272 Dynamics of Structure and Foundation: 2.

Applications

2.11 VIBRATION MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

2.11.1 Some background on vibration measuring

instruments and their application
Design of machine foundation is not only a case of design of foundation and restricting
the amplitude of vibration within the acceptable limit. In many cases if there are
sensitive instruments around the foundation a foundation specialist is required to
measure the vibration amplitude of the surrounding instruments (even though the
foundation itself is safe) to ensure their safe operation. There could be properties
or heritage buildings around the foundations that would require protection from the
foundation vibration. In such cases an important function is to measure the vibration
induced by the machine and its effect on the surrounding. This is usually done by
instruments which are generally termed as vibration pick up instruments.
In this section we will see what the theoretical background for development of these
machines is and how they are used to measure such vibrations.

2.11.2 Response due to motion of the support

In many situations vibration of a system is not due to forces acting directly on the
mass but resulting from the motion of the base. Consider the situations shown in
Figure 2.11.1.
Figure 2.11.1(a) shows the basics of a ground-measuring device. A vibration meter
shown therein measures only a relative displacement of the ground. The relative motion
is usually converted to an electric voltage by making the seismic mass a magnet mov-
ing relative to coils fixed in the case shown in Figures 2.11.1(b) and (c). The electric
voltage produced is a measure of the ground displacement. These types of instruments
are called velocity meters. The voltage generated is proportional to the rate of cutting
of the magnetic field and the output of the system will be proportional to the velocity
of the vibrating body. If a rotating drum is fixed and a needle is moving on a drum,
the relative motion of the instrument-soil system will be recorded on the drum [rela-
tive displacement = [z2 (t) −z1 (t)], z2 (t) being the displacement of the mass]. A basic
description of a seismic pick up is shown in Figure 2.11.1(c). The relative displacement
is the e. m. f. produced in the coil is the electrical signal from it mechanical counter-
part. A hypothetical pick up is shown in Figure 2.11.1(d) wherein a magnetic material
moves up and down in a electro-magnetic field and the electrical signal produced is a
measure of the actual ground displacement.

2.11.3 Vibration pick-ups

The vibration-displacement amplitudes are most often measured in soils and founda-
tions ranging from millionths to thousandths of a centimetre and occur at frequencies
ranging from less than 10 Hz to more than 100 Hz. The instruments required to mea-
sure motions of this magnitude are designed on the basis of a single-degree-of-freedom
system. Instruments based on this design have two distinct advantages. First, in the
S.D.O.F. system, the suspended mass is used as a reference from which vibrations
are measured because in cases such as ground-motion measurements no reference is
available. The second, some electrical phenomena are readily adapted to measuring

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 Analysis and design of machine foundations 273

Rotating drum
Vibration meter z2(t)

m z2(t) m

z2-z1
z2-z1

z1(t) z1(t)
(a). General set up (b). General set up of vibration pick up

Electromagnetic field
Rotating drum

z2(t)

m z2-z1

Displacement here is same as that of the ground;

i.e. the actual displacement is measured
z1(t)
(c). Seismic pick up (d). Hypothetical ground displacement measuring device

Figure 2.11.1 Seismic pick up.

z2(t)
m

k c

z1(t)

Figure 2.11.2 Displacement pick up.

the response of the system by producing an electrical signal that can be observed with
an oscilloscope or recorded for subsequent analysis.
An instrument that converts mechanical motion into an electrical signal is called a
transducer. For vibration measurements there are three general types of transducers,
namely, velocity, acceleration and displacement transducers.

2.11.3.1 Displacement transducer

In Figure 2.11.2 a schematic sketch of a displacement transducer is shown. Here we
record Zr (t) = z2 (t) − z1 (t).
Now if it so happens that

Zr (t) z2 (t)
⇒ 1 and ≪1
z1 (t) z1 (t)

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274 Dynamics of Structure and Foundation: 2. Applications

then whatever Zr we measure will be the z1 (t).

If ż2 (t) and z̈2 (t) are velocities and accelerations of the mass, one can write the
equation of motion of the system as

m z̈2 + c(ż2 − ż1 ) + k(z2 − z1 ) = 0 (2.11.1)

Again, let

Z(t) = z2 (t) − z1 (t), so Ż(t) = ż2 (t) − ż1 (t),

and Z̈(t) = z̈2 (t) − z̈1 (t), also, z̈2 (t) = Z̈(t) + z̈1 (t).

Substituting above, one can write:

mZ̈(t) + cŻ(t) + kZ(t) = −mz̈1 (t) (2.11.2)

If we assume a ground motion of the type: z1 (t) = A sin ωt

⇒ mz̈1 (t) = −mA ω2 sin ωt: Substituting the above, Equation (2.11.2) reduces to:

mZ̈(t) + cŻ(t) + kZ(t) = mA ω2 sin ωt (2.11.3)

Solution of Equation (2.11.3) is

mAω2 /k
Z= p sin (ωt − φ) = r2 κA sin(ωt − φ) = X sin(ωt − φ)
(1 − r2 )2 + (2Dr)2

2Dr 1
and tan φ = where κ = p (2.11.4)
1 − r2 (1 − r2 )2 + (2Dr)2

Solution of Equation (2.10.4) is shown in Figure 2.11.3. It shows that when r is

very high, Zmax /A approaches one. That is if we choose pick-ups having a very low
ωn (natural frequency of m-k system), r will be very high. This will result in Z ≡ A.
Also the phase angle φ, between the exciting force (ground motion) and the instrument
should be nearly zero or 180◦ . Figure 2.11.3 shows that φ is nearly 180◦ for large values
of r. Regarding D of the transducer, we see that the curve with D = 0.6 is better suited
as the amplitude is not amplified near the natural frequency and secondly Zmax /A
reaches unity faster.

2.11.3.2 Instrument with low natural frequency

Instruments with low natural frequency, the r-values approach a large value and the
relative displacement Z approaches A, regardless of the damping, D [Figure 2.11.3].
The mass here remains stationary while the supporting case moves with the vibrating
body. The instrument just described is the basis of what is known as seismometer.
These instruments are of large size as the relative motion of the seismic mass must
be of the same order of magnitude as that of the vibration to be measured. Since the

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 Analysis and design of machine foundations 275

D = 0.05
D=0
180
8 D = 0.0
140

Phase angle,
90
6 0.707
40
Zmax/A

D = 0.4
accelerometer

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
4
Frequency ratio, r

D = 0.6 D = 0.707

1
seismometer

0 1 2 4 6 8
0.2
Frequency ratio, r

Figure 2.11.3 Response curves.

seismic mass (m as shown in Figure 2.11.2) is a magnet moving relative to coils fixed
in the case, the voltage generated is proportional to the velocity of the vibrating body.
The displacement and acceleration can be obtained from this velocity type transducer
through integrator and differentiator provided in most signal-recording units.

2.11.3.3 Instrument with high natural frequency

Instruments with high natural frequency, the r-values approach a very low value
and the relative displacement Z approaches A, regardless of the damping, D [Figure
2.11.3]. Again, the denominator of Equation (2.11.4),
p
i.e. (1 − r2 )2 + (2Dr)2 approaches unity as r → 0.

Under this condition, Equation (2.10.4)

ω2 A Acceleration
➔ Zmax = Ar2 = = ,
ωn2 ωn2

implying that Zmax is now proportional to the acceleration of the motion, 1/ωn2 being
the constant of proportionality. Range of accelerometer can be seen from a magni-
1
fied plot of √ 2 2 2
for various values of D. For D = 0.7, the useful range is
(1−r ) +(2Dr)

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276 Dynamics of Structure and Foundation: 2. Applications

1.04
D=0
1.02 D = 0.6

1 1
(1- r2)2 + (2Dr)2

0.98 D = 0.65
D = 0.75
0.96
D = 0.7

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Frequency ratio, r

Figure 2.11.4 Acceleration error with varying frequency for various D.

0 ≤ D ≤ 0.2 with a maximum error of 0.01 percent (Figure 2.11.4). Electromagnetic

type of accelerometers generally utilizes a damping around D = 0.7, which not only
extends the useful frequency range but also prevents phase distortion for complex
waves.

2.11.3.4 Velocity transducers

The displacement transducer described in the preceding may also be used as a
velocity transducer. The relation between the relative velocity
p amplitude and the
2
ground-velocity amplitude is identical to Zmax /A = r / (1 − r2 )2 + (2Dr)2 , since
multiplication of Zmax and A by ω leaves the equation unchanged.
Output from a velocity transducer is generated by coil moving through a magnetic
field as mentioned earlier (Figure 2.11.5). Since voltage induced in the coil is directly
proportional to the relative velocity between the coil and the magnetic field, either the
coil or the magnet is made part of the mass and the other component is attached to
the frame.
2Di ω 2Dω
ωni ωn
Phase angles : tan φ1 = : tan φ = (2.11.5)
ω 2

2
1 − ωωn


1− ω ni

in which ω = operating frequency, frequency of the forcing function (say 50 Hz);

ωni = natural frequency of the instrument (say 4.75 Hz); ωn = natural frequency of
(soil mass + footing); Di = Damping coefficient of the instrument; D = damping
coefficient of (soil mass + footing).
For a soil-footing vibration system:
Phase angles for the above system (Figure 2.11.6) may be written as

2Di ω/ωni 2Dω /ωn

tan φ1 =
2 ; tan φ =
2 (2.11.6)
1 − ωωn 1 − ωωn
i

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 Analysis and design of machine foundations 277

m z 2 (t)
F0 sin t
Z(t) = A sin ( t- 1-
k c = relative displacement
z1(t) = A sin( t- (as Z ≈ A)

Figure 2.11.5 Ground displacement measuring instrument.

Pick up F(t), A(t)

F = F0 sin t F0 sin t

footing A0 sin t

t
soil

Figure 2.11.6 Footing-soil system.

where ωn is the natural frequency of soil + footing system; other terms are as defined
in the preceding.
To obtain D one may use (φ1 + φ) and (φ − φ1 ), if possible.

2.11.3.5 Acceleration transducers

There is no magnetic field here. The Figure 2.11.7 shows a schematic sketch of an
accelerometer. The principle is “when there is a pressure difference between the faces
it produces a voltage difference”, which is a measure of the force acting and hence the
acceleration of the mass of the crystal.
For the mass m of the crystal:

mz̈2 + c(ż2 − ż1 ) + k(z2 − z1 ) = 0; or mz̈2 + cż2 + kz2 = cż1 + kz1 (2.11.7)

Assuming,
z1 = A1 sin ωt, ż1 = A1 ω cos ωt, hence cż1 + kz1 = cA1 ω cos ωt + kA1 sin ωt
Thus√the right hand side of Equation (2.11.7) reduces to F sin (ω + φ1 ): in which
F = A1 c2 ω2 + k2 and tan φ1 = cω k
= 2D ωωn . The angle φ1 is the angle between force
(F) and the displacement of the ground z1 .

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278 Dynamics of Structure and Foundation: 2. Applications

Piezo-electric crystal

m Accln. measured
z2(t)

k c O
z1(t)

Figure 2.11.7 Accelerometers.

Solution of Equation (2.11.7) is given by

√
(A1 c2 ω2 + k2 )/k
z2 = p sin (ωt + φ1 − φ2 ) = A2 sin (ωt + φ1 − φ2 ) (2.11.8)
(1 − r2 )2 + (2Dr)2
p
A2 z2 max 1 + (2Dr)2
= =p (2.11.9)
A1 A1 (1 − r2 )2 + (2Dr)2

To have A2 /A1 ⇒ 1, r-value should very low. For a typical instrument where
fn = 3200 Hz (say) which much higher than the operating frequency normally encoun-
tered in practice. Within a range of r ≤ 0.2, such a situation is encountered. These are
shown in Figures 2.11.8 to 10.

2.11.3.5.1 Phase angles

2Dω
Between z1 and generating force: φ1 → tan φ1 = ;
ωn

2Dω/ωn
Between generating force and z2 : φ2 → tan φ2 =
2 (2.11.10)
1 − ωωn

Between z2 and z1
" #
2Dr 2Dr3
 
➔ φ = (φ2 − φ1 ) = tan−1 − tan−1 (2Dr) = tan−1
1 − r2 1 − r2 (1 − 4D2 )
(2.11.11)

An ideal accelerometer is the one in which instrument mass is servo-controlled to

have zero relative displacement; the force necessary to accomplish this becomes a
measure of the acceleration.

© 2009 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK

 D=0
180
140

Phase angle,
90
A2/A1

Range for making A2/A1 = 1 40 0.707

0
1 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Frequency ratio, r
0 6
1 2 4
r
√2

Figure 2.11.8 Accelerometer response.

D=.05 0.01 0.15

in radian

0.5 1
0
0 2 4 6
r

Figure 2.11.9 Phase angles.

φ1 z1

( φ2-φ1)
cωz1 F
kz1 z2

cωz1
φ2
kz2

Reference
2
mω z2 ωt

Figure 2.11.10 Vector diagram for phase angles.

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280 Dynamics of Structure and Foundation: 2. Applications

The piezoelectric crystals are mounted in such a manner that under acceleration
they are either compressed or bent to produce an e.m.f. which is ultimately converted
to electrical signals. The natural frequencies of such accelerometers can be made very
large, say in the range of 50 000 Hz. The piezoelectric crystal mounted accelerometers
can be made very small in size, may be of the range of 10 mm in diameter and height
and are very rugged to withstand a shock as high as 10 000 g acceleration. A typical
instrument may have fni → 1 Hz to 5 Hz useful frequency, foperating → 10 Hz to
2000 Hz which means r is more than 10. Sensitivity of such instruments may be in the
range 20 mV/(cm/sec) to 350 mV/(cm/sec) with maximum displacement = 0.5 cm
(double amplitude) [Note Arms = 0.707 A].
Sensitivity of crystal-type accelerometer is denoted either in terms of charge, i.e. pico-
coulombs = pC = 10−12 coulombs per g or in terms of voltage, i.e. millivolts = mV =
10−3 V per g. Sensitivity of a crystal-type accelerometer can be established from: say a
typical crystal accelerometer is 25 pC/g with crystal capacitance equal to 500 pF (pico-
farads). Voltage from the classical equation E = Q/C, gives the sensitivity = 25/500 =
0.05 V/g or 50 mV/g as sensitivity in terms of voltage. Again, if the accelerometer is
connected to a vacuum tube voltmeter through a 3 m long cable of capacitance 300
pF, the open circuit output voltage of the accelerometer is reduced to (50)(500)/(500
+ 300) = 31.3 mV/g. This loss can be avoided by using a charge amplifier, in which
case the capacitance of the cable has no effect.

2.11.3.6 Amplitude distortion

Normally the measured vibrations consist of a number of harmonic motions of various
frequencies. Amplitude distortion occurs in an accelerometer if the acceleration of one
harmonic is amplified more than another. From a harmonic solution, the amplitude
of acceleration can be written as ω2 A. For an equal amplification to acceleration, it
is desirable to have κ/ωn2 nearly same for all frequencies. For r = 0, κ = 1. Thus, the
amplitude distortion can be defined as the change in κ/ωn2 with respect to r = 0. The
percent amplitude distortion is

κ 1
ωn2
− ωn2
100 × 1
= 100 × (κ − 1)
ωn2

It can be observed from Figure 2.11.11 that accelerometer should be built with D
lying between 0.6 and 0.7 to minimize the amplitude distortion.

2.11.3.7 Phase distortion

This distortion occurs if the relative phase of the harmonics recorded is different from
that of the vibration to be measured. For zero distortion, the shift φ should increase
linearly with frequency of the harmonic motion. The phase shift at r = 1 is always π /2.
For zero distortion, the phase shift for 0 < r < 1 should be 90r degree. Hence phase
distortion in an accelerometer can be defined as: Phase distortion = (φ − 90r) degree.
It can be noticed in Figure 2.11.11 that appropriate damping in an accelerometer is
necessary for minimizing the phase distortion.

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 Analysis and design of machine foundations 281

To record any complex wave without changing its shape, the phase of all harmonics
must remain unchanged with respect to the fundamental. This requires that the phase
angle be zero or that all the harmonic components must be shifted equally. The first
case of zero phase shift corresponds to D = 0 for r < 1. The second case of equal time-
wise shift of all harmonics is nearly satisfied for d = 0.7 for r < 1 (Figure 2.11.12)
and when D = 0.70, the phase for r < 1 can be expressed by φ ≈ πr/2. Thus for d = 0
or 0.70, the phase distortion is completely eliminated.

10

D=0
Amplitude distortion in %

D = 0.6
+
0

D = 0.65
D = 0.75

D = 0.7
10
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Frequency ratio, r

Figure 2.11.11 Amplitude distortion in accelerometer.

Frequency ratio, r
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
2
0 D = 0.75

-2 0.70
Phase distortion

-4
0.6
-6
-8 0.5

-10
-12

Figure 2.11.12 Phase distortion in accelerometer.

Example 2.11.1

1 A manufacturer of vibration measuring instruments gives the following

specif ication for one of its vibration pick ups;
Frequency range: velocity response flat from 10 Hz to 1000 Hz.
Sensitivity: 0.096 V/cm/sec, both volts and velocity in rms values.

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282 Dynamics of Structure and Foundation: 2. Applications

Amplitude range: Almost no lower limit to maximum stroke between stops

of 0.60 in.

a This instrument was used to measure the vibration of a machine with

a known frequency of 30 Hz. If a reading of 0.024 V is indicated,
determine the rms amplitude.
b Could this instrument be used to measure the vibration of a machine
with known frequency of 12 Hz and double amplitude of 0.80 cm?
Give reasons.

Solution:

a Voltage = 0.024 V : Sensitivity = 0.096 V/(cm/sec) : Velocity = 0.024/0.096

cm/sec = 0.25 cm/sec.
f = 30 Hz : ω = 2π× 30 rad/sec : Amplitude = velocity/ω = 0.132 × 10−2
cm = 0.0133 mm.
f = 12 Hz : ω = 2π × 12 rad/sec : Amplitude = 0.40 cm.
Velocity = 2π × 12 × 0.40 = 30.159 cm/sec
b Now for f = 10 Hz : ω = 2π× 10, amplitude = 0.3 × 2.54 = 0.762 cm:
velocity = 0.762 × 20π = 47.88 cm/sec.
For f = 1000 Hz, velocity = 0.762 × 2000π = 478877.8 cm/sec
Velocity required is 30.159 cm/sec.
→ So the instrument cannot be used.

2 The sensitivity of a certain crystal accelerometer is given as 18 pC/g, with

its capacitance equal to 450 pF. It is used with a vacuum tube voltmeter and
its cable is 5 m long with a capacitance of 50 pF/m. Determine its voltage
output per g. Ans. E = 25.7 mV/g.

Solution:

Sensitivity = 18 pC/g, crystal capacitance = 450 pF.

Sensitivity in terms of voltage = 18/450 0.04 V/g [E = Q/C].
Total cable capacitance = 50 × 5 = 250 pF
Output voltage = 40 × 450/(450 + 250) = 25.7 mV/g

3 A vibration pickup has a sensitivity of 40 mV/(cm/sec) between f = 10 Hz

to 2000 Hz. If 1 g acceleration is maintained over this frequency range,
what will be the output voltage at (a) 10 Hz and (b) at 2000 Hz. Ans. (a)
624.5 mV, (b) 3.123 mV.

Solution:

Sensitivity = 40 mV/(cm/sec) = 0.04 V/(cm/sec)

a F = 10 Hz → ω = 2π × 10 = 62.83 rad/sec

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 Analysis and design of machine foundations 283

Acceleration: 1 g = 981 cm/sec2 → velocity = 981/62.83 = 15.61356 cm/sec.

Voltage = (40 × 981)/62.83 mV = 624.5 mV
b f = 2000 Hz → ω = 2π × 2000 rad/sec
Velocity = 981/(2π× 2000)
Voltage = (40 × 981)/(2π × 2000) = 3.123 mV.

2.12 EVALUATION OF FRICTION DAMPING FROM ENERGY

CONSIDERATION

1E = F0 Aπ sin φ, phase angle φ at resonance is 90◦ , and the energy input is F0 Aπ.
Energy dissipation, using friction concept is 4fA. Now, if 4f /πF0 < 1, energy input
exceeds the energy dissipation, and the excess energy accumulated over the cycles
builds up the amplitude of oscillation.
Consider an embedded footing, Figure 2.12.1.
Governing equation is

mz̈ + cż + Ceq ż + kz = F0 sin ωt (2.12.1)

Steady state solution is

F0 /k
A= q
2 sin (ωt − φ) = A0 sin (ωt − φ) (2.12.2)
2
(1 − r2 )2 + Ceq ωk + (2Dr)

A0 can be obtained from

r
4f 2
 

F0
 1− π F0
A0 = . (2.12.3)
k
q
(1 − r2 )2 + (2Dr)2

If we have two observations with forcing functions: F1 (t) = F01 sin ωt and F2 (t) =
F02 sin ωt, there will be two responses namely, A01 sin (ωt − φ) and A02 sin (ωt − φ).

F = F0 sin t

f/2 f/2
m

⇒
k c

Figure 2.12.1 Vibration of a footing with side friction.

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284 Dynamics of Structure and Foundation: 2. Applications

A0

r
r=1

Figure 2.12.2

Now using Equation (2.12.3) we can write

r
4f 2
 
A01 F01 1 − πF01
= (2.12.4)
A02 F02
r  2
1 − πF4f02

A01 , A02 , F01 and F02 are known and hence we can obtain a representative value of
f , the friction force.
Now, for D = 0 Equation (2.12.2) gives
r  2
  1 − 4f
F0 πF
A0 =
k 1 − r2

and the response is given in Figure 2.12.2.

But 4f < πF0 has to be satisfied for a real system, i.e. 4fA0 sin φ < πF0 A0 sin φ.
Hence, work done by the friction force is less than the work done by exciting force.
This implies building up of energy and hence a resonant situation will arise.
If f is large we have to use more exact analysis for solution as the motion cannot be
assumed to be harmonic.

2.13 VIBRATION ISOLATION

Vibratory forces generated by machines and engines are often unavoidable; however,
their effect on a dynamical system can be reduced substantially by properly designed
springs, which are referred to as isolators. Protection of the base against the action of
driving forces is called active isolation and protection against kinematic disturbances
is called passive isolation. Thus, when the noise-making source itself is isolated from
other structures, the isolation is an active isolation whereas when other structures
are isolated from the noise making sources, the isolation is a passive one. In active
isolation the basic problem is that of determining the force transmitted to the base;
in the theory of passive isolation, it is the problem of finding the amplitude of the
vibration the object is to be protected is forced into.

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 Analysis and design of machine foundations 285

F = F0 sin ωt

k c

Figure 2.13.1 Vibration isolation (active).

mω2x

FTr
F
cωx

φ
x kx

Figure 2.13.2 Vector diagram for the system shown in Figure 2.13.1.

2.13.1 Active isolation

Let us consider a system shown in Figure 2.13.1. Let F = F0 sin ωt acting on a SDOF
system.
The force transmitted to the ground through springs and damper:
q r  cω 2
FTr = (kx)2 + (cωx)2 = kx 1 + (2.13.1)
k

The vector diagram can be shown as in Figure 2.13.2.

Solution of the problem can be written as

F0
k F0
x= sin (ωt − φ) = κ sin (ωt − φ) (2.13.2)
k
p
(1 − r ) + (2Dr)2
2 2

Thus from Eqns. (7.13.1) and (7.13.2) one can write

q
FTr 1 + (2Dr)2
=p (2.13.3)
F0 (1 − r2 )2 + (2Dr)2

This is identical to the one developed for accelerometers.

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286 Dynamics of Structure and Foundation: 2. Applications

Thus the problem of isolating a mass from motion of the support point is identical
to that of isolating the disturbing forces. The ratio, FTr /F0 is called the transmissibility.
Without the loss of generality, setting D = 0, Equation (2.13.3) can be written as

FTr = κF0 (2.13.4)

Hence, the efficiency of active isolation depends on the magnitude of the magnifica-
tion factor κ to be used. This requires accordingly a low value of the natural frequency
ωn , which may be achieved by reducing the stiffness of the mounting of the machine
or by increasing the vibrating mass. √
Transmissibility
√ is less than unity only for r > 2. → Isolation is possible only for
ω/ωn > 2 (refer to Figure 2.11.3). An un-damped spring is superior to a damped
system in reducing transmissibility. However, to reduce amplitude near resonance
some damping is desirable.
It should be noted that vibration isolation of slow-speed machines (when the fre-
quency of the disturbance is not high) may require a very low natural frequency and
accordingly impractically great flexibility of vibration absorbers. To overcome this dif-
ficulty the vibrating mass is artificially increased in such cases. This serves a twofold
objective; first, the natural frequency is reduced and, second, sufficient stiffness of the
system is preserved.
It is possible to reduce the amplitude of vibration by supporting the machine on a
large mass or by other means is shown in Figure 2.13.3.
Again a set of elastic constraints (vibration isolators), in the form of steel springs or
rubber elements are introduced under the frame of the machine to be isolated.

m Machine

(a) (b)

Machine

(c) (d)

Figure 2.13.3 Active isolation.

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 Analysis and design of machine foundations 287

Two equally efficient types of mounting are in use. These are supporting type when
vibration isolators are placed under the base of the machine (Figure 2.13.3a) and
suspension type when vibration isolators are placed above the bottom of the base in
the latter case the vibration isolators may be either in compression (Figure 2.13.3b)
or in tension (Figure 2.13.3c). If horizontal vibration prevails in the machine to be
isolated, a pendulum type suspension may be used to advantage (Figure 2.13.3d).
To keep transmissibility same, k must be increased in the same ratio so that
(m + M)/k remains the same.
Say for some transmissibility, if we increase the mass m to m + M

q
FTr 1 + (2Dr)2
=p (2.13.5)
F0 (1 − r2 )2 + (2Dr)2

k must be increased in the same proportion so that (m + M)/k remains the same.
Thus as k → increases

F0
k
x= p sin (ωt − φ) (2.13.6)
(1 − r ) + (2Dr)2
2 2

→ x will be reduced.
When damping is negligible

FTr 1
Transmissibility = = (2.13.7)
F0 ω 2


ωn −1

√
where it is understood that ω/ωn to be used is always greater than 2.

2.13.2 Passive isolation

Consider the case in which, there is a vibration of the ground in Figure 2.11.7 instead
of the force, F.
Following Equation (2.11.9), we can write

mẍ2 + cẋ2 + kx2 = cẋ1 + kx1 (2.13.8)

If x1 (t) = X1 sin ωt, Equation (2.13.8) reduces to

mẍ2 + cẋ2 + kx2 = X1 [k sin ωt + cω cos ωt]

p
= X1 k2 + c2 ω2 sin (ωt + φ) = Fx sin (ωt + φ) (2.13.9)
cω
where tan φ = = 2Dr. (2.13.10)
k

© 2009 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK

288 Dynamics of Structure and Foundation: 2. Applications

(a) (b)

Figure 2.13.4 Passive isolation.

The steady state solution is

p
x 2 = X1 1 + (2Dr)2 κ sin (ωt − ψ + φ) (2.13.11)

in which
2Dr
tan ψ = (2.13.12)
1 − r2

The passive isolation is used to protect instruments and precision machines against
vibrations transmitted from the supporting structure. The amplitude of vibration of
an isolated object is expressed in terms of the amplitude of vibration of the base by
Equation (2.13.10). Thus a passive isolation should use the same idea of making the
mounting soft, as in the case of an active isolation. It is generally required that the
natural frequency of the isolated object shall not exceed one-fourth of the frequency of
vibration of the base. If the frequency of the disturbance is not known, it is necessary
to introduce in elastic pads in the mounting system. Thus the irregularities of a road
may have the shape of a sine curve with the wave length varying over a wide range.
Therefore, there is a real danger that the body of a moving vehicle may be in a state
of resonance; to limit resonant amplitudes the vehicle suspension is always provided
with hydraulic shock absorber which dissipate a considerable amount of energy during
vibration [Figure 2.13.4(a)]. This absorber system has a disadvantage: it does not
afford sufficient comfort of passengers when subjected to shocks which are transmitted
to the automobile body with almost no relief. To obtain the necessary softness of
the suspension it may be provided with additional flexible elastic damper shown in
Figure 2.13.4(b).

2.13.3 Isolation by trench

An exhaustive field study was carried out by Woods to examine the effectiveness
of open trenches as barrier for vibration isolation. Lamb analysed the problem of
the propagation of tremors over the surface of an elastic solid. He solved the problem
of spreading out of a symmetrical annular wave disturbance around a point source.

© 2009 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK