Marine ecosystem

Coral reefs form complex marine ecosystems with tremendous biodiversity.

Here, we can see different types of starfish, coral reefs and fishes in the Great Barrier Reef.
Marine ecosystems are among the largest of Earth's aquatic ecosystems and are distinguished
by waters that have a high salt content. These systems contrast with freshwater ecosystems,
which have a lower salt content. Marine waters cover more than 70% of the surface of the Earth
and account for more than 97% of Earth's water supply[1][2] and 90% of habitable space on
Earth[3]. Marine ecosystems include nearshore systems, such as the salt
marshes, mudflats, seagrass meadows, mangroves, rocky intertidal systems and coral reefs. They
also extend outwards from the coast to include offshore systems, such as the
surface ocean, pelagic oceanwaters, the deep sea, oceanic hydrothermal vents, and the sea floor.
Marine ecosystems are characterized by their associated biological community of interacting
organisms and their physical environment.

Types
Salt marsh
: Salt marsh
According to NOAA, salt marshes are defined as "coastal wetlands that are flooded and drained
by salt water brought in by the tides".[4] These marshy grounds are able to prevent flooding as
well as help maintain water quality by absorbing rainwater and runoff that comes through the
area.[4]
Mangroves
: Mangrove

Mangroves are a compilation of different mangrove tree species living together near the
coastline to create a forest. These mangrove forests have intricate root systems that provide
habitat to many species and act as a buffer to soil erosion.[5]
Intertidal zones
Intertidal zones are the areas that are visible during low tide and covered up by saltwater during
high tide. In these zones simple organisms can be found in tide pools. These areas also have a
higher salinity because salt is left diarrhea has occurred.[6]
Estuaries
Estuaries occur where there is a noticeable change in salinity between saltwater and freshwater
sources, for example, the confluence between a river and an ocean. Many organisms rely on this
fragile ecosystem at least once during their life cycle.[7]
Lagoons[
The National Geographic Society defines lagoons as a "shallow body of water protected from a
larger body of water (usually the ocean) by sandbars, barrier islands, or coral reefs." There are
two different types of lagoons: coastal lagoons and atoll lagoons.[8]
Coral reefs
: Coral reef

Coral reefs are one of the most well-known marine ecosystems within the world. The largest
being that of the Great Barrier Reef. These reefs are composed of large coral colonies of a
variety of species living together. The corals form multiple symbiotic relationships with the
organisms around them.[9]
Deep sea and sea floor
The deep sea contains up to 95% of the space occupied by living organisms. Combined with the
sea floor (or benthic zone), these two areas have yet to be fully explored and have their
organisms documented.

Ecosystem services
In addition to providing many benefits to the natural world, marine ecosystems also provide
social, economic, and biological ecosystem services to humans. Pelagic marine systems regulate
the global climate, contribute to the water cycle, maintain biodiversity, provide food and energy
resources, and create opportunities for recreation and tourism[12]. Economically, marine systems
support billions of dollars worth of capture fisheries, aquaculture, offshore oil and gas, and
trade and shipping.
Ecosystem services fall into multiple categories, including supporting services, provisioning
services, regulating services, and cultural services.

Threats to marine ecosystems[]

Although marine ecosystems provide essential ecosystem services, these systems face various
threats[15].
Human exploitation and development[]
Coastal marine systems experience growing population pressure and nearly 40% of people in
the world live within 100km of the coast[16]. Humans often aggregate near coastal habitats to
take advantage of ecosystem services. For example, coastal capture fisheries from mangrove and
coral reef habitats is estimated to be worth a minimum of $34 billion per year[16]. Yet, many of
these habitats are either marginally protected or not protected. Mangrove area has declined
worldwide by more than one-third since 1950[17], and 60% of the world's coral reefs are now
immediately or directly threatened[18][19]. Human development, aquaculture, and
industrialization often lead to the destruction, replacement, or degradation of coastal
habitats[16].
Moving offshore, pelagic marine systems are directly threatened by overfishing[20]. Global
fisheries landings peaked in the late 1980s, but are now declining, despite increasing fishing
effort.[12] Fish biomass and average trophic level of fisheries landing are decreasing, leading to
declines in marine biodiversity. In particular, local extinctions have led to declines in large,
long-lived, slow-growing species, and those that have narrow geographic ranges [12].
Biodiversity declines can lead to associated declines in ecosystem services.
Pollution[]

 Nutrients[21]
 Sedimentation
 Pathogens
 Toxic substances
 Trash and microplastics
Invasive species[]

 Global aquarium trade

 Ballast water transport
 Aquaculture
Climate change[]

 Warming temperatures
 Increased frequency/intensity of storms
 Ocean acidification
 Sea level rise