Gas turbines &
4.Wind turbines
Water turbines are classified into 2 types-
1.Impulse type
2.Reaction type
Reaction type turbines are two type:
1.Kaplan turbine
2.Francis turbine
Q/8: Differences Between Francis and Kaplan Turbine.
Differences Between Francis and Kaplan Turbine:

1. Type of Turbine
Francis Turbine is mixed flow Turbine since water enters radially but leaves turbine axially.
Kaplan Turbine is axial flow turbine since water enters axially and leaves turbine axially.
2. Mounting of shafts
Francis Turbine mounting of shaft may be vertical or horizontal in direction.
Kaplan Turbine mounting of shaft is only in vertical direction.
3. Number of vanes
Francis Turbine has very large number of blades 16 to 24
Kaplan Turbine has very small number of blades 4 to 8
4. Adjustment of runner vanes
Francis Turbine Runner vanes are fixed with the shaft so it can’t be adjusted.
Kaplan Turbine Runner vanes are adjustable.
5. Head
Francis Turbine medium head is required generally in the range of (100-500) meter.
Kaplan Turbine very low head is required generally less than 100 meter head is required.
6. Flow Rate
Francis Turbine medium flow rate is required
Kaplan Turbine very large flow rate is required
7. Specific Speed
Francis Turbine specific speed is medium in general it varies from 50 to 250.
Kaplan Turbine specific speed is high in general it varies from 250 to 1000.
8. Losses in Runner
Francis turbine contact surface b/w solid and liquid more due to more no. of blades so losses
in runner is high.
Kaplan turbine contact surface b/w solid and liquid less due to less no. of blades so losses in
runner is less.

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9. Mechanism
Francis turbine governing mechanism is not so complex.
Kaplan turbine governing mechanism is complex.
10. Losses
Friction losses are higher
Less friction losses as compare to Francis turbine
11.Size
The size of Francis turbine is quite large as compare to Kaplan turbine
Kaplan turbine compact in cross sectional area
12. Type of shaft
The direction of shaft is may be vertical or horizontal as per requirement.
The direction of shaft is always in vertical direction because it is axial flow turbine.

Q:Write Disadvantage of low PF and How can it Increase?

The cosine of angle between voltage and current in an a.c. circuit is known as power factor.
In an a.c. circuit, there is generally a phase difference between voltage and current. The
term cos is called the power factor of the circuit. If the circuit is inductive, the current lags
behind the voltage and the power factor is referred to as lagging. However, in a capacitive
circuit, current leads the voltage and power factor is said to be leading.

Disadvantages of Low Power Factor:

When Power Factor increases, Current Decreases, and when Power Factor decreases, Current
Increases.

Now, In case of Low Power Factor, Current will be increased, and this high current
will cause to the following disadvantages.
1.) Large Line Losses (Copper Losses):
We know that Line Losses is directly proportional to the squire of Current “I2”
Power Loss = I2xR i.e., the larger the current, the greater the line losses i.e. I>>Line Losses
In other words,
Power Loss = I2xR = 1/CosФ2 ….. Refer to Equation “I ∝ 1/CosФ”….… (1)
Thus, if Power factor = 0.8, then losses on this power factor =1/CosФ2 = 1/ 0.82 = 1.56 times
will be greater than losses on Unity power factor.
2.) Large kVA rating and Size of Electrical Equipments:
As we know that almost all Electrical Machinery (Transformer, Alternator, Switchgears etc)
rated in kVA. But, it is clear from the following formula that Power factor is inversely
proportional to the kVA i.e.
CosФ = kW / kVA

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Therefore, The Lower the Power factor, the larger the kVA rating of Machines also, the
larger the kVA rating of Machines, The larger the Size of Machines and The Larger the size
of Machines, The Larger the Cost of machines.
3.) Greater Conductor Size and Cost:
In case of low power factor, current will be increased, thus, to transmit this high current, we
need the larger size of conductor. Also, the cost of large size of conductor will be increased.
4.) Poor Voltage Regulation and Large Voltage Drop:
Voltage Drop = V = IZ.
Now in case of Low Power factor, Current will be increased. So the Larger the current, the
Larger the Voltage Drop.
Also Voltage Regulation = V.R = (VNo Load – VFull Load)/ VFull Load
In case of Low Power Factor (lagging Power factor) there would be large voltage drop which
cause low voltage regulation. Therefore, keeping Voltage drop in the particular limit, we
need to install Extra regulation equipments i.e. Voltage regulators.
5.) Low Efficiency:
In case of low Power Factor, there would be large voltage drop and large line losses and this
will cause the system or equipments efficiency too low. For instant, due to low power factor,
there would be large line losses; therefore, alternator needs high excitation, thus, generation
efficiency would be low.
6.) Penalty from Electric Power Supply Company on Low Power factor
Electrical Power supply Company imposes a penalty of power factor below 0.95 lagging in
Electric power bill. So you must improve Pf above 0.95.

Methods of Power Factor Improvement

 Capacitors:
Improving power factor means reducing the phase difference between voltage and
current. Since majority of loads are of inductive nature, they require some amount of
reactive power for them to function. This reactive power is provided by the capacitor or
bank of capacitors installed parallel to the load. They act as a source of local reactive
power and thus less reactive power flows through the line. Basically they reduces the
phase difference between the voltage and current.
 Synchronous_Condenser:
They are 3 phase synchronous motor with no load attached to its shaft.
The synchronous motor has the characteristics of operating under any power factor
leading, lagging or unity depending upon the excitation. For inductive loads,
synchronous condenser is connected towards load side and is overexcited. This makes
it behave like a capacitor. It draws the lagging current from the supply or supplies the
reactive power.
 Phase_Advancer:
This is an ac exciter mainly used to improve pf of induction motor. They are mounted
on shaft of the motor and is connected in the rotor circuit of the motor. It improves the
power factor by providing the exciting ampere turns to produce required flux at slip
frequency. Further if ampere turns are increased, it can be made to operate at leading
power factor.

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