C H A P T E R

30
Personality Traits and Coffee Intake
Diogo R. Lara
Faculdade de Biociências, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS),
Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

List of Abbreviations Although caffeine is unlikely to induce negative effects

ADHD  Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder
when consumed in moderation, cessation of caffeine
BAS  Behavioral activation system intake often induces transient headache, drowsiness,
and fatigue.4 These withdrawal effects may contribute to
maintenance of a regular intake. In fact, individuals can
manipulate their caffeine doses to maximize their subjec-
30.1 INTRODUCTION tive benefits and avoid adverse and withdrawal effects.
The underlying mechanism of caffeine is the com-
Coffee is one of the most widely used and behav-
petitive antagonism at A1 and A2A adenosine recep-
iorally active foods.1 About 80% of the population
tors.5 Adenosine is a widespread neuromodulator that
voluntarily and routinely manipulate their mind phar-
interacts with other neurotransmitters at pre- and post-
macologically by ingesting coffee and other caffeinated
synaptic levels.6 Antagonism of A1 receptors increases
drinks. Coffee is a major source of caffeine, along with
dopamine D1 receptor affinity for dopamine and stimu-
soft drinks and tea, and their intake varies considerably
lates the release of neurotransmitters such as glutamate,
according to lifestyle, age, and culture. About half of caf-
dopamine, and acetylcholine.6 Also, antagonism of A2A
feine consumers ingest caffeine from multiple sources.1
receptors increases neurotransmission through dopa-
Since there is great individual variation in coffee con-
mine D2 receptors.6
sumption, it is expected the personality traits may be
Chronic administration of caffeine may result in par-
involved in the volume of intake and response to caf-
tial tolerance to a number of physiological, subjective,
feine (and possibly other ingredients of coffee). Another
and behavioral effects.4 There may not be a net benefit
possibility is that, by being regularly consumed, coffee
from caffeine consumption with regard to alertness and
may exert effects on personality itself and traits related
psychomotor performance because even brief abstinence
to psychiatric disorders. Most of these associations are
of dietary caffeine intake is accompanied by character-
putatively caused by the effects of caffeine on the central
istic withdrawal symptoms. Also, some of its putative
nervous system.
benefits on cognitive performance and mood may be
Caffeine produces behavioral and subjective effects
caused by the reversal of negative withdrawal effects.7
similar to typical psychomotor stimulant drugs (e.g.,
Personality traits are a major issue related with the use
amphetamine and cocaine),2 but the net effects are milder.
and abuse of and dependence on psychoactive drugs.8,9
Caffeine enhances feelings of well-being, energy, motiva-
Given the interaction between caffeine with neurotrans-
tion for work, and concentration; delays sleep; and pro-
mitters and caffeine’s effects on human behavior, it is
motes vigilance while performing psychomotor tasks.3
possible that its effects and intake pattern vary accord-
The effects of increased alertness and reduced fatigue
ing to personality traits. The main issues on this topic
induced by caffeine are more apparent in low-arousal sit-
addressed here are:
uations. The effects of caffeine are dose dependent, and as   

little as 30 mg of caffeine may affect mood and alertness, • A

improve reaction times, and vigilance while performing
tasks.4 Higher doses can produce anxiety in susceptible
individuals and commonly induce insomnia when taken
at night. These are the main reasons to avoid coffee intake.
 re there personality traits related to higher coffee
intake? If present, do they remain after controlling
for smoking, since smoking and coffee intake are
associated? How about other caffeinated drinks, such
as tea and colas?

Coffee in Health and Disease Prevention 275

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-409517-5.00030-9 © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
276 30.  PERSONALITY TRAITS AND COFFEE INTAKE
• D o people with different personality profiles respond
differently to coffee or caffeine?
• Can chronic use of coffee affect psychiatric disorders,
such as depression, perhaps by modulating
underlying personality traits?
30.2  PERSONALITY TRAITS
ASSOCIATED WITH COFFEE AND
CAFFEINE INTAKE
One of the first studies to report an association
between caffeine consumption and personality traits
showed that impulsive men, but not women, consumed
almost twice the amount of caffeine as nonimpulsive
men (pooled data from many caffeine sources), without
controlling for smoking.10 This is a significant limitation
since the association of coffee intake and cigarette smok-
ing is common.11 Adan12 found higher levels of neuroti-
cism were associated with heavier intake of cola drinks
but found no difference in personality regarding coffee
and tea intake among 537 subjects. Brice and Smith13
also found no association between coffee consumption
and extraversion or introversion among 243 individu-
als. Another case–control study found that those with
caffeine dependence (mostly from coffee and tea) have
more sensation-seeking traits, but again, this study did
not control for tobacco use.14 A later study using the
Temperament and Character Inventory (first version)
on 498 subjects and controlling for smoking reported
higher novelty seeking behavior, but not other person-
ality traits, with heavy caffeine consumption (>200 mg/
day).15 However, this study evaluated caffeine intake
from a combination of multiple sources, so the specific
associations of personality traits with different sources
of caffeine were not clear.
The only study that distinguished between caffeine
sources and controlled for smoking was conducted
by Lara et al.16 This study evaluated the relationship
between coffee, tea, and cola drink intake and personal-
ity traits measured with the full version of the revised
Temperament and Character Inventory in a large sample
of the general population. The relationship of smok-
ing status with personality traits, controlling for these
caffeine sources, also was analyzed. The main finding
of this study was the different associations of caffeine
sources and smoking with personality traits. Controlling
for smoking, tea consumption, and cola drink intake,
coffee intake was only modestly related to tempera-
ment (reward dependence) and character differences
(self-directedness and self-transcendence), and only for
the consumers of very large amounts, which accounted
for 3.3% of the sample (>10 cups/day). In contrast, tea
consumption was linearly and significantly associated
with lower harm avoidance and higher persistence and
I.   INTRODUCTORY AND GENERAL TEXT
self-directedness (controlling for coffee consumption,
tea consumption, and smoking). This is a more favorable
and mature personality profile.
The most robust link was the higher levels of harm
avoidance and novelty seeking and lower levels of self-
directedness and cooperativeness associated with cola
drink intake, using the other three substances as covari-
ates. This profile reflects a more unstable, pessimistic,
and immature personality. Controlling for coffee, tea,
and cola intake, smoking was associated mostly with
higher novelty seeking and lower self-directness. Alto-
gether, these findings point to a less adaptive personality
profile among heavy cola drinkers and smokers, a puta-
tive association with more frequent mental disorders, a
neutral relationship with coffee, and a favorable person-
ality profile for heavy tea drinkers. Importantly, the nov-
elty seeking trait, commonly associated with drug abuse
and dependence, was not different among those with
high coffee intake. Another recent study showed that
impulsivity, sensation seeking, behavioral activation
system (BAS)-drive, and BAS-fun were positively associ-
ated with caffeine intake but failed to analyze the differ-
ent sources of caffeine and did not control for smoking.17
Altogether, these studies suggest that the personality
and caffeine measures (e.g., continuous or categorized
as high intake), the sample, the study design, and the
sources of caffeine (combined or separate) can affect the
results.
Caffeine induces anxiety at higher doses, typically
>300 mg, and in susceptible individuals.18 However, the
consumption of caffeine is poorly correlated with anxi-
ety or anxiety traits.15,19 Another trait associated with
caffeine intake relates to circadian rhythm. Subjects with
an evening preference (i.e., evening types) drink more
coffee and cola drinks.12 Interestingly, evening prefer-
ence is much more correlated with cola drink intake
than with coffee intake.20 Penolazzi et al.17 reported that
morning-types consume more caffeine and coffee than
evening-types in the morning and evening-types con-
sume more at night than morning-types, suggesting that
caffeine is not necessarily used to counterbalance their
natural circadian cycles.
30.3  DIFFERENTIAL RESPONSE TO
CAFFEINE ACCORDING TO
PERSONALITY TRAITS AND
PSYCHIATRIC DISORDERS
One of the first studies showing personality dif-
ferences in response to caffeine evaluated the trait of
introversion/extraversion.21 This study showed that
time pressure and caffeine differentially affected the
performance of introverts on verbal ability tests. With
200 mg of caffeine and time pressure, the performance
 30.4  Chronic Use of Coffee, Personality Traits, and Psychiatric Disorders
of introverts decreased substantially, whereas extroverts’
performance improved significantly. Ambiverts showed
no change with caffeine. Based on these results, Rev-
elle et al.21 were the first to suggest that caffeine neither
increases or decreases average performance, but its effect
depends on individual differences in extroversion. These
findings were replicated for impulsivity traits: caffeine
increased the error detection rate of impulsive subjects
but decreased the error detection rate of less impulsive
subjects.22 Revelle et al.23 also suggested that the effect of
caffeine may vary according to personality and time of
the day. According to their work cognitive performance
of impulsive subjects benefits particularly in the morn-
ing but is hindered in the evening. The opposite pat-
tern seems to apply to nonimpulsive subjects. However,
another study failed to replicate these findings, showing
only a trend toward more caffeine-induced happiness
among extraverts.24
Smillie and Gökcen25 more recently evaluated the
effect of 200 mg caffeine on working memory accord-
ing to introversion/extraversion. Their results showed
that only extraverts benefitted from caffeine and in con-
ditions of high load for working memory (i.e., a three-
back task). These results have been interpreted in terms
of dopamine function, which is a common neurochemi-
cal denominator linking caffeine, working memory, and
extraversion. In this regard, the effect of caffeine may
resemble the effect of other dopaminergic stimulants
such as methylphenidate,26 improving a phasic mecha-
nism (dopamine reactivity) rather than a tonic mecha-
nism (dopamine activity).
The presence of specific anxiety disorders may influ-
ence the perceived effects of caffeine. Earlier studies
found patients with panic disorder and generalized
anxiety disorder are more sensitive to the anxiogenic
effects of high doses of caffeine (typically >400 mg). This
pattern may be present to a lesser extent in depressed
patients and patients with performance anxiety disorder,
but not generalized social anxiety disorder, as well as in
first-degree relatives of patients with panic disorder.27
Thus vulnerability to marked anxiogenic effects of caf-
feine seems to be restricted to some individuals with at
least a predisposition for specific anxiety disorders.
Considering preference for caffeine itself as a trait,
those who prefer caffeine pills over placebo tend to
report stimulant and “positive” effects of caffeine on
mood, whereas individuals that choose placebo tend to
report aversive effects (increased anxiety and dysphoria)
after caffeine intake.28 Similarly, caffeine only has sig-
nificant reinforcing effects on mood and psychomotor
performance among caffeine consumers, but self-rated
alertness to caffeine increased among both caffeine con-
sumers and nonconsumers. Interestingly, caffeine seems
to improve performance more in the nonconsumers
while especially benefitting consumers’ mood. Doses
I.   INTRODUCTORY AND GENERAL TEXT
277
as low as 50–100 mg of caffeine suffice to induce mood
effects and in some individuals even 20–30 mg of caf-
feine cause noticeable effects.
30.4  CHRONIC USE OF COFFEE,
PERSONALITY TRAITS, AND
PSYCHIATRIC DISORDERS
There is a large body of data showing that individuals
with psychiatric disorders have different temperament
and personality traits compared to healthy subjects.29
One interesting possibility is that psychotropic treat-
ment may produce its effect exactly by tackling these
underlying traits. Thus, studies addressing how chronic
intake of coffee and caffeine relates to psychopathology
may shed light on their effects on traits.
Some studies showed that caffeine intake is negatively
associated with the risk of depression. In one of the few
cross-sectional population studies, Smith30 reported that
consumption of caffeine, even at low doses, was associ-
ated with a reduced risk of depression (odds ratio (OR),
0.32 (95% confidence interval (CI)), 0.2–0.5 for 1–140 mg/
day; OR, 0.18 (95% CI), 0.1–0.3 for 141–260 mg/day; and
OR, 0.12 (95% CI, 0.1–0.2) for >260 mg/day) compared to
those with no caffeine intake. This study was conducted
using a nonworking population, which may have higher
baseline levels of depression, probably facilitating
the identification of this effect compared to a working
population. A recent cross-sectional study confirmed
that coffee consumption was inversely associated with
depressive symptoms (>2 vs 1 cup/day: OR, 0.57; P for
trend = 0.02) after adjusting for multiple factors.31 They
found a similar association for tea consumption and for
total caffeine intake from coffee and tea.
Ruusunen et al.32 reported the first prospective but
relatively small follow-up study examining the associa-
tions between the intake of coffee, tea, and caffeine and
depression. In a sample of 2232 middle-aged men with-
out depression at baseline and followed for 17.5 years, a
total of 4.9% of the noncoffee drinkers, 1.3% of the light
coffee drinkers, 2.6% of the moderate coffee drinkers, and
1.5% of the heavy coffee drinkers received a discharge
diagnosis of depression during follow-up. After adjusting
for age, years under examination, socioeconomic status,
alcohol consumption, smoking, maximal oxygen uptake,
body mass index, and the energy-adjusted daily intakes
of folate and polyunsaturated fatty acids, heavy coffee
drinkers had a decreased risk (relative risk, 0.23; 95% CI,
0.06–0.83) for depression when compared with nondrink-
ers. Interestingly, they found no association with total caf-
feine intake, tea, or other caffeinated beverages.
In 2011 a similar but larger cohort study addressed
the risk of depression in women according to coffee
intake.33 They showed that among 50,739 older women
278 30.  PERSONALITY TRAITS AND COFFEE INTAKE
free of significant depressive symptoms at baseline and
followed for 20 years, risk of depression decreased in a
dose-dependent manner with increasing consumption
of caffeinated coffee. Multivariate relative risk of depres-
sion was 0.80 (95% CI, 0.68–0.95; P for trend = 0.02) for
women ingesting >550 mg caffeine/day versus those
with intake <100 mg caffeine/day. Interestingly, decaf-
feinated coffee was not associated with depression risk.
Another important marker of mental disorder is suicid-
ality. In three cohort studies34–36 there was strong inverse
associations between coffee consumption and suicide,
which is robustly associated with depression, although
a J-shaped relationship was found for coffee and suicide
risk in the Finnish cohort.36 Together, these results sug-
gest that intake of between 4 and 7 cups of regular coffee
(and caffeine) per day significantly reduces the risk of
depression. No study evaluated changes in personality
traits, however. The most likely candidate traits playing
a role are volition/energy/self-directedness and emo-
tional sensitivity to stress/harm avoidance/neuroti-
cism. In summary, caffeine may have beneficial effects
on depressive or low-energy states and traits and may be
detrimental for some hypersensitive patients with panic
and/or performance anxiety disorder.
Caffeine often is used as a strategy to increase the abil-
ity to sustain attention, particularly in situations of low
arousal or fatigue. Caffeine improves alertness and con-
trol of executive functions in a dose–response manner,
peaking at 200 mg. Encoding of new information also is
enhanced by 40 mg caffeine in volunteers with a mean
daily consumption of 138 mg. Thus caffeine may have
a therapeutic role in attention deficit and hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD). The effects of caffeine on attention
and performance have been studied in normal volun-
teers using several paradigms and protocols.
Three cross-sectional population studies evaluated
the association between cognitive functioning and caf-
feine intake in real-life situations. Jarvis37 reported a
dose–response trend of improved performance during
attention and memory tasks with higher levels of cof-
fee consumption; a dose of 400 mg caffeine per day was
particularly beneficial. The associations were similar
but weaker for tea consumption and more apparent in
older than younger people. Smith38 showed that caffeine
consumption was significantly related to fewer cogni-
tive failures (e.g., forgetting where things were, doing
the wrong thing, or failing to concentrate) in a working
population. Those who had low caffeine consumption
had about twice the risk of self-reporting frequent/very
frequent cognitive failures and accidents at work com-
pared to those with higher caffeine intake. Finally, an
elegant study evaluated the association of coffee and caf-
feine intake and cognitive decline, including intelligence
quotient at age 11 as a covariate.39 The results showed
significant positive associations between total caffeine
I.   INTRODUCTORY AND GENERAL TEXT
intake and general cognitive ability and memory, but
most associations became nonsignificant after adjusting
for intelligence quotient at age 11 and social class. How-
ever, a strong positive association remained between
drinking ground coffee and cognitive performance on
two tests, with no sex-related effects observed. Taken
together, these cross-sectional studies suggest that caf-
feine produces benefits in cognitive functioning but that
those who consume more caffeine may have better cog-
nitive performance, that is, higher caffeine intake may be
a behavioral marker of better cognition.
30.5 CONCLUSIONS
Some studies showed higher impulsivity, novelty
seeking, and sensation seeking among heavy caffeine
drinkers, but the relationship of coffee intake with per-
sonality traits is negligible when the results are con-
trolled for smoking. However, the relationship of cola
drinks with personality shows an association with more
impulsive and immature traits. A more adaptive profile
was observed with higher tea consumption.
The performance of extroverted and impulsive subjects
tends to benefit more from caffeine. Although coffee and
caffeine may reverse low-energy states during the circa-
dian cycle, people seem to consume more coffee during
the more active phases of the day. Finally, chronic intake of
caffeinated coffee seems to protect from depressive symp-
toms, suicide, and cognitive decline, but the mechanisms
of such benefit (e.g., effects on traits or states) need further
study. Since caffeine is easily available from coffee and
other sources, most individuals tend to naturally select
doses that do not produce unfavorable subjective and
somatic effects and may improve mood and performance.
30.6  SUMMARY POINTS
• H igh impulsivity, novelty seeking, and sensation
seeking are traits associated with caffeine intake.
• When controlling for smoking, the association of
coffee intake with personality traits is negligible.
• Even controlling for smoking and coffee, intake of
cola drinks is related to impulsivity, novelty seeking,
and immature personality.
• The performance of extraverts responds more
favorably to caffeine than that of introverts.
• Caffeine may induce anxiety but the consumption of
caffeine is poorly correlated with anxiety traits.
• Caffeine reverses low-energy phases but is usually
ingested more during active phases of the day.
• Coffee intake is negatively associated with the risk
of developing depression and committing suicide in
follow-up studies.
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