D.

1 Origin of Life on Earth

1. Describe four processes needed for the spontaneous origin of life on Earth

Process 1: non-living synthesis of simple organic molecules

chemical reactions to produce simple organic molecules, such as:

o amino acids: 20 types

o nucleotides: purines & pyrimidines
o monosaccharides: glucose, ribose
o fatty acids, glycerol
 from inorganic molecules, such as:
o water
o carbon dioxide
o ammonia

Process 2: assembly of simple organic molecules into polymers

 polypeptides from amino acids

 nucleic acids from nucleotides

Process 3: forming a genetic material: formation of polymers that can self-replicate

 RNA has two key abilities that make it the likely original genetic
material
o genetically: self-replication
 RNA has been experimentally shown to have the
ability to self-replicate
 RNA nucleotide sequence is variable,
 allowing for inheritance of information coding for
amino acid sequences in polypeptides
o enzymatically: catalyzing chemical reactions
 RNA ribozymes are found in modern cell
 RNA almost certainly preceded DNA as the genetic material =
"RNA world"

Process 4: producing membranes: packaging the above molecules inside membranes creating an
internal chemistry different from their surroundings, including polymers that held the genetic
information

 liposomes
o a spherical vesicle composed of a bilayer membrane
o form spontaneously from phospholipids

Result: "protobionts:" the product of the above four processes is likely to have been cell-like
structures

 natural selection is likely to have acted on variants of

protobionts competing for resources
 selecting for:
o stability: homeostasis, produced by enzymes controlling
metabolic reactions
o longevity: survivorship
o fidelity: transmitting genetic information with minimal
error
o fecundity: rate of reproduction
2. Outline the experiments of Miller and Urey into origin of organic compounds

Simulate reducing atmosphere

 Miller/Urey: water vapor, hydrogen, methane, ammonia,

nitrogen, carbon dioxide
 Others: various mixtures w/ carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
nitrogen, phosphates, etc., [assumed it was a reducing
atmosphere= no oxygen]
 Assumed early earth had frequent electrical storms. Used to
cause chemical reactions

Simulate high energy sources

 Miller/Urey: electric spark simulates lightning

 Others: UV radiation, heat, etc.

Products

 Miller/Urey: mixture of amino acids, urea

o Leads to proteins, then to polymers, then to DNA eventually
 Others: various mixtures including all 20 amino acids, sugars,
lipids, purine and pyrimidine bases of DNA and RNA nucleotides,
ATP

conditions on pre-biotic Earth were recreated in their apparatus;

mixture of any three of methane, ammonia, water vapour and hydrogen;
water boiled and recondensed to simulate high temperatures;
electrical discharge / sparks to simulate lightning; 2 max

(ii) organic compounds / amino acids were formed from inorganic compounds;
organic compounds could have existed on pre-biotic Earth;
life might have arisen from non-living material;
3. State that comets may have delivered organic compounds to Earth.

 comets contain a variety of organic compounds

o Murchison meteroite contents are similar to the organic
compounds produced by the Miller/Urey experiments
 heavy comet/meteorite bombardment of Earth about 4 billion
years ago
o could have supplied earth with organic compounds and
water
 arrival of material from outer space / cosmozoan theory;
micro-organisms in meteorites;
no real evidence;
Figure represents the abundance of various amino acids in the Murchison meteorite. Each number
represents an amino acid: 1=alanine

4. Discuss possible locations where conditions would have allowed the synthesis of
organic compounds.

 deep-sea hydrothermal vents

o energy source: heat
o spontaneously produces reduced compounds such as
iron sulfide
 which can be oxidized to synthesize organic
molecules
o provides a source of energy for assembly of polymers
from monomers
 volcanoes
o methane, ammonia, H gas, with lightning could have
synthesised organic compounds
 extraterrestrial sources
o comets
o meteorites

5. Outline two properties of RNA that would have allowed it to play a role in the origin of
life.

RNA self-replicates / self-replication has been shown experimentally;

RNA thought to have served as first genes not DNA;
it can act as an enzyme / called a ribozyme /
RNA has catalytic properties;
(recently discovered that) RNA can catalyse
formation of more RNA (eg tRNA / rRNA / mRNA);
RNA can bind amino acids for the formation of peptide linkages;
RNA can also be transcribed into DNA (using reverse transcriptase);
6. State that living cells may have been preceded by protobionts, with an internal
chemcial environment different from their surroundings.

Origins of prokaryotic cells

 random collections of organic molecules do not qualify as living,

whereas cells do
o life organized as cells requires both organization and
stability over time
o cellular structure allows for compartmentalization
o protobionts form compartments which in turn might
contain molecules such as RNA capable of reactions,
catalysis and replication
o selection would favor the most successful protobionts in
terms of stability/survivorship and replication/progeny
o genetic material, probably RNA, would be needed as
information for control which could be copied to progeny

 protobionts
o possible origin of membranes
o from aggregates of abiotically produced organic
molecules
 Result:protobionts
o spherical structures containing RNA
o maintaining an internal chemical environment different
from their surrounding
o natural selection is likely to have acted on variants of
protobionts competing for resources
o selecting for:
 stability: homeostasis, produced by enzymes
controlling metabolic reactions
 longevity: survivorship, produced by
combinations of metabolic enzymes
 fidelity: transmitting genetic information with
minimal error
 fecundity: rate of reproduction
o encapsulation= higher reactivity. If it is incased in a membrane the chance of
metabolic reaction and synthesis is larger

7. Outline the contribution of prokaryotes to the creation of an oxygen-rich atmosphere.

 early cells competing for energy sources are likely to have

provided a selection pressure favoring the evolution of
photosynthesis
o some photosynthetic prokaryotes use sources of
electrons other than water
 photosynthetic prokaryotes that live today in hot
springs use hydrogen sulfide as an electron
source
o photosynthetic prokaryotes that use water as an
electron source are highly successful and produce large
quantities of atmospheric oxygen through photolysis of
water
 rocks in Greenland dated from 3.7-3.8 billion
years ago, called banded iron formations,
provide evidence of atmospheric oxygen,
suggesting the presence of photosynthetic
prokaryotes
o many species of photosynthetic prokaryotes survive
today
 o cyanobacteria contribute large amounts of oxygen to the
oceans and atmosphere
 initially the oxygen produced by photosynthetic prokaryotes
would have been consumed in chemical reactions, or remain
dissolved in the oceans
 with additional photosynthesis beyond this level, oxygen would
likely have accumulated in the atmosphere
 with the emergence of eukaryotes with chloroplasts, the rate of
oxygen production likely increased
 further oxygenating the atmosphere
 since oxygen is toxic to some organisms, it is likely to have
selected against some species, leading to their extinction
 an abundance of oxygen is likely to have lead to oxidative
cellular respiration

8. Discuss the endosymbiotic theory for the origin of eukaryotic cells.

 eukaryotic cells appear to have evolved from prokaryotic

ancestry as a smaller prokaryote within a larger prokaryote
 in other situations besides endosymbiosis, the outcome would
be either:

a. larger host cell digests smaller invader

b. smaller invader multiplies and kills larger host

 with endosymbiosis there is a third outcome: coexistence

 coexistence is only likely if it is mutually beneficial
 a scenario of mutually beneficial coexistence:

a. larger host cell: Eater consuming other, smaller cells

restricted to anaerobic environments
b. smaller invader: Eliminator eliminates oxygen (poison)
thus occupying environments where Eater is absent
c. if Eater consumes eliminator, and eliminator avoids digestion,
eater benefits from low oxygen levels & eliminator benefits
from predation avoidance
d. the resulting host becomes the eukaryotic cell, with
eliminator as mitochondria
e. a similar process involves coexistence with an additional
consumed cell, photosynthetic Sunshine
f. sunshine produces oxygen as a byproduct and therefore
benefits from coexistence with mitochondria/eliminator
g. sunshine also benefits from protection within eater, who
benefits from the food produced by sushine/chloroplast

 Evidence for endosymbiotic origin of eukaryotic cells

a. mitochondria & chloroplasts both have double membrane

the second outer membrane from the host, eater
b. mitochondria & chloroplasts both have a loop of naked DNA
lacking histone proteins, as do prokaryotes
c. mitochondria & chloroplasts both divide by binary fission
independent of nuclear division
e. chloroplast thylakoids are similar to cyanobacterial
photosynthetic structures
f. chlorophyll a is the main photosynthetic pigment for both
chloroplasts and prokaryotes
g. mitochondrial cristae are similar to bacterial mesosomes