High Efficiency of Photovoltaic Cells

Prepared for Mariam Azam

Prepared by Aftab Nazir

SP15-BME-045

November 28, 2018

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Executive Summary

This report deals with photovoltaics cells and their efficiency. How photovoltaics cells affect the
overall power generation? What factors are responsible for high or low efficiency? What are the
methods to increase efficiency of photovoltaic cells?

Table of Contents
1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 3
1.1 Background knowledge ...................................................................................................................... 3
1.1.1 Methods........................................................................................................................................ 4
2 Discussion .................................................................................................................................................. 4
2.1 Which Factors Determine Solar Panel Efficiency? ............................................................................. 5
2.1.1 Extensive Testing of Solar Panels Under Extreme Conditions .................................................... 6
Why Perform Extensive Testing of Solar Panel Efficiency Under Extreme Conditions? ................ 7
3 Findings ..................................................................................................................................................... 8
4 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................................ 9

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1 Introduction
The primary objective of the photovoltaic (PV) solar cell research and development is to bring
about increased efficient Photovoltaic Solar Cells, and the reduction in the cost of production to a
level that will be competitive with the conventional ways of generating power. Solar cell
efficiency refers to the portion of energy in the form of sunlight that can be converted via photovoltaics
into electricity.

1.1 Background knowledge

The efficiency of the solar cells used in a photovoltaic system, in combination with latitude and
climate, determines the annual energy output of the system.

Several factors affect a cell's conversion efficiency value, including its reflectance efficiency,
thermodynamic efficiency, charge carrier separation efficiency, charge carrier collection
efficiency and conduction efficiency values.[4] [3] Because these parameters can be difficult to
measure directly, other parameters are measured instead, including quantum efficiency, VOC
ratio, and fill factor. Reflectance losses are accounted for by the quantum efficiency value, as
they affect "external quantum efficiency." Recombination losses are accounted for by the
quantum efficiency, VOC ratio, and fill factor values. Resistive losses are predominantly
accounted for by the fill factor value, but also contribute to the quantum efficiency and VOC ratio
values.

Simply put, solar panel efficiency (expressed as a percentage) quantifies a solar panel’s ability to
convert sunlight into electricity. Given the same amount of sunlight shining for the same
duration of time on two solar panels with different efficiency ratings, the more efficient panel
will produce more electricity than the less efficient panel.

In practical terms, for two solar panels of the same physical size, if one has a 21% efficiency
rating and the other has a 14% efficiency rating, the 21% efficient panel will produce 50% more
kilowatt hours (kWh) of electricity under the same conditions as the 14% efficient panel. Thus,
maximizing energy use and bill savings is heavily reliant on having top-tier solar panel
efficiency.

Many consumers and people in the solar industry consider solar panel efficiency to be the most
important criterion when assessing a solar panel’s quality. While it is an important criterion, it’s

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not the only one to consider while you evaluate whether to install a particular solar panel. Solar
panel efficiency relates to the ability of the panel to convert energy at a low cost and high supply
rate.

1.1.1 Methods

Normal photovoltaic systems however have only one p-n junction and are therefore subject to a
lower efficiency limit, called the "ultimate efficiency" by Shockley and Queisser. Photons with
an energy below the band gap of the absorber material cannot generate an electron-hole pair, so
their energy is not converted to useful output, and only generates heat if absorbed. For photons
with an energy above the band gap energy, only a fraction of the energy above the band gap can
be converted to useful output. When a photon of greater energy is absorbed, the excess energy
above the band gap is converted to kinetic energy of the carrier combination. The excess kinetic
energy is converted to heat through phonon interactions as the kinetic energy of the carriers
slows to equilibrium velocity. Traditional single-junction cells have a maximum theoretical
efficiency of 33.16%.[9]

Solar cells with multiple band gap absorber materials improve efficiency by dividing the solar
spectrum into smaller bins where the thermodynamic efficiency limit is higher for each bin.[10].

As with any piece of energy converting technology, in order to maximize the amount of energy
produced, one can either increase the quantity of converters, or improve the efficiency of the
converters themselves. If this technology is scaled up, solar panels would require roughly half
the space to produce the same amount of energy as the systems in place today due to their greater
efficiency.

Although producing the initial was expensive, this experiment — and others like it — are crucial
to show the upper limits of what is possible in solar technology. It has established a precedent,
and the space in the market for another individual to make the cell cost effective.

Solar power already accounts for an increasing amount of energy produced worldwide, and it is
becoming ever cheaper. Therefore, it is important to continue to find ways that make solar
energy more and more effective so that it can surpass fossil-fuel based energy and become a
green energy source capable of helping our planet (and us) to survive the harm we have caused it

2 Discussion

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There are two approaches to increasing the
efficiency of solar cells:
i. Selecting the semiconductor materials with appropriate energy gaps to match the
solar spectrum and optimizing their electrical, structural and optical properties.
ii. Innovative device engineering, which can enable more effective charge collection as
well as better use of the solar spectrum, through single and multi- junction
approaches.

Researchers measure the performance of a photovoltaic (PV) device to predict the power the cell
will produce. Electrical power is the product of current and voltage. Current-voltage
relationships measure the electrical characteristics of PV devices. If a certain "load" resistance is
connected to the two terminals of a cell or module, the current and voltage being produced will
adjust according to Ohm's law (the current through a conductor between two points is directly
proportional to the potential difference across the two points). Efficiencies are obtained by
exposing the cell to a constant, standard level of light while maintaining a constant cell
temperature, and measuring the current and voltage that are produced for different load
resistances.

2.1 Which Factors Determine Solar Panel Efficiency?

Measuring the amount of sunlight that solar panel systems are able to convert into actual
electricity is a performance parameter. The outcome determines solar panel efficiency and is
always measured in percentages. If the sun produces 100% energy, solar systems are usually able
to process 15-22% of that sunpower into usable energy.

To determine solar panel efficiency, panels are tested at Standard Test Conditions (STC). STC
specifies a temperature of 25°C and an irradiance of 1,000 W/m2. This is the equivalent of a
sunny day with the incident light hitting a sun-facing 37°-tilted surface. Under these test
conditions, a solar panel efficiency of 15% with a 1 m2 surface area would produce 150 Watts.

Apart from the standard test conditions, solar panels are extensively tested for performance in
extreme conditions.

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 Extensive Testing of Solar Panels under Extreme Conditions

2.1.1 Extensive Testing of Solar Panels Under Extreme Conditions

No single customer wants to end up with solar panels that aren't technically sound. There are
major advantages to having the right type of solar panels installed for your home. In order to
guarantee the quality of a solar panel, it is extensively tested under extreme conditions.

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Wind is one the most predicted causes of solar cell damage. Solar panel manufacturers conduct
extensive wind tunnel testing to decrease potential damage.

Hail testing consists of firing artificial hail at a speed of 20 to 30 m/s. Solar cells remain
undamaged at these speeds.

Snow can be too heavy for a solar panel. Solar cells stop working when more than 5 cm of snow
accumulates on a solar panel and decreases solar panel efficiency by 100%.

Ice builds up on the surface of solar cells when no silicon coating is applied. The build up of ice
can potentially decreases solar panel efficiency by 25 to 100%.

Chemical residue to dissolve at least 20 mm of. rainfall has to land on the surface of the solar
cells. Research has shown a reduction of 0.2% in solar panel efficiency when they are covered
in a layer of chemical build up.

UV Degradation is a solar cell structure and can be delaminated by UV induced degradation.

Another consequence can be the discolouration of individual solar cells.

Damp heat testing is carried out to test the durability of solar panels in highly humid conditions.

Humidity can lead to corrosion and to module connection failure and an overall decrease of
solar panel efficiency.

Insulation Resistance is determined by material strength. In weak materials, current leakage

can occur on the edges of the solar panel.

Thermal Cycling can cause solar panel components to fail. These components include solar
cells, interconnections, solder bonds and module connections.

Upon installation, it is important to consider all the factors that could influence solar panel
efficiency. Moreover, it is essential to maximise output from the get go.

Why Perform Extensive Testing of Solar Panel Efficiency Under Extreme Conditions?

Solar panel efficiency testing is carried out in order to prevent low quality solar panels from
being sold in the market. The manufacturer has to prove that the solar cells have long term
durability and long term efficiency. Solar panels available in the UK market are certified by
first passing extensive testing.

Usually, solar cells are tested in state of the art, fully automated solar panel testing facilities. This
high standard in testing enables categorisation of solar panel efficiency in groups with similar
power outputs.

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3 Findings

The efficiency of a solar cell is determined as the fraction of incident power which is converted
to electricity and is defined as:

Where:
Voc is the open-circuit voltage;
Isc is the short-circuit current;
FF is the fill factor and
η is the efficiency.

A high-performance silicon solar cell has excellent optics (low reflection, low parasitic
absorption from free carriers and metal contacts, excellent light trapping); low levels of
avoidable recombination (at surfaces, in the junction, in the bulk, and around the cell
perimeter); and low resistive losses. Methods of achieving these attributes have been refined over
many decades. By the mid-1970s, Mobil, RCA, Sandia, Westinghouse, ARCO and others had
achieved efficiencies in the 14-17% range. Typical cell parameters were a VOc of 600-645 mV,
a J sc of 34-37 mA/cm 2 and a fill factor of 77-82%. Cells were fabricated on low resistivity p-
type substrates and incorporated random pyramidal texturing. However, surface passivation was
poor, and the bulk lifetime was low because of contamination during ingot growth or cell
fabrication. During the 1980s and early 1990s a sustained period of improvements to cell
efficiencies took place in various laboratories, principally at the University of New South Wales
(UNSW - Australia) and at Stanford University (USA). This is illustrated in the chart of best
research cell efficiencies maintained by the National Renewable Energy Laboratories

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The efficiency depends on the spectrum and intensity of the incident sunlight and the
temperature of the solar cell. Therefore, conditions under which efficiency is measured must be
carefully controlled in order to compare the performance of one device to another. Terrestrial
solar cells are measured under AM1.5 conditions and at a temperature of 25°C. Solar cells
intended for space use are measured under AM0 conditions. Recent top efficiency solar cell
results are given in the page Solar Cell Efficiency Results.

4 Conclusions

The parameters discussed in the paper (above) are realistically achievable using current process
techniques in a back contact solar cell. The main advantage of the back contact design is reduced
resistance losses. An open circuit voltage above 720 mV (35 fA/cm2) is compatible with 26%
efficiency. Taking account of the progress of SunPower, Sanyo and other companies, the
process requirements to achieve such an efficiency are likely to be achievable in a commercial
setting, albeit at a cost premium. In summary, laboratory and commercial efficiencies are likely
to progress to the 26-27% range over the next
few years.