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 Scour
Bridge

bs
Y.u. CHrgw

]t tlresi.g s-,ubniEted i.n p:a,rttraa furlfitnelrt rof tb,e

requiireneglils, f,or the degrae of,
Doeto= of Fh.ilosopfiy,

SEpervised bv
Prro'fess .8..I. Raudkivi and br E.W. Hellvi1le

Depitrttllellt of Cj,viJ. Engirneerinrrg

Arickland university
Privat€ Bag
^Bllokaar.d
,NeJre &eAl.and

November 19,94
to nly utife
Abstract
Local scour at cylindrical bridge piers in both uniform and
non-uniform cohesionless sediments was investigated
experiment.ally. The airn of the study was to improve under-
standing of local scour arounii bridge piers with sediment
transport. Three empiricaL functions which relate the
equilibrium depth of scour with approach velocitv, flow
depth and sediment size were obtained for uniform sediments.
The effects of arrnouring and sediment sizes were also
investigated for non-uniform sediments.
The experimental results for the variation of equilibrium
scour depth (normalised with the pier diameter) with
approach velocily show that the equilibrium scour depth reaches
a maximurn at the thresholC condition of ttre bed- sediment.
Above the threshold velocity, the scour ilepth first
decreases and then increases agai.n with increasing velocity
to a maximun at the transition flat bed coniii.tion. At stil1
higher velocities, the equilibrium scour depth decreases
due to the formation of antidunes. Lesser scour depths are
recorded with ripple forming sediment at threshold conditions
because the bed associated with a ripple forning sedinent
is unable to remain planar. In live-bed conditions, the
effect of rippling diminishes for increasing velocity and
becomes negligrible for Uo,/Uoc > 2.

The experimental results for the variation of equilibriun

scour depth with flow depth show that the trend for Live-bed
scour of increasing seour depth with increasinq Yo,/D until
a maximum influence of Yo,/D is reached, is similar to that
for clear water scour as shown by Ettema (f980) ' A flow
depth adjustment factor, K(Y.,/D), which is related to Yo/D
with D,/dro as the third parameter is presented which
 t-1

indicates to a designer the sequence of estimation of the

effect of flow depth on the equilibrium dePth of scour'
The effect of sedirnent size on the eguilibrium scour depth
is presented in terms of the reLative size of pier to
sediment, o/dso' A fanillr of curves' at various varues of
rJo/rJo", which relate il.\r/D anci D,/dtO for live-bed scour was
obtained. The curves show that the equilibrium scour
depth increases almost linear}l' for increasing values of
D,/dsO until it reaches the value of D/dUo = 50 after which
the scour depth becomes independent of D,/d50' A sinilar
trend was obtained by Etterna (1980) for clear lvater scour'
For design purposes' the data for large values of Ya/D
are presented in terms of a sediment adjustment factor'
K(D/d), which is shown to be independent of the flow
velocitlr. Both flow depth and sediment size functions
include results by Shen et al (1966) ' Ettema (f980) ' Chee
(1982), and the Present study'

Arnouring and sediment size pJ'ay an important role in

reducinq the equilibrium scour depth for non-uniform
sedi-ments. The latter is particularly significant in
laboratory experirnents where the size of the pj-er is generally
gmallrelativetothesizeofthecoarseparticlesinnon_
uniforn sedj-ments. Experiments were conducted under
dynarnic equilibrium conditions where there is continuous
sediment input from upstream of the scour hole such
that at
equilibriun, the amount of sediment entering the bridge
site is equal to that leaving' Both the effects of
armouring and seiliment size diminish for increasing
velocity'
At high velocity where all the sedinent particles are
mobile, the non-uniform sediment behaves like a uniform
sediment. Hence' armouring does not occur and the
based on the
equivalent size used for sedirnent adjustment is
d'o size of the sediment bed' At low velocity'
arrnouring
is prominent and adjustrnent of
at the base of the scour hole
D,/d is based on the d9O size of the original mixture'
 1tr

Arx ,alternatise coaditioh ean exigt ln riatural liv€rs in

contra5t to the d"yoarric equlllb-ri;uro cgnrjlit-io-as sJ,sB1ated ln
fJ:is studly. Ehts' tg, rrr.her'e thg uEl-streart river :ls al:mouf'ed
slreh tbat there is r,itt!,e or Eo sedlJaent ,tnput to the icout
hotre; trt is postulated that, ia tlris ca€e' the egr.ril.lbqiwo
scout il€pt'h ean approach the naxinun equS,,Iibriun soour
depttr f,ot clear fatef, enciitisne (i.,e. d",,/D + 2-31 vhelr. tlre
aBBroach velocity. is eqrral to the eritical velocity of the
non-uni.folm sedisent.

F,tnatlir, a desi'gn f1o!t oharL i.s Presented f,or est-iEation o€

the equllibriun deptb of loeal ccolrr for ileeign Plirpoaes.
trn 1.lwe-=s-ed saoltir rthere b€d'f,eatirreg are Present, thq
results show tlrat half the height of the bedl features can
be adrited to the est,i.imated eguill.brltm sc'rour depth.
 Acknowledgements

Thi-s study was carried out under the supervision of

Professor A.J. Raudkivi and Dr B.w. tvlelville to rthom I
express my sincere appreciation for their guidance, encouragie-
ment and invaluable advice.

A grant provided by the National Roads Board of New Zealand

enabled the study to be conducted. The financial
support of lhis grant is gratefully acknowledged.

In the course of the study, I have received much advice and

assistance from many people. In particular I wish to
thank the fol"lowinq:

Dr Norman La\"rgun for his encouragement throughout

the study;
Messrs. C. Ra!'mond arld c. BOUVnnan for their
assistance in the laboratory;
Mr Cyril Collins for the photographic vtorkt
Mrs E. Arecco for her competent typing of the
thesis;
Fel1ow post-graduate students, especially
Mr c.o, Chin, for their encouragement and he1p.
Last, but not least, I wish to thank my parents and wife for
their patience, understanding and love during the course of
the studv.

l_v
 Sy*boIs

CoDstailt
b 0oastllnt
B Widtb ef th€ fl.ut"re
G 'Cof!e,sivenes€
e !Eota.I- sediimerlt eoac€atratioil, I by Weigbt
gs SediJd€at conccntr€tilsa iri t-he s,edineut l,ine,
? by weigbt
-w Sedl.inent eooeerttrq.tlon ir' tlre wa€er Line,
t bl rseisht
d, dso l'lean partic.tr'e s,!?q,
n Pier dti:dnrerter
d" lqcal scour depth
dav. ds.,
'da"" SEuillbr.:Lle, scour delrt_h
fl{rnax},
*sgm Maximr4t se6ur deptb'
d{o,t"},
d""" ![ilri.strn scg,Ur cte1tlr
Fboude Nunbe.r
F.
-e qroude !{qdber at. ctiltiqa.l ?eloaity oS', ttr€t beil
seditmgrt
g gr
avltat iofta1 acc,eL:ra€ion
tlo Beight Of, bea featlele
Ii1, E2 P.urlip head,
ub T,ocal- seorrr dqe to bed fsr.rns
Hp trroeaJ. seciltE ilue to Lf|ei B'ier
E; k' SLz€, o'f enUrai,rrm 4t aOlle
K(Dy'd ) Sediment gize edj:Ust$elxt factot
Kt ,Fierahape fagtsr
r(g^y'D) Fl.ow deptb adjr,rst$enf factor
 vl.

Ko Flow aligrunent factor

Nl, N2 Speed in RPM

N" sedinent number, IJo/'fGIrfi

P Protrusion of a particle into the flow
q F1o\r rate per metre width
qs The rate of loca1 scouring in volume per unit time
gs1 The rate of sediment transported into the scour
hole in volume per unit time
^Ys2 4!ta f:+6 of sedi$ent transported out of the scour
hole in volume per unit time
Os Flo$, rate j.n the sedj:nent line
Ow Flow rate in the water line
Otot Total flow rate
r Correlation factor
Re Reynolds Number
oo
C gy csropg
Errct
Fnararr l

S" Sgecific Aravity of sedjment

+ rFimA

T Temperature
U, Uo l"lean vel-ocity
u* Shear velocitV, fi-ffi
u*^ Critical shear velocity for particle entrainment
Uo. Critical mean velocity for particle entrainment
uob Mean velocity which corresponds to the (first)
rnaximum J.oca1 equilibrium scour depth with
non-uni.form sediment
Ur--.r
1oeo.t
Mean velocity above which armouring of a bed
does not occur
Vmax Pier downflow velocitY
w FaI1 velocitY
Yo, Yo Flow dePth
z Nornal distance from channel wall
a Static angle of rePose
y Specifi-c weight of water
ys SPecific weight of sediment
A d" Fluctuatj.on of the scour depth, ds{max}- ds{nin}
 vi.i

I ei,reuhatlon
o Dis€Ilslonlees Bh,sqr gtler8=, rf.f ts" - Ucd
0c crltical value of 0 for paEtlcle entrainnent'
uf,olts, - I)sd
l, I$av.alenEtb
v Kinenati.a viseositl'
p Deosity of fl,uid
og Stasdar<I dleviation
To tsemFot€1. neElll bed sn€ar. ia,tr€6:5
Ioe , !tr, 'C--r5ti,gal ghear etress for PaitLcle entf,,ai:limeDt
$ Sh€'ar stresa qorresllo-ndlnE tq ttre gm,al'a partleleer
o.r 's}lEf:ace dlag
r$ :Bhea.'' s,tresE EofresPoad.lag to the bed featarre,
sr fornD drag
ToSb gtJq'eq[ xtower
U Shape fae.tor
Contents
Fage No
Abstraet i
Ackaowleil,gerents iv
'slqb-ols tt
Coot€nts vi!i
CEAFEEA I : Iutr.o.duotlon t
E'eope af, Inueattrgatj;on 2

eIIAPTER 2 : Literature Surqey 4

t.1 ftrtroduetio+ 4
2.2 ,Xjocal Scour. ,eronnit B'ridge Piers 4
2.3 lteebantisq o,f f,oea]. Scorrrr 7
Z.n.L trlirtroduetloa 7
2,3-a, Eorseshoe 'ltortex, .tndt
Dqqnflo-rt 18

2.3.3 of, Forgeglroe

Deveiloprlent,
Vort€x abd 6cour Eitle 14
2,3.4 Yll.alke Vorticeg 16
2.4 Fastrorg A,ffeetihE tr,ocal Seour
iat Fiers \7
2:.rl.L trntroduction T7
2;4.1.I X'!ui'd t7
2-1.J.,2 Sire !8
2,4,1.3 pierr 18'
2.4,1.4 Sedinett 19
2.{.1.5 Plow 2:8
2.4,2 utrtreet of $1ryxsoach $low
Vetrocity 29
2.4.3 :[enporal DeveloErEot of
Loeal Seour 37

vJii
 1X

Paqe No

2.4.4 Effect of Flow Depth 4L

2.4.5 Effects of Sedirnent Size
and Sediment Gradation 47

CHAPTER 3 Experimental Apparatus and Prograrnme 56

3.1 Introduction 55
3.2 The Apparatus 55
3.3 Bed MateriaLs 60
3.4 Piers and scour Deptb !4easurement 62
3.5 Approach Flow 67
3.6 Experimental Procedure 77

CE.LPTER 4 Results and Discussion 6Z

4.1 Introduction 6Z
4.1.1 Live-Bed Scour at Bridge
Piers with Uniform sediments 82
4.L.2 Effect of Velocity 87
4.I.3 Time Effects 104
4.L.4 Effect of Flow Depth 114
4.1.5 Effect of Sediment Size 121
4.1.6 Summary 126
4.2 tive-Bed Scour at Bridge Piers
with Non-Uniform Sedirents L28
4.2.L Effect of Approach Velocity 130
4.2.2 Influence of D/d 140
4.2.3 Suggestions for Further
Research 146

CHAPTER 5 Sumnary andConclusions 148

5.1 Local Scour with Uniform Sedi.nents 149
5.1.1 Effect of velocity (Uo,/Uoc) L49
5.1.2 Ef fect of Flovt Depth (Yo,/D) f51
5.L.3 Effect of Sediment Size
(p/dso) L52
5.2 Local Scour with Non-Unifonn
Seilirnents 1q?

5.3 A Design Guide for Local Scour

Around Bri-dge Piers Itr:
 Paqe ffo

BibJ.iograPhy' 159

n'PPEIVDIX .& : El(Fefiilletrtal Deta f,o.r lttiifosr Sedislents n59

AtrPEluEIX B r Experjlllielltal Data f,or Soi,l-ttai.f,orm

Sedinents r,17

APPENDTX C Eedineat franslrort Ra,te 185

APPSDIA D losal Scqur at Elorgated Pler:s

tf,f,ec,t of Footlag on Live-Bedl Scour
Deptlr trg4'

CPFE}IDIX E : PieE shaFe AdJus.@eBt tr'aqtor. Ks,'

for No€€ forqa 198

.APPE!{DIIr 3 Pier Aughxo€tnt ractor, Ko 199

l3pmfDlx G Error AlnalJsls. e00

Chapter 1

rl.
lntrodttctrcn
An alluvial river beil is subject to continuous change.
Flovring water erodes, transports and deposits sediment j.n
the river, altering its bed elevation and adjusting its
boundaries. Changes in bed elevation may be due to
natural causes or by the activities of man which lead to
changes of the river bed or river geometry, Scour around
bridge piers is just one example of the many different
effects resulting from human interference with the river.
Scour holes created by flow of water past bridge piers
are a major cause of failure of bridge pier foundations.
There are several separate processes which can lead to a
change of bed elevation at. a bridge site.

I. General scour: This is the aggradation or degradation

of the bed level r either as a,trend
or temporal. The former may be
associated with a change or the river
regi-ne and the latter with the passing
of a flood. This tlrpe of scour
occurs lndependently of the presence
of the bridge.
z- Localised scour: This is al-so known as constriction
scour. The reduction in the cross-
sectional area of the flow of r^rater
due to the presence of piers and
abutnents, wil-l lead to an increase
in the flow veJ.ocity, This will
increase the erosive power of the
flow, and hence lower the bed eleva-
tion over the area affected by the
constriction.
3. Local scour: Thj.s is directJ-y caused by the presence
of a pier or abutment which interferes
hrith the flow of water past the pier or
abutment.

The total scour at a bridge pier may be the result of one

or all of the causes mentioned above- However' since
these three types of scour arise from ilifferent causest
it is essential to cleterrnine the scour due to each cause
separately and add their contributions in oriler to predict
the maximum possible scour at a bridge site for iiesign
purposes.

Local scour at a bridge pier can further be divide€l into

two different phases. The first phase is clear water
scour which occurs when no general scouring or sediment
transport takes place. lhe second phase is the live-beil
scour (also kno+rn as scour with sediment transPort) where
general sedirnent transPort occurs. Many earlier studies
do not dj-fferentiate between these two phases of scourinq.
The more recent and more systematic studies have focussed
on the clear water scour phase. There is, hencer a lack
of data associated with local scour at bridge piers with
sediment transPort.

SCOPE OE IN/ESTIGATION

This report is prirnarily concerned with l-ocal scour at

bridge piers with sedlment transport.
The primary object of this study was to investigate the
effects of sediment properties on live-bed scour' since
local scour around a bridge pier involves the compJ-exities
of a three dimensional turbulent flow field around a pier
as well as those of sediment txansport' an experimental
rather than an analYtj-cal approach to the problem was
preferred.
 3

tlrie studli buLtds, upon ttre resrdlts of, the Etudles by

ltelvitle (I9?5),. Ettena (1975), gtte[ta (1980) and
ghee (t9:82), sleilrFi'ller rrq€ lrl&arlllr ooucerned wlth tlie
uecllnii{slii of lgcal e6ouc at ay].trndriea1 brldge pd-ersil
EtE€Fta lnvestigatetl the efleste roriE: sedinlent oih the develop-
ue.st ef clear wate! gcolrF whertias Chee lttas lnterested {n
the relationstdP beFeen seour depttr iiDd neari vetroclty ia
tbe livc-beC condLt'i.orr. IhdE studly ia malnly csnoerned
wl-t-b the effeqts of sedtfunent srr ttre equillbrimt seout hoxe
ig a. l{v.-e-bed eEntlj,tlO,n. $nphesis; is Blaced on tbe
e-Efe ts of secli.mdnt raize andl cediaent rlpn-urliforrn'lty on'
the^. d.evelopBent of a live-bect scour'
 Ch"pter 2

Literature Suruey
z.L INTRODUCTION

Bridges are clesigned to accommodate floods of certain

magnitude without failure. Nevertheless' many bridges do
fail and a large proportion of these failures are attri-
buted to scour around bridge piers. Eence' an accurate
estination of the like1y depttr of scour is essential to
a safe and econornical desj-gn of bridges.
there is a large amount of literature published on
loca1 scour at bridge piers in beds ofcohesionless sedirnents.
In this chapter, a critical review of relevant literature
is presented and concepts which are controversial are
highlighted.
The chapter begins with some general conments on clear
water scour and live-bed scour. fhe mechanism of local
scour is reviewed and a brief resume of malerial relating
to the effects of various parameters on local- scour is
presented. Related topics, including the mechanics of
particle entrainment, bed forms, channel roug'hness,
resistance to flow and sediment transport rate are reviewed
next. Finally, the effects of approach ve)-ocity, time'
flow depth, sedj-rnent size and sediment gradation on the
scour depth are examined.

2.2 LOC.qL SCOUR AF,OUND BRIDGE PIERS

shen et aL (1959) defined local scour as "the abruPt

decrease in bed elevation near a pier due to erosion of
bed material by the local flow structure induceC bY the
pier".
4
Generally, local scour can be classified according to the
amount of sedinent being transported into anC out of the
scour hole. The rate of scouring frorn a scour hole is
the difference between the amount of sediment entering and
that leaving the hole:
o= Ys2 asl (2. 1)

where q. = the rate of local scouring in volume per

unit time
Qsl = the rate of sediment transport into the
scour hole in volume per unit time
9s2 = the rate of sedi:nent transport out of the
scour hole i-n volume per unit tjme
This leads to a definition of two types of local scour:
(a) Clear water scour: (9"1 = 0), where sediment is
rernoved from the scour hole l"i-thout replenishment.
Clear water scour occurs when the beit material
upstream of the scour hole is not in motion. In
this case, the bed shear stresses a\tay from the
scour hole will be equal to or less than the critlcal
shear stress of the particles that make up the bed.
The critical shear stress is ilefined as the shear
stress above !'rhich the bed particles will beqin to
be set into motion by the flow. Generally, the bed
upstream of the scour hole associated with a clear
water scour is assumed to be planar. With clear
water scour, the alePth of the scour hole continues
to grorr until equilibrium is reached, i.e., when the
combination of the temporal mean bed shear stress and
the turbulent agitation near the bed is no longer
able to remove bed material from the scour hole at
the pier.
(b) Live-bed scour, (gsl, gs2 > 0), also known as local
scour with sediment transport, where there is a
general movement of sediment both upstream and ilown-
stream of the scour hole. The bed shear stress in
this case !-s larger than the critical shear stress of
the becl.
vtith }ive-bed scour, bed features aPpear on the
approach flow bed. Their formation is dependent on
the shear stress excess (to - to"), flow depth'
sediment sizes' etc. Equilibriurn scour depth is
reached when the ti:ne average amount of sediment
enterinq ttre scour hole is equal to the time-average
amount of sediment leaving the hole (i-e., 9"1 = 9"2).

Another condition can be defined using equation 2.1, i.e.r

the no scour condition (Q= = 0). carstens (1966) suggested
a value for Lhe velocity at which loca1 scour begins.
He defined a sediment number:
u
N' = ,{-I-sa (2.2\

$rhere U = mean velocity of the undisturbed flow

= the specLfic gravity of the sediment
I = gravitational acceleration
d = mean grain diameter of the sediment
and defined Nscl .s the sediment nurnber at which 1ocal
scour begins and Nsc2 as the vaLue when continuous sedirnent
transport occurs. Carstens stated "for irrotational
flow, the velocity at the sides of the pier is twice the
approach velocity. Therefore, a reasonable approximation
is that Nscl = (Nsc2/2)". naudkivi and sutherland (1981)
also stated that "local scour at the pier was initj-ated
at a velocity approxirnately one half of that required to
cause the maxjmum scour depthn. Both these statements
imgly that when the flow velocity is less than or equal
 1

to about half of the critical velocity for sediment entrain-

ment, local scour wiLl not develop.
2.3 MECEANTSM OF LOCAT SCOUR

2.3.I Introduction
The basic nechanism creating the loca1 scour arounil a bridge
pier has been identified as the systern of vortices which
developsaround the pier- The strength and size of the
vortex syscem depend on the 'bluffnessr of the pier. The
vortices have been separated into cornponents identified as:
I. Downflow in front of the Pier
1 Horseshoe Vortex
? wake Vortex
4. trailing vortex (only if the pier is completely
submerqed in water)

rhe vortex-slrstems around a Srier are shown in Figure 2'l:

Surfoce roller

d- ?
\lD
q\I I
b
"4
ah

Horseshoe
vortex
Scour hote

Figure 2,1 Vovter SUEtens around a Bridge

Piev' - 3audkioi anC Sutherland (1987)
 8

2.3.2 Horseshoe Vortex and Downflow

shen et a1 (1956, 1959) identified two pier shapes, blunt-
nosed and sharp-nosed. A blunt-nosed pier causes the
formation of a stagnation pressure fietd about its stagna-
tion plane. If the pressure field is strong enough, a
three dimensional separatj-on of the boundary layer takes
place at the base of the pier. The boundary layer rolls
up into a vortex ahead and along the sides of the pier.
This vortex is catled the horseshoe vortex. Raudkivi and
sutherland (199r) described the horseshoe vortex in loca1
scorrr as "resembling a very thick rope caught by the pier
with its ends traiJ-ing downstream . . . ". Hence, a blunt-
nosed pier is defined as a pier which is capable of inducing
a pressure gradient Large enough to initiate the process
just described.
On the other hand, a sharp-nosed pier is one which is incapable
of inducing a sufficiently large pressure fielit to cause the
three dimensional boundary layer separation, and hence the
formation of the horseshoe vortex. Shen et aI (L965)
stated that in the case of a sharp-nosed pier, "the curvature
of the flor.r streamlines near the upstream end of the pier
is the major factor in d.etermining the maqnitude and location
of maximun scour depth along srith the vortex shediling
phenomena from the downstream side of the cylinder, assumingi
that the pier is aligned with the f1ow". Since the horse-
shoe vortex does not form in the case of a sharp-nosed pier,
i-t follows that the rnaximum scour depth is less than the
maximum scour depth associated with the blunt-nosed pier.
However, it needs to be pointed out that a sharp-nosed pier
may behave as a blunt-nosed pier if the aqproach flow is
not parallel to the major axis of the pier (refer to Figures
2.2a and b).
Direction
--1D
of flow
4

Figune 2.2 (a) :

A Sharp- Figure 2.2(b) : A Elunt-noeed
nosed Pier fLEP
Che established view of the horseshoe vortex is that the
horseshoe vortex is composed of cross-stream filaments of
the boundary layer over the loraer surface which are advectetl
towards and bent around the bridge pier. Morton (1992)
criticised this traditional vj.ew by stating that "in a
stream with uniform velocity, U and a boundary layer over
the lower boundary, the gross vorticity of the boundary
layer measured as circulation per unit streamwise length
is -U. ... and its mean velocity of advection in the
boundary layer is -0.5U, approximatel.y. The rate of
advection of circulation toward the pier is therefore -0.5U2u

ctI
A+ -0.5u2 (2.3)

He stateil that since the vortex filarnent cannot be drawn

past the pier, the circulation of the horseshoe vortex will
be:

| = -O.5U2t (2.4',)

where t = time

Thus, the strength of a horseshoe vortex would grohr to an

infinite value as tjjne Frogresses. This cannot be correct
when compared to the observecl finite value of the horseshoe
vortex. "The arg,urnent of the horseshoe vortex must be
fallacious" concluded Morton. Eence, he proposed a new
explanation to the problem as follows:
 10

1. As the flow approaches the pier, it experiences an

adverse pressuire gradient over the lower boundary
1ayer. This causes a reduction in velocity in the
main stream. In other words, the vorticity generated
is of opposite sign to that of the boundary laver at
the lower boundary (refer to Figure 2.3) '

Figare 2.3 : ReDresentation of aetual flou shouing the

arch
,ootu, fi'Lanents of the boundarg Layer(1982)
toTna?d.s' the pi-et' aceonding to Mo"ton
2. A1on9 the line of syrnmetry of the pier (referred to
as the x-axis), both tbe drop in velocity across
the boundary la1'er and the circulation per unit
streamwise direction decrease-

At the sarne time, lhe pressure rises and the gross

circuLation (I) in the boundary layer per unit
length along the x-axis decreases to zero at the
base of the pier (point S) (refer to Figure 2'4)'
 I1

u S' R'

S R

Figure 2.4 Viet of the Upst?edn Faee of the

PLET

the vorticity reduces to zero at S and is zero along

the entire leading edge SS' . lhe vortex f ilarnent
has a 'point' of discontiluity along SSr.

lhe vortex filament diviiles into two parts al-ong SS I

which are swept to the right (RR') and the left (LL')
as the vorticity is being generated on the pier
surface.
rhe parts of the vortex fj.laments (LL' and RR') rnove
downstream along the circumference of the cylinder
and separate to produce the Karman vortices in the
wake of the pier.

!4orton added that 'rwhen the vorticity generation in flow

past a surface-mounted cylinder is taken into account' the
vortex filaments of the boundarl' layer connect smoothly
to filaments that g'ro\d on the cltlinder and are advected Past
the cylinder without delay. There is consequently no
accumulation of vorticity upstream of the cylinder' and no
horseshoe vortex whatever".

Nevertheless, it needs to be Pointed out that in the case

 L2

of loca1 scour around bridge piers, Mortonrs model applies

only to the early stages of scouring when the bed i.s near
pJ"anar. Vthen a hole has been excavated by the downflov, whieh
is caused by the stagnation pressure on the upstream side of
the pier, the oncoming flow separates at the edge of the hole,
(simiLar to the ground roller of a dune) (refer to Figure
2.5), creating a circulation or rol1er within the scour hole,
known as the horseshoe vortex. Ilence, although it is
impossible. as indj.cated by Morton, for the horseshoe vortex
to develop on a planar bed sj-nce there is no circulation
associated with the f1ow, it can develop in the scour hole
once it has been scoured by the downflow.

Direction
+
of flow

t'
I
l' I
I I
I I

Figure 2.5 Deuelopnent of the llorseshoe

Vo"tes

fn comnenting on thi-s same phenomenon, Morton (1982)

added that "the observed vortex around piers, prolruding
from plane boundaries, are no mole than a vreak, secondary
advection serving to reinforce the role of diffusion in
reducing the gross boundary layer circulation to zero as
the pier is approached. This is, however, of Little
importance in terms of bed erosion, since erosion is caused
by the momentun of a stream of fluid inpinging on the
 13

river bed at the base of the pier, and not by the Particular
gradient of the velocity field representing vorticity " "
There is relatively little change in the clownflow which
dividesnearthebottomofthescourholeinfrontofthe
pier. and spirals downstream past it' This, together with
thegroundroller,iswhatisobservedastherhorseshoe
vortex t ' .

The dovrnflow in front of the pier is the main cause of

erosion of Local scour arounit bridlge piers' It acts
sornewhatlikeaverticaljetinerodingthebedmaterial.
Figure 2.6 shows downflovr velocity measurenents by Ettema
(1980) at a 65 rnrn dianeter pier in an aLr flow with approach
velocity L2.2m/s, and a pier Reynold's Number of 5'4 x 10"'
The relationship proposed by Shen et aI (L965) for the
strength of the downflow impinging on a planar be't at the
baseofacytindricalpierisalsoshown.Dataobtainedby
t'telvil1e (l-975) in a water flol'r with approach velocity
0.25 m/s and a pier diameter = 50'8 rrn (Re = l'27 x I0")
are included in Figure 2.6.

Ettema gave reasons for the discrepancy between measured

values and predicted values (using shen et aI equation) '
Ite stated that 'the relationship of Stren et al is based
on inviscid flow theory, neglects the Lateral- leakage of
downflow to the sides of the pier and does not consider
thepresenceoftherigidbounitaryorthehorseshoevortex
at the base of the Pier".
Commenting on the clownflow, Ettema (1980) also noted that
"the velocity of the downflow, impinging on ttre base of
the scour hole. increases as the scour hole forms and
deepens.Atacertaindepthofscourtheilownflowattains
a peak strength and thereafter it gradual'Iy decreases as
the scour hole deepens. The ilepth of scour at which the
strenqth of the downflow irnpinging on the base of the
scour reaches a peak value is depenilent on the approach flow
 5.69

5.0

1.,0

,,
')
vro, lufior-
l/.
^ "
uyZ) '
\Uo Uo
3.0

2.0
o
1.0

-1.0

-?.0

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

vmqx/Uo

Figuz,e 2.6 : Pi,ep DounfLoa Veloei.ties V^4s as ,)o"uond ot

the nose of a cylindrical pier i,n ait floi! Ao = lZ.E */s,
The theoretieaL distribution of Vmas aceording to Shen et aL
(7965) is aLso ehoun. Data bg Meltille (1925) uith a uater
flou Ua = 0.25 n/s and D:50.8 nn aye supeyinposed.
de/D = L.18 (.), 0.94 (o) and 0 (o)
to the scour hole, and the relative parameter. O/AS0 .
Ettema stated that the downflow velocity reaches its
maximum r+hen the scour depth ratio (do/D) is between 0.8
and l.
2.3.3 Develophent of porseshoe Vortex and Scour t{ole
The development of the scour hoLe conunences at the sides
of the pier. Ettema (1980) observed that the initial
small indentations occurred at about i 45 deqrees to tbe
 I5

direction of the undisturbecl flow- This corresponds closely

to the location of the maxirnum bed shear stress measured
by Hjorth (19?5) on a fixed plane bed surface around a
cylindrical pier. However' Melville (1975) ' carrying out
a similar measurement, indicated that the maximum bed shear
stress (with a value of 1'35 times the critical shear stress
of the bed rnaterials) occurs at a position t 100 degrees
to the undisturbed flow direction.
These tiay holes, on either side of the pier, propagate
rapictly upstream around the perimeter of the pier anil
eventually meet on the upstream centreline of the pier to
form a shallow hole in front of the pier. As soon as the
hole is formed, the action of both the downflow and the
horseshoe vortex begin to erode the bed materials- In
describing the development of the horseshoe vortex and the
scour ho1e. IrleLville (1975) maale the foJ-lowing observations:
1. the horseshoe vortex is initially smaLl and roughly
circular in cross-section and cornparatively weak.
2. With the formation of the scour hole, the vortex
rapidly grows in size and strength as additional
fluid attains a downward component and the strength
of the downflow increases.
3. The horseshoe vortex noves down into the developing
scour hole and expands as the hole enlarges.

4. As the scour hole enlarges further, the circulation

associated with the horseshoe vortex increases, due
to its expanding cross-sectional area, but at a
decreasing rate.

In contrast to the observations (esPecially point 4 above)

made by Melville, Baker (1980) stated that the initial
circulation(Io)isequaltothecirculationr'qithinthe
eguilibrium scour hole (feq). This implies that the
 16

circulation associated with the horseshoe vortex remains

constant throughout the developrnent of the scour hole.
Melville (1975) measured radial velocities in the horse-
shoe vortex and estimated the values of both the initi.al
cj.rculation (Io) and the circulation within the equilibriuru
scour hole (feq). Melville obtained the ratj_o

r eq
T-=
-o 130 (2. s)

Baker (1980) made a number of assumptions leading to his

ded.uction of a constant circulation in the horseshoe
vortex throughout the deveJ.opment of the scour ho1e. In
particular he assuned that the input of vorticity to the
vortex system remains constant and the arnount of vorti.city
diffusion out of the vortex system to the cyrinder surface
increases during the course of development of the scour
hole. Measurements by Ettema (19g0), however, of the
clownflow in front of the pier show that the velocity of
the fluid attaining a dor'rnward notion increases as the depth
of the scour hole increases (refer to Figure 2.6). Bhis
J.ogically implies an increasing amount of fl-uid entering
the scour hole which is contrary to the assumption made by
Baker based on dye visualization.

2.3.4 Wake Vortices

The wake vortices are generated when the flow separates at
the sides of the pier, and the unstable shear rayers formed
roll up into eddy structures. In a 2-cij.rnensional flow,
the vortex sheddi_ng occu.rs at a constant Strouhal Nr:mber
(nD/U) of 0.2, where n = freguency of vortex shedding,
D = diameter of the pier, U = velocity of the f1ow.
Mel-viJ-le (1975) reported that in an equilibrium scour ho1e,
the Strouhal Number increased by about 15* from that of
the 2-dimensional case.
 1'l

Shen et al (1966) reported that many investigators,

Roper (1965), Dal-ton and l4asch (1954) and Tison (]940), had
observed an upflovr existinq behind the pier and that the wake-
vortex system is related to this upflow. This upflow has
a suction effect on the beil, i.e. it works like a vacuum
cl,eaner in picking up the rnaterial from the bed. fhe
material is then s$/ept dohrnstrean by the flow. The way in
which the wake vortices erode the bed material is analogous
to that in which a tornado lifts objects from the ground.
Generally, the sedi:nent removed by the wake vortex systen is
minor compared to that removed by the horseshoe vortex
system.

2.4 FACTORS AFFECTTNG I,OCAI, SCOUR Af PIERS

2.4.L Introduction
tocal scour around briclge piers is dependent on many para-
meters, most of which are inter-related. fhis means that
the influence of one particuJ.ar parameter on the depth of
the scour hole may be eclipsed by that of the others. The
complexity of these interacting paraneters limits the
usefulness of a mathematical analysis of the scouring process
because of the sfunplifying assumptj-ons that lrould be
necessary for a solution.
In order to understand the implications of each of these
palameters, they can be grouped into different categories.
The rel-ationship between the scour depth and the parameters
which influence it can then be summarized as follows:

Scour depth = f[(fluid)' (time), (flow),

(pier), (sediment) I (2.61

2.4.1.I Fluid
In fluid mechanics, a fluid can be defined in terms of its
density, p and kinematic viscosity, v, both of whieh are
 18

dependent on temperature, T. Under laboratory conditions,

the temperature can be controLled and the data usually
relate to constant temperature. Neverthelessr in the
field, the temperature could have a bearing on the scour
depth through its influence on the fluid propert.ies. No
data are available, however, to ascertain the extent of the
influence of temperature on the scour depth.

2.4.I.2 Time
Scouring is a process in whj.ch the scour geometry of the
sedirnent bed apProaches its new equilibrium shape gradually.
consequently, it takes time for such an equilibrium to be
established. This is especially significant in the case
of a flood. The duration of the flood determines if the
fLood peak lasts long enough to establish the maximum
scour depth. Particularly the duration of the early stages
of flood recession may be important. This is because the
naxirnurn scour depth can occur during the early stages of
the receding flood at which stage the elevation of the bed
1eve1 is at its lowest level due to qeneral scour, and with
decreasinq flott the general sedj-ment transpolt is reduced to
such an extent that clear water scour conditions could pre-
vail". At this time, the rate of scour development can
have an important bearing on the maximum scour depth.

2.4.L.3 Pier
The effects of the pier are mainly deterrnined by its size
although there are other effects, which may be si.gnificant,
such as
Shape of the pier
Angle of attack of the flow with respect to the pier axis
the ratio of the channel width to the pier width (B/DI '
also known as the aspect ratio
surface condition of the pier
Orientation of the piLe groups, in the case of a piled
foundation
 19

Blockage of flow channel by debris collecting at the pier

2.4.L.4 Sedirnent
A sediment can be clefineil in terms of its specific gravity
and the sieve diarneter of its particles. The uniforrnity of
the particle size distribution can be deflned by its
standard d.eviation (on). Other factors which cone into
consideration are:
Cohesiveness of the seilirnent (c)
Shape factor (0)
Angle of repose (c)
FalI velocity (w)
It needs to be emphasized that sediment particles do not
move independently of one another when the threshold of
sediment entrainment has been exceeded. The particles
generally move in such a way that bed features like ripples,
dunes etc. are estabLished. Vanoni et al (1961) clescribed
these bed features as "irregular, haphazardly located, sharp
crested features which move downstream . . . t'. The form of
these bed features can generally be divided into three cate-
gories. namely the lovrer reg'ime, the upper regime and a trans-
ition regirne. The bed forms associated with the lower regiime
are ripples and dunes while those associated with the upper
regime are transition flat bed, antidunes, chutes and poo1s.
The transition regiime is an intermediate stage of bed between
dunes and transition flat bed. A graphical relationship (refer
to Figure 2.?) was ileveloped by Simons and Richardson (1966)
to relate stream power (to Uo), median fall diarneter of
bed material and bed form. This can be used to Predict
the becl features which are li-kely to develoP on the bed
with a particular sedirnent diarneter and stream Power.
fhe formation of each of these bed features is dependent
on rnany variables, and each has its own distinctive
characteristics. A brief sunmary of each of these bed
forms is presented here.
 2o

40 ' l--
Upp, rr Regi ne --,4..'
lrtlnstilon
t10
E 1-
=,-o =-
Junes
o
=l
CL

IE
L Rip ies
,/
a Y
0.1
Flqt Bed
.l
0.? o/. 0.5 08
Gmin size (mml

Fi.gure 2.7 : ReLation of Bed Forn to Stteam pouey and

Gtain Size aceoz,di.ng to Sinon and Richardson (L966)
A. fhe Lower Reqime
The basic features that charaaterize thj-s regime of flow
are a relatively largre resistance to flow, a lovr sediment
transport. rate, and the fonnation of ripples and dunes.
Some researchers do not differentiate between ripples and
dunes because the mechanism by which they are formed and
sustained may be the same. Other researchers, however,
differenti-ate betr,reen these two on the basis that dunes
are rnuch larger (in height and length) than ripples, and
interact wj-th water surface profiles. Dunes frequently
lead to wavelike boils on the surface of the vrater
(as shown in Figure 2.9).
Ripples (see Figure 2.8) form atrelatively low shear stress
excess, and are the first feature to deveLop as the thres-
hold of sediment movement is exceeded. They are associated
tith a 1ow level of turbulence. Ripples are onl-y observed
with fine materj.al (generally vrith i15O < 0.5 - 0.? rnm) ancl
 2L

-4'-

Ftgure 2.8 : RiPPT'es tigure 2-g : Dunes

do not form with coarse materlal (when dto > 0'9 - 1.0 ttmt).
Ripples are independent of the depth of flow while dunes
are stronqly dependent on the flow depth. If tr = the
wavelength of a dune and Yo = flow depth, then

A= 21IYo (2.7 |

1he formation of riPples on a plane bed is initiated at a

point of discontinuity where a piling up of sediment occurs
and a wake is created on the leeward side of the discontinuity.
The discontinuitY can be caused bY:

1. Sheltering of moving particles by faster upstream

particles closing up and sheltering the slower
particLes thus causing grouPing;
Intermittency of turbulent eildies that excavate more
material than can be supported by the mean flowi
3. Non-uniform material, J-arger grains causing a piling
up of moving grains.

The flow seParates at the crest and reattaches further

downstream. At the point of reattachment' it excavates
more material because of an increased level of loca1
turbulence. this entrained material is not able to be
 22

transported by the flow doltnstream. Hence' it settles and

forms the next ripple, and the next and so on.

Seporotion
point

new
rippte

Ei,gure 2.10 Eormation of RiPPLes

There is a fixed vorte:< (or ground roller) in the lee of the
ripple. Some of the sedirnent in this region is being swept
upstream by the reverse flow.

when the shear stress excess is gradually increased in a

flow over a rippled bed, dunes (see Figure 2.9) begin to form.
rhe formation of dunes and ripples is not mutually exclusive.
rf the bed material is less than 0.5 - 0.? mn, ripples can
be superimposed on the top of the dunes. Dunes interact
with the water surface and cause large separation zones in
the flow. these zones, in turn, can cause the formation
of boils on the surface of the r.tater. As the stream power
increases further, the length of the dune will increase
and the height of the dune will decrease. It is not
surprising that eventually the height of the dune will
itimini.sh to a negli.gible amount and the length of the dune
will increase l-eading to the formation of transition
flat bed.

B. The Transition and Upper Regimes

The characteristics of these reglmes of flow are a relatively
smaller resistance to flow and a large sediment transport
rate. With increasing velocity, transition flat bed,
antidunes or chutes and pools develop-
 ZJ

Transition flat bed (see Figure 2.11) can be described as a

bed of washed-out dunes. Dunes of fine sand are washed
out at lower levels of stream power than are dunes of coarser
sand. In flurne experlments, where the flow depth is
relatively small, the transition fLat bed condition in fine
sand (d.^
f,U
< 0.4 nm) normally persists over a signlficant
range of Froude numbers (0.3 < Fr < 0.8). However, in
coarser sand beds, the transition zone (i.e. transition
regime consisting of unsteady dunes and transition flat
bed formation) may not terminate until the Froude nurnber is
so larqe that the subsequent bed form is antj-dune rather
than transition flat bed. In naturaL streams or rivers
where the ilepth of flow is rnuch larger, the change from
dunes to transition flat bed occurs at a lower Froude number
than in the flume. The movement of sediment in a
transition fLat bed resembles a layer of moving sediment
sliding over a rigid boundarY.

''..- :,.:-'.: r":-,.' :1. *:'.'.''

Fi.gure 2. 11 Transition FLat Bed

As the Froude number aPproaches unity, antidunes (see !'igure

2.L2) ate formed. Antidunes are mostly a train of symme-
trical, sinusoidal sand waves and their forn can either move

Figune 2.12 Antidunes !1:guYe 2.13 Chutes and Poo7.s

 24

upstreErm, downstrearnor remain stationary. Antidunes onlv

form in water where there is a free surface. They
are
coupled with the surface waves of the water. When
the
surface waves grovr in height where they become unstable
and break, they create asynunetric bed waves (somewhat
like
dunes), but with their 'lee face" facing upstream, hence
the name anti.dunes_
At very steep sropes, the antidune activity is in the fornr
of chutes or rapids and pools (see Figure 2.f3). The flow is
rapid and accelerated in chutes and. ouiescent i_n the pools.
A breaking of waves (somewhat like a hydraulic jrunp)
can be
seen separating the chutes from the pools.

Sediment Transport
llhen the average shear stress on the bed of an alluvial
channeL exceeds the critical tractive stress for
the bed
materiaL, the particles on the bed begin to move. The
total amount of sedirnent in motion (or the total sediment
load) can generally be divided into two parts: the bed
load
where the particles move essentially in contact with
the
stationary bed, and the suspended load where the particles
are carried in suspension by the turbuLent fluctuations of
the flow. There are two conditions which determine the
amount of sediment transported at a particular cross
section
of a stream. These are:
1. The geology of the country upstream of the
particul-ar cross section under consideration, i.e.
the supply of sediment..
z. The ability of the water (the stream power) to
transport the sedirnent.
fhe rate of sediment tlansport is dependent on the shape,
size and density of the bed particles, and their placement
among the surrounding part.icles. In bed load transport, a
 25

sediment particle is transported in the flow either by

rolling along or sliding over the sediment bed, or by
jurnping into the flow when it obtains an upward irnpulse as
it comes into contact with a stationary grain on the bed;
this special mode of bed load transport is known as
saltation. When the particle in saltation completes its
trajectory and falrs to the bed, it may either rebound frour
the fixed bed or disrodge a loose particre as it transfers
its momentum to set up saltation movement of another
particle (refer to Figule 2.I4).

o
Figure 2,74 : SaLtaiion
There is no sharp division between saltation and suspension.
However, it is convenient to differentiate between these
two different modes of hydraulic transportation, i.e.
traction and suspension. There are many equations, both
empiri.cal and based upon dirnensional anal_ysi.s, for predic_
tion of sediment transport rate in streans. The equations
predict the sediment rate in terms of either bed load, sus-
pended load or total load. Although the first empirical
bed load equation was developed by du Boys in 1979, there
is still no generally usable formuLa. Most formulae apply
successfully in the condition from which they were derived,
but may be found quite unreliable when applied to different
cond.itions.

the sediment transport rate is dependent on the depth of

f1ow, an increase in flow tlepth will lead to a decrease in
sediment transport rate if the boundary shear stress remains
 26

the saroe. This is because conditi-ons near the bed remain

constant regardless of the flow depth; however, an increase
in flow depth will lead to an increase in the flow quantity,
hence a decrease in its transportation ability.

It is important to realise that the rate of sediment trans-

port can be a function of tj-me. In a natural alluvial
stream, the sediment is rarely unifom. When the mixture
of fine and coarse material is subjecteal to a relatively
Iow fJ-ow velocity, the finer material will be transported
downstream qrhi]-e ttte coarse material vrill remain intact.
This phenomenon, if allowed to continue, will eventually
lead to an accumulation of the coarse particles on the sur-
face of the bed. This layer of particles acts as a
protective layer for the material underneath and is referred
to as the "armour layer". Armouring caD be viewed in terms
of the distribution of the turbulent shear stress on the
bed and that of resisting forces to movement. If the
distribution of stresses actlng on a particular area does
not completely overlap the distribution of the critical
resisting stresses of the grains on the surface of the same
area (refer to Figure 2.15), armouring occurs. The
armour layer will also affect the flow because the roughness
of the surface increases.

(?o)mox--J
F

To ,Tc
Figure 2. 1.5 : Ez.equency Di.stri,butioa of Boundaty Shear
Stress 16 and Critical Shear Stress r6 illustrating the
Coneept of Atmouning
 27

There are other processes which occur in sediment transport

which will affect the structure of a stream bed, namely
overpassing and embedment. Overpassing is described as
the transport of exposed particles over the inmobile, often
flat bed. The overpassing particles can be larger or smaller
than the bed rnaterial. glhen overpassing a bed coruposed of
snaller materi.al, the larger particles rnove with a rolling
or sliding action whereas the smaller overpassing partj"cles
saltate on the bed. Embedment i_s described as the burial
of an overlying exposed grain in the bed material.
The larger exposed grain causes the formation of a hole in
front of itself and rolLs forward into the hole to be buriect
in the sedi.ment. surroundin<r it.

+
flow
Gf,
_-___r
Figure 2.76 : Embednent

To sumnarize the various forms of sediment transport, it is

best to define them in the following'manner:
If ro = the time average of the applied shear stress
Tc = the critical shear stress of the bed material
ri = the minimum shear stress required to move a
particular exposed grain on the surface of the bed
then there are four possible conditions:
(a) ti t .. > ro and Tc , Ti ) Tor no grain
movement, the immobi]-e bed
(b) to t .a t ti and to t ti > t., all grains
are in motion
(c) ti t .o > t.. embedment condition
(d) t .o > Ti' overpassing condition
".
 28

2.4.L.5 Flow
lhe flow of a fluid is
the energy slope (So) r
(s). In unifo:an flow
a certain energlz sJ.ope
characterised by its rnean depth (yo),
and the gravitational acceleration
the shear stress (ro) associated with
and flow depth can be expressed as

ro = yyoSo (2.8)

or more convenientll, as

ur- = 6V-E-
-oo (2.91

hrhere u* = shear velocity

specific weight of the fluid = p9
density of the fluid
Itlhen the flow over an initially plane beil of granular
material exceeds the critical velocity associated with the
entrairunent of the bed materiaL, bed features are formed_
vlith the formation of these bed features, the resistance of
the bed will increase. Einstein and Barbarossa (1952)
suggested a resistance relationship by considering the
total resistance of a bed with bed features to be the sum of
the surface (or grain) resistance and form resistance (due
to the bed features).

'o
T = r|
'o I -tl (2. 10 )

vrhere ro = total shear stress

ri = shear stress correspondingr to the grain
particLes
ti = shear stress correspondi.ng to the bed
features
This form of sub-division of the resistance is still in
current use. The numerous methods of cal.culatinq the
 29

resistance to flow in alluvial channels are sumrnariseil by

Vanoni (1975).

Sumnary

Local scour of cohesionless materj-al around briclge piers is

affected by many parameters. The equilibrium scour depth
can be defined as

d= = f(pr.J, t, D, dso, ogr So, Uo, yo, g) (2.11)

fn the subsequent sections, the effects of these parameters

on the equilibrlurn scour depth are discussed. They are
grouped as foLlows:

f. Effect of flow velocity; (Uo, u*,/u*.)

z- Effect of time (or the tenporal development of the
scour hole)
3. Effect of relative flow depth (Co,/D)
4. Effect of sedjment (D/d50, og)

2.4.2 Effect of Approach Flow Velocity

The depth of the local scour hole is closely related to the
undisturbed approach flow velocity. It ls evident from
published literature that under clear water conditions, the
local scour depth increases almost linearly from a value of
the ratio of shear velocity to critical shear velocity of
about 0.5 (u*/u*" = 0.5) to that of unity. reachlng a maximum
at the critical velocity. Anong the available data whieh
clearly shohr this trend are those of chabert and Engeldinger
(f956) , Ylaza Alvarez and Sanchez Bribiesca (1966, L967' 1968)
and Ettema (f980). The data obtained from the experiments
carried out by Ettema are shown in Figure 2.17.
The ideas about the effect of approach flow veLocity on
Local scour depth under lj.ve-bed conditions have changed
 30

I 0.8
v 1.9
. 5.35

0.6 1.0
U*/uxc

Figur,e 2, 17 Equilibrium CLear Water Seour Depth Dersus

ur/uro by Ettena (1980)
quite drarnatically over the years. Early researcherg related
the relative scour depth (normalised by the flow depth)
to the Froude Number. l'ilost of the conclusions drawn stated
that for a given f1-ow depth, the scour depth increases
indefinitely, either at an increasingr or a decreasing rate,
with increasing velocitj-es. The nurnerous eguations
rel"ating d*/Yo and Fr are summarised by Me1vi1le (f975).
Later researchers, e.{t. Chabert and Engeldinger (1956),
Laursen (1958, 1962) etc. stated that as the approach velocity
exceeds the critical velocity for sediment entrainment' the
scour depth decreases to about 10* less than the maximum
scour depth at tbe critical velocity and thereafter, an
increase in the velocity has no effect on the locaL scour
depth. Breusers et al (1977) stated that "the scour depth
does not increase further with velocityr aPparently because
the dynamic equilibrium between transport out of the scouring
hole and the supply is not influenced by the rnagnitude of
 lJ.

the transport rate". Although Shen (co-author of Breusers

et al (1977) ) arrived at this conclusion, his experimental
data (1966) do not real1y support the conclusion, as shown
in Figure 2.18 where a trend of increasing scour ilepth with
increasing velocity is apparent. A replot of experimental
data obtaineil by Chabert and Engeldinqer (1956) also shows
an increase in scour depth at high velocities (refer to
Pigure 2.19).
1.5

1.3

1.1

i
E
o'n

0.7
Yo/D
o 076
0.5 D = 152.4 mm a 1.01
dso = o'24 mm t 1.40
| | | l | | | l
- - 0.2
n.?l I

0./. 0.6 0.8 1.0

Velocity (m/sl
Eigure 2.78 : Equilibri.un Scour Depth vez'sus Velocity
Shen et aL (7966)

Hancu (1971) conducted a series of live-bed scour experiments

and concludeil that in the live-bed condition, the local
scour depth is independent of the velocity of the flow'
This conclusj-on is similar to that of Breuser et a1 (1977).
More recently, researchers have demonstrated that as the
velocity exceeds the critical velocity, the local scour
depth first decreases to a minimum but thereafter increases
acrain.
 32

\t's
o
E

Yo/D D/dq(
1.0
A 4.0 33
a 2.0 67
Yo= 200 mm
I 't.3 100
dso = 1.5 mm

0 o5 1.0 1.5 2-O 2.5 3'0

uo /uoc

Figure 2. L9 RepLots of Equilibrium Seour Depth ue/,€ua

Veloeity bg Chabert and Engelrlinger (1956)

ilain and Fischer (19?9) carried out a series of live-bed

scour experiments in a 27 m long, 910 mm wide and 460 nun
deep recirculating flurne. They analysed their results by
plotting the scour depth as a function of the Froude Number
(tr = Uo/@). fhey concluded that as Fr > Fc, the
scour depth first decreases slightly but then increases
with further increase of Froude Number (refer to Fiqures
2.2Q bl and (b) ) .

Jain and Fischer (1979) stated that the scour depth at high
Froude Number exceeds the scour depth at the critical
velocity, thus contradicting the traditionally held view
that the maximurn local scour depth occurs at the critical
 3.0 Yo/D = 2
/,,
25 a 1.s0
o r 2.50

o
o 2.0

+'i
1.5

1.0
0.s
Fr.

2.0

1.5

o 1.. .3
o
o
1.0
Ye/D = 1
!
duo (mml
o 0.25
a 1.50
0.5
r 2.50

tbl Fr'
Eigur e 2, 20 EauiLibriun Liz;e-Bed Scour DePth ve?ous
rioude Number bY Jai'n and Fiecher (1.979)
 34

velocity. However the shape of the curves ilrawn to their

data as shown in !'igures 2.20(al and (b) suggests that the
scour depth could increase indefinitely as the Froude
Nuniber increases. In order to explain thej.r results, Jain
and Fischer (1980) stated that the scour depth is the
eguilibrium between the sediment transport rate into the
hoLe and the sedjment removaL rate from the hole by the
scouring nechanism. When the Froude Nurnber is slightly
hi.gher than the critical Froude Number, the sediment
transport rate into the scour hole is greater than the
sediment removaL rate produced by the scouring mechanismi
hence the decrease in the scour depth. At higher Froude
Nunber, the reverse is true because the strength of the
scour mechanism increases more guickly producing a higher
sediment rernoval rate than the sediment transport rate into
the hole. Hence, the scour hole increases. This
argunent is, nevertheless, a necessary coroLlary of their
results. rather than an explanation.
Jain and Fischer attributed the discrepancy between their
results and those which indicated that at high velocities,
the scour depth is independent of the approach velocity to
the technigue of measurenent. They pointed out that the
previous investigators e.g. Shen and Chabert and EngeJ-dinger
measured scour depths after stopping the flow so that the
measured depths are reduced by the deposition of suspended
material during the flow closure. Chee (1982) disagreed
with this reason pointing out that Chabert and Engeldinger
(1956) obtained scour depths from measured ds versus time
pJ-ots. In the case of Shen et a1, it is interesting to
note that (refer to Figure 2.18) their resuLts clo shov a
somenhat simiLar trend to that obtained by ;fain and
Fischer. Chee, however, observed that if measurements are
made after the flow is stopped, the depth of the scour hole
is affected by the deposition of fine, suspended material.
Chee (1982) enployed a 14,8 m long, 500 mm wide and 400 lrurr
 35

deep "feed system'r flume to carry out a series of live-

bed scour experiments. Sediment t{as introduced at the inlet
of the flume and collected and weighed at the outlet end.
Chee agreed with Jain and Fischer (1979, L980) insofar as
the increasing scour depth versus flow velocity trend for
live-bed scour vras concerned. However, his results showed
that the scour depth ilid not increase indefinitely with
velocity but rather reached a second peak (refer to Figure 2.211,
as was predicted by Raudkivi (I98I) and Rautlkivi and Ettema (1982).

2.0 dsem /D
d""o /
o 1.6 dt".
o
E 1.2
dso = 0.24 mm
0 D = 50.8 mm
Yo = 100 mm
0.4
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

Meon VelocitY (m/s)

Figure 2.21 EquiLibt,i.un Eioe-Bed Seout Depth 'oeraus

viloeita bg Chee (7982)

Chee stated that the second peak in the d""./D versus Uo

curve occurs at the rangTe of velocities which producebthe
transition fLat becl. Eis experimental data for non-ripple
forming sediments indicate that the height of the second
peak is less than that of the first peak which occurs at
the critical velocity. For ripple forming sediments the
reverse is true so that greater scour depths may occur
at velocities above the critical velocity. Chee noted
a correlation between the effects of beil forms on the
ilepth of the scour hole and the frictional resistance to
fLow due to the bed forms. He stated that the occurrence
 Jb

of the second peak at the transition flat bed condition qan

be partly explained by the disappaearance of form drag
which occurs with transition fLat bed and this provides more
energy for scouring. With the formation of antidunes and
chutes and pools at higher velocities, a large amount of
energy is lost through the breaking of surface waves,
leading to a decrease in the depth of the scour hole.
Chee (1982) suggesred that Jain and Fischer (1979) recorded
higher scour depths in the post transition flat bed region
(i.e. they were unable t'o det'ect the second peak) because
they had conducted their experiments with insufficient
sediurent supply at these flow conditions and this led to
an error in their measurement of the initial" bed leveL.
llor^rever, this is unlikely because *Taj.n and Fischer used a
recirculating flune which wouLd tend to establ-ish 1ts own
equilibrium in the rate of sedirnent transport.
Chee (1982) compared the relative heights of the first and
second peaks and also that of the ninirnr:m point. He
definecl Xr as the decrease in relative scour depth from the
clear water peak value to the minimum vaLue on the d""/D
versus velocity plot, and X,, as the difference in the dr"/D
value between the value at the first peak and the value at
the second peak.

xt (dr"/D) (dse,/D (2.L2)

uo" )
nin
xt (dse/D )max (d"./D) (2.13)
uo"
From his experirnental- data, Chee concluded that for ripple
forming sediment (dSO. 0.5 - 0.7 run), X,varies from 6g
to 98 which is consistent with the value of 10t sugrgested
by Shen et aI (1969) and that Xt ranges frorn 50t to 55t
indicating an increase in the d"./o value as compared with
the dr"/D value at the critical velocity. For the non-
 37

ripple forming sediment' Xr was found to vary between 208

and 30E whereas X" ranged from + 3t to - l2*.

tlhite (1975) carried out some live-bed experiments at high

Froude Number (0.8 < Fr < 1.2) tor various pier shapes and
sizes in a coarse sand (d5O = 0.8 nunr d90 = 3.4 run). Flow
conditions were in the rough turbulent regime and bed fea-
tures were not pronounced during the experiments.
chee (1982) replotted some of Whiters clata (only those
obtained using circuLar piers) and found that the scour
depths were quite insensitive to velocities (refer to
Fig"ure 2.291 . Chee comented that since bed features were
not evident during the experiments, it is likely that the
experiments were performed in the transition flat becl.
The scour depths do not vary rnuch with the velocities because
they lie on the flat peak on the d""/D versus velocity
plot.
2.4.3 Temporal Development of Local Scour
It is important to distinguLsh between clear water scour
and live-bed scour when the temporal development of the
loca1 scour hole is considered. The eguilibrium depth of
a clear water scour hole is approached aslzmptotically with
tirne (see Figrure 2.22) while the Live-bed scour ilepth is
attained much more quickly but it oscillates in response
to the translation of bed features (see Figure 2.22). The
magnitude of the fluctuations is dependent on the height
and size of the bed features propagating past the scour
hoLe. shen et al (1969) stated that the increase of the
equilibrir:m scour hoLe is Less than one-half of the height
of the bed features.
In clear hrater seour, the eguilibrium scour ilepth is reached
after a long period of scouring. This is especially so
when the pier is relatlvely large- Ettena (1980) rePorted
that for a 150 mn diameter pier' it took about 14 days
before the equilibriurn of the scour hole was reached-
 3B

Equilibrium
E Scour Depth
o-
oo
L
J
o
(, Live - Bed
a
Cleor Woter

Time

Figure 2.22 Sqour Depth ae a Funetion of Tine in

NormaL Plot for Clear ltater and Lioe-Bed
Conditions

Shen et aI (1969) defined t75 as the time to reach 75t of

the maxirnum scour depth and concluded, based on the data
of Chabert and Engeldinger (1956), that t75 tends to increase
for large sediment sizes and decrease for larger undisturbed
velocity. They aLso concluded that tr' is independent of
the size of the pier j.n the range of data they analysed,
although they did not specify the size of the pier used in
their analysis. Sevelal researchers have determined
that when the dj.mensionless clear water scour depth (with
uniform bed sediment and cylindrical_ pier) is plotted
against time on a log-normal graph, the curve can be
represented by three straight line segments, A typical
curve of d",/D as a function of tog time is shown in
Figure 2.23. A sinilar curve eras obtained by Ettema (19g0)
when the dimensionless clear water acour depth ratio
(dse,/D) hras plotted with the product of the sedinent to
the pier diameter (d50/D), the Strouhal Number (u*t,/D)
and the Reynolds Number (v./u*D), L.e. dr",/D versus (drO,/D) .
(u*t,/D) . (v./u*n).
Ettema (1980) classified the three straight line segrnents as
the initial phase, the erosi"on phase and the equil,ibrium
phase of the development of the scour hole. The initial
 39

3.0

_! 0.38
?.
. 0.84
? 5.35
oz I x 7.80

fr1.

l4
E

0.

0-
10"
I

1d 'to2 103 104

Time (min.l

Eigune 2.23 Seour Depth as a Function of Iine in a

Log-normaL Plot - Ettena (1980)

phase is associated lrith the rapid scouring by the downflow

starting frorn a planar bed; the erosion Phase features
the development of the scour hole as - the horseshoe vortex
grows in both size and strength; the equilibrium phase
represents the eguilibriurn dePth reached for a Particular
pier size. sediment and flow condition.
Ettema (1980) observed a flat-bottomed narrow groove at the
base of the scour hole adjacent to the nose of the pier
which he identified as the entrainmen! zone- Ee stated
that the entrainment zone corresponds to "the contact area
of the downflow irnpinging on the bed at the base of the
scour hole to the underside of the horseshoe vortex on the
slope of the scour holen. Fe added that "the erosion of
sedjment from the lower portion of the slopes of the scour
hole disturbs the stability of the sediment further up the
sl-opes of the scour hole and causes sediment to slide down
into the entrainment zone each time the slope stabilises" '
rhe downflow is deflected up in the groove and is then
absorbedintotheroller(orthehorseshoevortex)onthe
slopeofthescourho].e.Thewidthoftheg'rooveincreases
to about 0.25 tjmes the clianeter of the pier as the scour depth
 40

increases and rernains approximateJ_y constant until the

equilibrium phase is reached (refer to Figure 2.24).
Ettema added that the width of the entrai-nment zone can
extend up to about mid-way up the scour hole slope for
large values of D/clr'. From his measurements, the width of
the entrainment zone !r'as assessed to be up to about 70t
of the diarneter of the pier.

o
g
T'

1
k;k'
Figure 2.24 Seour Depth dB d. Funation of Entrainment
Zone by Ettena (1980)

When the scour hole has reached its equilibriurn phase, it

resembles a frustrum of an inverted cone as described by
Laursen and Toch (1956). Shen et al (19d6), Breusers et al
(L977), etc. Ettema (1980) measured the upstrearn slope
of an equilibriun scour hole and found that it is approxi-
mately equal to the static angle of repose of the bed
sediment.

In Live-bed scour, the slope and size of an equilibrium

scour hole change hrith the translation of bed features past
the hole. Chee (1982) observed that the upstream slope
was considerably steeper than the static angle of repose of
the bed sediment. He attributed the steeper slope to the
strong flow up the slope which supports the sediment at a
 4T

steeper angle.

2.4.4 Effect of Flord Oepth (Yo,/D)

It is generally accepted by researchers e.g. Laursen and

Toch (1956), Laursen (1958, L962, L963,1970), Neill (1973),
Cunha (1970) etc. that scour depths increase as the rati_o
of yo/D increases until a certain limiting value after which
the scour ctepth is independent sf \o/D. lrhe linit
expressed by most researchers ranges from Yo,/D = I to 3.
The influence of fl-ow depth affects both clear water and
live-bed scour depths.
considering the effect of Yo on local scour depth, it
I.Ihen
is essential that the shear velocity ratio ls kept constant.
Many researchers have attempted to evaluate the influence of
flow depth lrhile the shear velocity is allowed to vary
significantly.

u"/u*" g
='1.

Yo /D

Figure 2.25 Scour Depth oelsus FLou Depth

bg Bounasoundas (1973)

For clear ttater scour, Bonasoundas (1973) concluded that

the effects of flow depth become insignificant for Yo,/D > 1
to 3 (refer to Figure 2.25J. Ilowever, it should be noted
that experimental data by Bonasoundas were collected tl'|o
hours after the commencement of the erperiments, hence the
 42

values of d". are not the rnaxirnum eguilibrium depth.

Ettena (1980) stated that the influence of flow depth is
affected by the relative size of the pier and sediment,
D/dS' (refer to Figure 2.26). Ee concluded that, for
high values of D/dUO, the development of 1ocal scour is
almost independent of flow depths for yo/D > 1 while
for low values of D/c'UO, it is still d.ependent on flow

ff:ff ilil,;"::":::Ii::: li.l:ll i:::"H: ll,u.n"

reduction in eguilibriurn scour depths for nshallow,. flows:
1. The portion of the approach fLow available to be
diverted into the scour hole diminishes for low
values of yo/D.
2. The developnent of the scour hole j-s i.nfluenced by the
formation of a sediment bar behind the pier for low
values of \o,/D.
3. The formation of a surface roller, or a bov, rdave
which has an opposite sense of lotation to the
horseshoe vortex at the free surface around the
pier, interferes with the horseshoe vortex and the
downflow into the scour hole.

Ettema (1980) further added that 3 was especially signifi_

cant for coarse sediment. This is because the surface
roller is a function of the approach velocity and for a
constant u*/uy.c, the approach velocity for a fine sedirnent
l-s less than the approach velocity of a coarse sediment.
Rence, at the same yo,/D, the stagmation pressure, which Is
related to the surface roller, for a coarse sediment is
higher than the stagnation pressure for a fine sediment.
Thus the influence of yo/D is more pronounced for the coarse
sediment than fine.
 43

t ll
v 15
a 19
I
o

^o
45
53
75
126
ti
A
o
267
631 /J
'il
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.9
ds(Yo) /d'(0.6 m)

Figune 2.26 Scour Depth as a Eunction of

FLo$ Depth bg Ettena (1980)

Basak (L975) showed that for live-bed scour, flow depth has
a similar effect on live-bed scour as on clear vrater scour
(refer to Figure 2.27) - The results of Jain and Fischer
(1979)alsoshovJedthatthelive-beilscou!dePthislower
for lower values of lo/D (refer to Figures 2'20(a) and (b))'
The results of Chee (1982) for live-bed scour also clearly
showed a decrease in scour depth with decreasing values of
lo/D. He superimposed the results of Eancu (1971) ' White
(1975)andChabertandEngeldinger(1956)onhisresults.
comparisons \^tere made with data with similar values of
pier to sediment ratio, o/dS.' The graphs are shown in
 D(ml
o
'04
,07 .
I
o .10 v
,201
o .40 0
Oa
El
u*/u*s >1.0 a

-0 12
Yo /D

Figure 2.2? : Eeouv Depth as a Funetion of FLou

Depth bg Basak (79?5)

Figures 2.28, 2.29 and 2.30.

2.
Yo =100 mm Yo/E
1.3
't.
1.0
o
o It'
o
E

r,r,A - Chee (82)

o - Honcu (711

02 o.t, 0,6 08 to la
Velocity (m./s)

Eigune 2.28 : Seoar Depth oensue Mean Veloeitg

Shouing the Effeet of Floa Depth
by Chee (1982) Ddta o! Eancu (1977)
an"e ineluded
 45

2'l-

2
Chee's
.3
o1. .0
doto

-soa
1.

0. White's
doto
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1-0 12
Vetocity (m/s)

Figut,e 2. 29 Seaur Depth tereus Mean Veloeitg shoui,ng

the Effect of FLou Depth by Chee (1982)
Data of llhite (197 5) axe i.ncluded

Yo = 100 mm

Chee( 82)
Chotou (56)
Honcu (71 )

0.6 0.8 '1.0

Velocity (m/s)

Eigure 2.30 : Seouy Depth uersus Mean Velocitg shouing

the Effect of FLow Depth by Chee (7982)
Data of Chabett and Engeld'i,nger (1956)
and Eaneu (1971) aye ineluded
 46

Thompson and Davoren (1993) carried out some loca1 scour

exper5ments by using a 1.5 rn diameter steel tube (i.e. a
full-size pier) embedded in the Ohau River situated in Otago,
New Zealand. A steady discharge of up to 1000 m3/s was
possible during the experi:nents. The natural bed sediment
has a dUO value of 20 mm and dea/dSO = 3.5. The values
of Uo,/Uoc ranged from 1.02 to 1.36. Their results are
surunarized in Figure 2.31. The results showed a similar
trend to results obtained from flune experiments insofar as
the effect of flow depth is concerned. Their results
are complicated by the varyj.ng veloclties and the non_
uniformity of.the bed sediment.

o
0
o
E

0.s 1 1.5 2
Yo/D
Figure 2. 31. Scour Depth aa a Funetion of F7-ou Depth
lhompson and Da.uot en ( L gB S )
 qt

2.4.5 Effects of Sediment Size and Sediment Gradation

No clear picture of the effect of sediment size on local
scour around bridtge piers was evident in early investiga-
tions. taursen and toch (f955) stated "exactly the same
dtepth of scour should result in the mode1, no matter what
velocity or sediment is used, as long as there is general
bed Load movement and the Froude Nunber is everlnrhere
less than unity". However, they qualifiecl this statement
by aitding "because secondary effects of velocity and sediment
size which could not be detected in the linited range of
the laboratory data rnay become important at large scale,
the valiility of this conclusion can only be tested by
model-prototype conformity studies". the resul-ts of their
experiments are srurmarised i-n Figure 2.32.

o
o
!

0.13. Uo(m/s).0.69

oo'
2 t
Yo/D
Ftgure 2.32 : Scou! Dep+h De?sua FLou Depth bg Lauteen
and Toch (19s6)

The results of the model study by Chitale (1962), Ahmad

(1962) and Thomas (1962) suPPort the conclusions drawn by
Laursen and foch (1956) concerning the effect of sedinent
on scour depth. Krishamurlhy (1970) also stated that the
effect of sediment size is negligible for high Froude
Nurnber and large Pier width.
 48

o
E
o
o

-0
ts
Yo =

o2
350 mm

0'/, 0.6 0€ 1.0 1.2

Velocity (m./sl

Eigune 2.33 : Seouy Depth versusVeloeity Shouing the

Effect of Sedinent Size by Chabert and,
Engeldingez' ( iSS6 )
The data of Chabert and Engledinger (1956), however, do show
a srnal1 influence of sedj:nent size on scour depth (refer
to Figure 2.33). More recently, Nicollet and Ramette
(1971) extended the experiments of Chabert and Engeldinger
with respect to the bed sedi:nent and found. that the sediment
size has a signifj-cant efrect on the scour depth (refer to
Figure 2.34). rt is apparent from Figure 2.34 that the value
of d=,/D increases for increasing sediment size initiall-y and
then decreases with further increment in sediment size.
LeCIerc (1971) carried out some local scour experi_nents in
both clear water and live-bed conditions using five circular
pier sizes and threegrainsizes of bakelite as bed material.
These results are shown in Figure 2.35. A similar result
to the results of Nicollet and Ramette (f97I) can be inferred
from the curves since d",/D(dSO = 3.3 nm) < ds/D(dSO = 0.92 mrn)
> d-/D(d"^
s fu = 0.3 mm)
(refer to Figure 2.351. Ettema (1980)
conunented on the data of Bonasoundas (1973) stating that the
time development of local scour at threshold condition
(u*./u*. = 1.0) is influenced by the bed particle size. For
a scour period of two hours, ds,/D(3.3 run) < ds,/D(1.15 nm)
> ds,/D(0.63 mm) (refer to Figure 2.25). Itowever, for
Iive bed conditions (u*,/u*" = I.25) the data of Bonasoundas
show no distinct trend with particle size.
 49

1.5

E
?
o
-
IA
1.0
E E
50
0.5

Yo = 200 mm
0b
12 20 /.0
d,o (mm) duo(mm)

Eigure 2. 34 Seour Depth as a Function of Sedinent

Size by Ni.eoLLet and Ramette (1971)

20 D=10 Jo
E tz
l5 cm

E E
() -c)
10
f,
o A 6 o
D=6
ol
,|

6
Eln 6
!
'0 cm

oot
10 10

t-n?ffi ciUO = 3.3 mm drn = 0.12

F'Lgure 2. 35 Scout Depth as a Function of Bed Shear

Stress Compardng Bed Partieles of
Different Sizes bg Le Clerc (1971)
 50

Ettema (1980) found for clear water scour that the influence
of sedinent size is signj.ficant if the relative size, D,/drO,
of pier and sediment, i.s less than 20-25, and that for
higher o/dSO, the scour depth is independent of sediment
size. Raudkivi and Etterna (19g3) commented that for small
vaLues of D/dgg, the grain size is large relative to the
size of the entrainment zone (which is f 0.25D) excavated
at the base, in front of the pj.er, by the downflow so that
further erosion is iropeded.
Ettema (1980) plotted crear water scour depth versus rerative
size parameter, D/drO and obtained tero very similar curves
for u*/u*" = 0.9 and 0.95. One of these curves is shown
in Figure 2.36.

3.0

a 15.0
I 50.8
A 101.6
v 150.0
2.0
o d> OTmm
o
o
!t

| lu 100 1000
D/dso

Fi.gure 2.36 : a Funetion of the paranetey

Eoou? Depth as
D/drO bg Ettena (i.980)
- ua/ur. = g.g
Ettena clivitiedl the range of sediment si.ze parameter into
four groups defined as follows:
'l > 130; the sedirnent is fine relative to the pier
D,/dUO
diameter. The sediment is entrained directly from
 51

the base of the pier by the downflow and from the

slope by the horseshoe vortex'
2. 130 > D/dsO i 30; the sediment is of an intermediate
size relati.ve to the diameter of the pier' The
entrainment of the sediment is due to a groove forneii
by the downflow inpinging on the base of the scour
hole. Entrainment by the horseshoe vortex on the
slope is negligible.
? 30 > D,/d50 : 8t the sediment is coarse relative to
the pier diameter- A larqe proportion of the down-
flow energy is ilissipated in the coarse bed at the
base of the scour hole'

4. D/dUO < 8; the sedfunent is so large that the erosion

phase does not occur. Scouring is restricted to
the entrainment of particles at the sides of the
Pier.
rt is apparent from Figure 2'36 that data for ripple formi-ng
sediment (d5o ' 0'7 nm) are scattered below the main curve
and show no systenratic trend' with such sedisents' it is
impossible to maintain a fl-at bed at near threshold
conditions. Ripples invariably develop creating a small
amount of sediment transport which replenishes the sand
eroded at the pier. Eence, the scour hole is reduced in
depth, because the true clear water condition cannot be
maintained. Be added that variations in the rePorted
equilibrium scour dePth concerning Particle size occur because
comparisons were made between ripplinq and non-rippling
sediments. It is apparent in the data of both Nicollet and
Ramette (1971) and Le clerc (L9?1) (refer to both
FiSrres 2'34
sedi-
and 2.35) that the equilibrium scour depth of rippling
rnent is less than the equiLibrium scour depth
of non-rippling
sediment even with a simil-ar value of u/dSO' The results
of chabert and EngeJ-dinger (1956) as shown in Figure 2'33
also show such a trend- Shen et aI (1966) stated that
for fine materials (d5O t 0'50 run) r scoux depths are
 52

independent of sediment size. Chee (1982) stated that the

difference between the ripple forming and non-ripple
forming sediments decreases with increasing value of lJo/Voc,
becoming insignificant at Uo,/Uoc = 3.5-4.0 which corresponds
to the formation of transition flat bed.
Jain and Fischer (l-979) conducted live-bed experiments
using three different sizes of uniforn, cohesionless bed
materials (dso = 0.25, 1.50, 2.SO nun) and concluded that
the scour depth decreases for increasing sediment size
(refer to Figrures 2.20 (a) and (b) ) .
Variations of the particle size distrj-bution of the bed
material can have a very significant effect on local scour
depths around bridge piers. The experirnents canied out
by Nicollet and Ramette (1971) clearly sho\.red that the
scour depths for non-uniform sedj.ment vrere consistently
lower than for uniform sedirnent (refer to Figrure 2.371.

o
)r
n-41[0."
0'4 0.6 0.8
Velocity (m/s)
sediment dso (mm )
Uniform I'rithout a n. 94
Sediment o Nourish-
ment 1. 93
t-\, I
Non- Sedinent Mixture
Uniform A
Sediment HLEn NOUr
11. 1
a ishment f*To*3.

Eigure 2.37 Scou! Depth oet,sus Mean Veloaity shouing

the Effeet of Sedinent Gz,adatiott by
NicoLLet and Ramette (1971)
 q?

Etterua (1976) carried out an extensive study of the effect

of sediment grad.ation on clear water scour depths (clear
trater is defined here as a flow such that the dr. size of
the non-uniforrn sediment rras at threshold conditions) ancl
concluded that both the rate of scour and the final eguili-
brium scour depth decrease as the standard deviation of the
particle size distribution increases. Ee ascribed the
principle cause for this to be the formation of an annour
layer around the upstrearn perimeter of the pier which
prevents further erosion of the scour hole. He stated
that armouring becomes significant for values of o,/dUO
greater than 0.25 where o/dsO = (1/d50) t{dg4-dt6},/4
+ {dgs-ds}/6.51.
Ettena (1980) replotted the results as ltversus oo. where
on =/(dga.f/dfS.g) and Ko = coefficient such that

:*se /^l
t"' A
-sg
-..OD (2.14)
D

where d""(o)./Dis the equilibrium clepth of clear Itater scour

in non-uniform sediment and il"",/D is the eguilibriun scour
depth in uniform sediment, (on < J..5-2.0), and can be taken
as 2.30. The Ko value as a function of o, is dependent
on whether the sediment is ripple forming or not (refer to
Figure 2.38). For ripple forming sedj:nents, a hurnp is
evident in the Ko versus og curve at og = 1.5. This is
because a planar bed cannot be maintained for rippling sedi-
ment at near threshold conditions. The smaller anount of
sedjment transport' as a result of the formation of ripples
reduces the equilibrium scour depth. Eohtever' at a certain
value of og' the bed surface becomes armoured before
ripptes are formed while no effective armouring occurs at
the base of the scour hole. This combination leads to a
deeper scour depth. At higher values of oo, armouring
 51

,^-l1l
._
- RrppLE
FORMING

07s r - 0.85
o- 1.90
b
Y 0.50 2I- NoN-RIPPLE
. FORMING SEDTMENfS

0.25

0
12 5
og

Figure 2.38 Funeti,on of K^ versus s

by Ettena '( l gY 6 ) s

at the base of the scour hole becomes significant and scour

depths are reduced for both ripple forminq and non-ripple
forming sediments. Eventually, the two curves merge as
dg becomes even larger.
Prior to the present study very little experimental data
for the influence of rnaterial gradation on live-bed scour
were available, notwithstanding that most natural sediments
are non-uniform and that briClge pier failures usually occur
during floods when live-bed conditions prevail.
For live-bed conditions, Raudkivi (1983) suggested that if
the applied bed shear stress is substantially higher than
that required to remove the largest particle in the non-
uniformly distributed sediment, the particle size is only
significant in determining the eize of the bed features and
not the extent of the scour depth. Under such condition,
only the range of fluctuations in the scour depth would be
affected. If however, the appliecl bed shear stress is near
to the critical shear stress of the larger particle, armour-
ing by these particles could be expected to occur at the
 55

base sf tlre sequtc hoLe, beace reducing tfie maxfuhtut scoiili

depti. Ehe size of, tb€ bed featurea wolrlil also be affeotedl,
on the ottrer hand, ,if the appliedl shea! gtress is soralter
than tlre critlcal shea'r stregs 6f tlie eoat€er ftdsttos of
the bed sed;ilment, aliBouling of botlr thF bFd gunf,ace anil the
scour hole Bould oc,cqr i eediment traaa-Port 'would[ be greattly
neduced and conf,itione si*ilar to tlrose of olear wate!
scour would be apgrrsacbed.
 Chapter 3
Experimental Apporatus
and Programme
3.} INTRODUCTTON

Failures of bridges due to local scour around bridge piers

usually occur during floods, i.e. under live-bedl conditj.ons.
The aim of this project tras to investigate experirnentally
the effects of sedirnent size and sediment grading on the
scour depth at bridge piers under i-ive-becl conditions.
The experimental programme consisteil of two main series:
live-bed scour with uniforrn and non-uniform sediments
respectively. Subsidiary experiments were carried out to
investigate the effect of flow depth on scour depth in
both clear water and live-bed conditions. In all these
experiments, circular piers were used and the approach
flows were steady. A, few additional experiments were run
htith non-circular bridge piers under live-bed conditions.

3.2 THE APPARATUS

Most of the experiments (including those of the two main

series) were carrj.ed. out in an 11.8 m long., 440 mm wide
and 380 mm d.eep glass-sided flume (Figure 3.1_). The water
in the flume is recirculated by an axial flow pump driven
by an AC motor. The speed of the motor is controlled by
a variable speed electronic control unit. A separate
constant speed pump is used to recirculate the sediment
r.rhich is collected before the water reaches the axial
flow pump. The pump has an open impeller with a clearance
of 13 mm, which lirnits the maximum sediment size that can
be used in the flume t.o less than L3 mm.

A settling tank at the downstream end of the flume collects

56
 JI

o
o

f&

E
L (o
o
o VJ

N
$) o q)
E a rR
s
ts o +
h
o
E
s F
s o
v +l
B
q)
F
qt
.t
i: l{
q)
,L
o o \t
.E
s ('t
o
+
U
ctD
.= s
t'J o
ql gF -dz s
\J o5 c'o *F
q tlc -a
EO oo Sl
-lJ o PL

-EF- <.
s
\r
T
GJ

h
 )6

the sediment into a steep-sided hopper over the sedirnent

recirculation pump intake. An adjustable weir forms the
downstream wall of the settling tank. The weir provides
a water level control and stops the sedirnent from entering
the nain pump intake, as shovrn in Figure 3.2.

Eigure 3. 2 Side Eleoation of the Settling

'f'aTLK

At the upstream end of the flurne, the water and slurry are
fed into a mixing chamber and enter the flume through a
honeycornb flow straightener (refer to Figure 3.3). On
entering the mixing chamber via the sand pump, the sand/
$/ater slurty nixes with the water recircul-ated via the main
pumP.

Guide vanes within the mixing chamber ensure that the

sedinent load is evenly clistributed acloss the flume. An
adjustable water surface rskirnrnerl is used to minimise
surface wave formation. The honeycomb flow straightener
effectively eliminates any rotational flow component
induced in the return pipelines. The flurne incorporates
a sediment recess (figure 3.1) in the working section.
The recess is 250 rua deep providing, in addition to the
 qo

Figure 3,3 Side Eletsation of the Miring

Chanbev

I00 nm deep sand bed ln the flurne proPer' a maximum sedj:nent

dlepth of 350 mn.

the sediment transPort rate was measured at the 70 mn

diameter outlet "8" (refer to Figure 3'3) to the sand
recirculation pipe. samples of the sand/water mixture
were collected at the outlet after the flow had reachedl
equilibriun. Five samples of sediment were taken and
volume of water
averaged for each experiment' The average
l-n each of the sarnples was aPProxirnately 5-6
litres' The

concentlation measurements were calculated anil compared

with published data (refer to Appendix C) ' The ljmitations

to this method of deterrnining sedirnent concentration are
also discussed in APPendix C'
 60

A few of the clear water scour experiments were carried out

in a 14.8 m 1ong, 2.36 n wide and 0.4 n deep flume
(Flgure 3.4). A false floor was instaJ.led in the flune
leaving a 1.5 m long sedirnent recess. The approach bed
was rouqhened by glueing sand particles on the false floor
sections. Water was suppled to the flume from the labora-
tory constant head tank via a 152.5 mm diameter pipeline.
The flowrate is measured with the aid of an orifice plate
in the supply line and is controlleal by a butterfly valve
at the inlet to the flulle. At the downstreann end of the
flume, an adjustable weir is used to control the water level
in the flume. The flume can aLso be operated as a recir-
culatory system by using a constant speed pump situated by
the f1ume.

3.3 BED MATERIA],S

Four uniform sediments were seLected for the first series of
experiments. The grading curves for each sedirnent are shown in
Figure 3,5 labelteil as L1, L2, L3 and L4. The orooerties of
each sediment are listed in Table 3.I. Three additional
sediments labelled as CL, C2 and C3, as detailed in 5.igure 3.5
and Table 3.1, were used to investigate the effect of flow
depth on local scour depth. Cl was also used to conduct live-
bed experiments at Uo/Uoc > 3. The mean particle size of a
sedirnent., dUO, was taken as the representative r:article size of
the sediment. The geometric standard deviation, oq, was
calculated from
*84
a_ ,2 1\
Y *so

A bed material was considered as being uniform when on < 1.5.

The critical shear velocity, Ba"r wds calculated by using
Shieldrs (1936) Entral-nment Function for the duo size of
each bed material- The corresponding critical mean
velocity, Uoc, was cor,nputed from the nean velocity
equation for a rough bed
 6I

(?l
(J

c!
c)

VJ

\F
L]
I

E)

qJ
F
'lJ
s
E 3)

E ED

tt E
E'I
oc
o'E
F(l,
o.
o
o
q
st
(l'
ro .o $
a t

a)

a
ro -J
Jaul ,oh
 62

U-_ y
**c = s.7slosu-9-
f,g ."50 + 6 (3.2)

where Yo = 170 rmn

UNIFORM SEDT}4ENTS
rl
L3 L4 c1 c2 F?

duo (nn) 0.24 0.6 l-.45 3.2 0- 85 f,.b 8.2

1. 33 1. 18 L.24 1.28 r.23 1. 14 t.L2
s
u*. (n,/s) 0. 013 0. 0l_86 0.028 0.049 0 .022 0. 071 0. 086
uoc (n,/s) 0 -27 0.34 0.45 0. 73* 0. 39 0.9I L02

300 330 360 370 340 370 390

* Uoc rrras cal_culated for yo = 210 nun

TABLE 3.1

Four non-uni-form sediments were used for the second series of

experirnents- rhe d5o slzes of the non-uniform sediments were
selected to match those of the uniform sediments. The varues
of on range from 2.0 to 5.5. The grading curves of the non_
uniforn sedinents are shown in r.igure 3.6 and the sediment
properties are listed in Table 3.2. The non-uniform sedi-
ments were obtained by nixing predetermined quantities of
sedirnent of various sizes. This was carried out in a
concrete mixer and the grading obtained was checked by sieve
analysis before being used.

3.4 PIERS AND SCOUR DEPTH IMASUREMENT

Cylindrical piers (figure 3.7) made from clear persDex

tubes were used for most of the experiments. The clztindri_
cal shape was chosen because it had the simplest possible
 63

NON-IJNIFORI4 SEDIMENTS

r{I M2 Ivl3 r'{4

dUO (mm) 0.6 0.8 0.6 1. 45

I*84 (run) L.2 2.2 3.3 5.2

o 2.0 2.8 5.5 4.3

s
o*" (n,/s) 0. 0186 0. 021 0.0186 0.028

Uo. (tn,/s) 0.34 0.37 0.34 0.45

TABLE 3.2

L
o
.9

Sieve openings (mml

Fiqu/'e
- 3.6 : Grading CutDes of Non-t)niforn
Bed Sedinea.E M7'M4
 64

geometry and because other data r./as avairabLe for conparison.

E'tgure 3.7 ?he Cglindrical Pier ModeL

In order that sid.e-wall effects were insignificant, the

maximum pier size (for use in the 440 nm wide flume)
lras chosen to be 45 uun, i.e. a flume to pier width ratio,
B/D = 440/45 = 10. This value is higher than the value of
8 suggested by Shen et aI (1966). It rdas found during
trials that a blockage ratio of g ean produce signj_ficant
waLl effect. This aspect is further discussed in Section
4.1.3. For the experiments conducted in the 2.36 m wide
flume, larger pi.ers were used. Each pier was attached to
an aluminium plate and sealed at the bottom. The assernblv
hras positioned in the sedirnent recess wi.th the aluminium
plate sitting on the recess floor.
A few experiments were conducted under live-bed condltions
using a non-cylindrical pier (the results are discussed in
appendix D). The shape of the pier is shown in Figure 3.g.
It has the same thickness as the 45 rnm cylindrical pier but
has stroping sides. The pier was tested both as shown in
Figure 3.8 and inverteil. The 45 mm pier lras also tested
 65

t- -

FIaq Vtew
FlPvatlsa vls

Ef'gare 6.8 : lhe g'l'angated Piet

wi;th an lncreasedl diandter (D = 90 rm) b€lofl the neau bedl

lenel, as gtlotter ia x'tgur'e 3.9.

M,B,L.

Ftquta 3,.9 t Btffig'e Ptet uitk aglindt'Ee:aL

- FootiTtg
 66

Scour depths were measured using nperiscopesn (constructed

from aluminiurn tubes with mirrors angled at 45o placed at
both ends of the tube). A measuring scale was glued to
the front of the tube (refer to Figure 3.10). The deepest
point of the scour hole at any time could be easiJ_y
identified by sliding the periscope up and down the cylin-
drical pier and reading the corresponding measurement on the
scaLe. In this !f,ay, scour depth couLd be obtained up to an
accuracyoftlnm.

Scole

direction
+
of flow

Mirror

Eigure 3.70 "Petiscope" used for Seour

Deoth Measutement
 67

3.5 APPROACH FI,OW

The mean approach flow depth kept constant at 170 um for

was
nostexperiments, except where the afun was to investigate the
effect of flow dlepth on local scour tlepth. Inevitably,
the }ocal flow clepth varied along the flume length in res-
ponse to the presence of bed features. In some cases,
especiall-y at high flows, surface boj.ls were evident. The
mean flow depth was estimated by averaging the heights of
the crests and troughs of the surface'waves. A line,
parallel to the base of the flume and 170 m above the mean
bed level, was drawn on the glass sides over the length of
the flume. Thi.s line was used for estimation of the mean
flow depth by averaging the heights of the crests and troughs
of the water surface waves.
The slope of the flune was adjusted for each experiment so
that the mean water surface level was parallel to the mean
bed level, thus ensuring uniform flow. For flows with
relatively undisturbed vtater surface' slope adjustnent nas
easily checked hrith the aid of a pointer gauge attached to
the instrurnent carriage, enabling measurement of urater levels
at various points along the flune. For flows in vrhich
surface waves due to Lnteraction with bed features were
signi-ficant, slope adjustment to ensure uniform flow
conditions was difficult and time consuning' but it is
considered that reasonable accuracy t as obtained in all
cases. the measurernent of the slope was done at the end
of each experiment and the shear velocity was calculated
from:

u* @fl (3.3)

Velocity profiles for clear water scour experiments \tere

measured on the centreline of the approach flow using a
standard pitot tube at about 1 rn upstream of the pler. In
order to obtain a fulIy developed turbulent boundary layer
 68

at the test section, a fence of dowel pegs spaced 40 mm

apart rdas placed at the inlet end of the flume, thus
increasing the rate of growth of the turbulent boundary
layer thickness. The presence of the fence did not
interfere with the inflow of sediment. Examples of
typical velocity profiles are shown in Figure 3.11.

17
a

=10
E
cl

<tr
o.
o
]J

;
_9
lr

1
o.2 0.4 0.6
Vetocity (m/sl
Figune 3.71, : Iypieal VeLoeity profilea
At high flow rates, measurenents of velocity profiles on the
approach bed became difficult due to high seitiment transport
rates and the translation of bed features at the measurement
point. Ho\tever, a number of measurements ltrere made to
check the shear velocities given by the velocity distribu-
tion with the shear vetoclties obtained from sJ_ope measure-
ments. The cornparison is shown in Fignrre 3.12 which
shoets that the two methods of measurement ag'ree within
i 108.
 '59

o
E
s8
x
*
-5
J

-to
L
J
o
o,
(D4
E

68
kldm/s)

Eig,ure 3'.72 : sheqz VeLao'i'tg '@b'tddneiI ftan Vcloa'itg

Prafdt e lteat:tltenent Seretts SheaP V;elo,c,i fg
Obtadned f,*an SL.ope Meaeu*ement

The e*perinestally detqrsrln6d Es.ta.tr, sherlt stJesses as a

funetl,on of f,lorr velosities for e3.ctb sedj-4ent are shown l-g
Fi$Ee 3.13(a), (b)' (c) and (<1) (Yo = 170 rm and 2l0nlo}.
Ttre aro:rface d.nag (ti) le realculated f,rosr the nean vetr6ciL1z
equati-on tor Lhe'rough bsgqdary

a=
* = s.zs rov 25fr + 6 (3.4)

Rauclkivi (f9?6) plotted a 'sioilar eurve based on experilaental

data y Vanontr ,.tt6 SSpolce (1957) for a scftirient o'f neail
rlialnets = O.L52 m (see Figure 3'14). Raudktvi used the
 i0 10

I
-o dso = o'24mm d5o = o'6
0-^
vJ
d
g6 'nt
o t,
o o
o
L o
L
/
' az. 6t,
L
o L
o
o o
6t 5z

0.1 08
--t
1.2 04 0B 12
(o) (b)
Velocity (m/sl Vetocity (m/sl

-o-8
o

o
a
dr
a
a
o
:6
a
L
a L
o
o
EL
L
o a
sao

l,^, 0./. 0.9 12 1.6 0r/1l 0.4 0.8 1.7

tu
' Vetocity (m/s) ru
' Velocity (m /s l

Figune 3. 13 : Total S|'teaz, Stress 1., ef'alts i,!e an V eLoei tg

 ?l

cornbinedManning-strickler relation U/u* = 7 -66 (Yo/d')l/6

for the surface drag and showed that the effective surface
roughness r,ras represented by d = I nn rather than 0.152 mm.
fhe same effect is also shown in the data obtained ftom this
study. (Note: The surface drag distribution by using
eqn. 3.4 and the combined ltanning-strickler relationship
are essentially the same.)

(\I rfoce drog

E
z d =1.0 mm
o
aI
F
I
I /
.t'
l/ a'\
t/
t/a \Surfoce drog
..'
lt
t/./
." d =0.152mm
i -t -..'
)z,L--"
oo'
02 0.1 0.6 o8
Velocity (m/s)

Figure 3. 14 Etress uith Mean

Variation of Bed Shearjuer
Velocitu. Ll-^, in FLou 0.752 nn Sand
ned. (Daia oT Vanoni and Bnooks (L95?)'
RepT,otted by Raudkioi (1976))
 72

.The form drag: component is apparent in all the data obtained in

this study. The multi-valued form drag-velocity relationship
is clearly shown in the 0.24 mm sediment (Fig'ure 3.13(a)). There
is an extensive low dune, transition flat bed and early antidune
bed regime. I{ithin the velocity limits the antidunes still
have a relatively smooth surface, as shown in Figure 3.13(a)).

The total drag curves in Figures 3.13(b), (c) and (ct) do not
show a reversal of totaL drag, as in Figure 3.13(a), because
rippres di.d not form- rn Figure 3.13(b), the curve bends
tohrards the surface drag curve at transition flat bed condi_
tion but not in the curves in Figures 3,I3(c) and (d) because
a distinctly flat transition flat bed ilid not form with these
two sediments. rhe reason was that the high Froude Nurnbers
at these velocities reads to the formation of antidunes rather
than a transition flat bed. The change in slope in the
curves at high velocj-ties indicates the beginning of the
fornration of antidunes.
Additional experiments were conducted usi.ng the r.45 mm sedinent
at Yo = 340 mm so that transj.t.ion flat bed was formed at high
velocity excess. This vras made possible using a temporaryheight
extension to the channel walls over the length of the fLume.

simoruand Richardson (1g66) proposed a rerationship

between the
various bed features, stream povrer and grain size (refer
co
Fi'gure 3'r5) ' The lines separating plane bed frorn ripples and
ripples from dunes were established from frume data whereas
the boundaries separating dunes and transition and transition
and the upper regime were based on field data. Simorsand
Richardson (1966) stated that nif just flume d,ata were used.,
tbe diviiling line betr4reen dunes and transition would occur
at about 108 Less stream power than the field data indicates,,.
 73

N t
'E
I oun",
z t
L
o t
8l
= I
E
o
o
L
a

Ftot Bed
I o - onnounes
A o - tmnsition
A a - dunes
r - riPPles
A- flot bed,
.01
0.5 1.0 1.5

Groin Size (mml

Fiaure 3.75 : ReLationship .betueen Bed Featutes' Stream

- PorZ"- Size - Aceording to-.Simo'nsand
""aci"in
Riehardson (1966) Data ftom th1's stuaA Ls
SuPerinPosed
results obtained from the present study are superimposed
1n Figure 3.I5 for comparison'
It can be seen that:
(a) The transition from dunes to transition
flat bed is
expected since
earlier than indicated' This is to be
the alata was deriveil from flume experiments'
(b) The transi-.ion from plane bed to either
ripples or
This
dunes also occurs earlier than in€Iicated'
separation corresponds to the threshold conilition'
Shieldrs
It is possible to plot a itiviiting line blz using
 74
Entrainment Function to cal.culate u*^ and a value of
Uo" frorn

uo. - u*c{s.zs roy r} (3. s)

#.
!'rith Yo = 170 mnr (used in this study)
then, the Stream por^rer, p = p uic Uoc

The line so obtained is shown in Figrure 3.15 as line (l)

and ls seen to be much lolrer than that indicated. The data
from the present study sho\., better colrelatLon with line (1)
than that drawn by Simorsand Richardson.

Average Flow Velocitv

The total flolr rate (etot) in the flume for any one of the
experi.urents i.s equal to the sun of the flow rate thtough
the variabLe speed axial flow puup (Ow) and the flow through
the sediment punp (es)

Qtot=Qr*e= (3. 6)

The average flow velocity can then be estimated from

uo=# (3.7 )

where both Yo and B are fixecl (yo = I70 mn or 2IO mm and

B = 440 mn).

Ehe flow rate through the variable speed control nump was
estimated using pump perfor:rRance curves derived from the
manufacturer's test curve (speed. = 9G0 RpM) shown in
Figure 3.16. A faroily of performance curves was prepared
assuming operation at other speedssuch that,

H1 ["'l' (3.8)
H2
t-;l
 IJ

-NrQl (3.e)
anct q=E
where Ht' II, = punp headl in terms of vtater column
Nl'N2 speed in RPM
Ql' Qz = flovt rate

Duringoperation,theheadacrossthePumPwasmeasuredusing
awatermanomeeerandtheflowratedeterminedusingthe
appropriate performance culve. The flowrate' Qs through the
sediment PumP lilas assumecl to be constant' This is
reasonable because heailloss changes arising from water level
variations were insignificant' Q" was determined by
measuring the velocity profiles at five different' stations
across the cross section of the flume' The flowr:te was
determined from
(3.10)
Qs=Ve = ::l^'{l*'}l'
(
where [vdY v versus dy (velocity distri-
Area under the
)
bution) curve at Position Zt
LZ distance between Zi and Zi+l
zi = the ith station across the cross section of
the flume
and found to be equal xo 9'0 9"/s

Checks were made on the accuracy of the velocities

obtained
from the pump perfornance curve by comparlng these with the
mean velocities obtained from the velocity Profiles
measured
at the eentre-line of the flume (assuming that the mean
velocity at 0.368 times the flow depth from the mean
bed
is
level and ignoring side wall effects) ' ?he comparison
shown in Figure 3.17'
 $

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 77

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E 1.1

o
-o

o
'd_

E
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f

0.5 1'0

Uo from p.p.c. (m/s)

Figure 3.17 : Mean VeLocity 0btained fron VeLoeitg Profi'Lea

oe"sus Mean Velocity obtalned fton Pump
Perfonmanee Cutve

3.5 E.XPERIMENTA], PROCEDURE

I Clear Water ExPerirnents

Before the comnencement of an experiment, ttre sedirnent
bed
running on the
was levelled with the aid of a scraper
instrument carriage raiLs' The flurne was then filled with
 78

water to approxirnately the required depth before the axiaL

pump was started and set to the desj.red speed. Note that
the sediment punp was not used fOr clear water experiments.
The following steps were then carried out:

1. Fhe overflow weir was set to the correct position to

drain off excess water.
2. The weir in the settling tank was set to achieve the
correct lrater 1evel in the flune.
3. The slope was adjusted so that a uniforur flow was
obtained.
4. water tenperature was recorded,
5. The head across the pump was recorded and the flow-
rate determined..

5. Photographs were taken and observations of the

development of the scour hole were recorded.

7. The velocity profile was tneasured with the aid of

a standard pitot tube at the centre-line of the
flume.

8. The scour depth was measured at regnrlar intervals.

A plot of scour depth as a function of log tirne was
rnade. A typical plot of scour depth as a function
of 1og time is shown in Flgure 3.18. The experiment
was allorred to continue until equilibrium scour depth
was attained. nguilibriun scour depth is assumed
to hawe been reached when no appreciable increase
of scour depth was detecteil over a 12 hour period.

II Live-bed Experiments
With live-bed experiments it was not necessary to level the
sediment bed. fhe fl-ume was filled with water and both
pumps vrere st.arteal. Steps I to 5 above were followed.
 79

2.O
lll=0.7
Utc

= 0.6
1.5

o
o
1f
1.0

dso = o'6 mm
D = 31.75mm

o5

100 101 fiZ 103

Time (minutesl

Eigure
' 3.18 : tgpical Cil"oe of Relatioe Clear Watev Scout
obfth zsez'sus Log rine

fhe flurne was then left to run until an equilibrium scour

hole was attained anil also until bed features were welL
developed along the entire flume length' The time ranged
from 4 hours to 20 hours depending on the velocity of flow'
The following steps were then carried out:

t. Recordings of the scour depths r"ere rnade at 1 minute

intervals for a total duration of 100 minutes so that
a t,ime varlation of scour depth could be plotted'
A typical pfot of the time vari-ation of live-bed scour
depths is shor'rn in Figure 3'I9'

2. When a well defined bed feature waa translating past

 80

t$e scour holel lts h€lght tras. medsutd, rand the

ef€eets arn the flllefi.uagi.ans of, tlie
,cdrl'eEEDsnalingi
SColrr hole wer6 no,t€d

3. In goFe- of- tbe runB.. neloe{ty :prof,iles wene p.lotted.

L. Fhotogtaphs aadl vide-o reeo::ils, ttere taken aad
obEervatioE€,,on tli6 cleBelogrneBt of t&e racoq! hoila as
a ,r:esqlt of Elre translation o,f bed featu:r.es Bast the
ncorr:r hole were noted.. gp"ectal aLteution was gtven
to Elqlerlrneteg e5fried out l.s non-urrifotra sedj,qent.
5. trhe .eed:lment ElanEtroft taUe C.a€ uea,siiu:r:d at the 6nd of
tfre XOO m{nu.tes durgtion,.
6. lff,te neag, bed leveJ. a.ud the r0eas rater level crere
frsqu€ntllr ctresls€d {urtn.g the exFeri;qeDt to ens,qlrg
that a gnifo. ts{o f!.ow wa.e neietalneit.
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 Chopter 4
Results and Discussion
4.1 INTR.ODUCTION

This chapter is divided into two main sections. The first

section deals with li.ve-bed scour at bridge piers in uniform
sediments. The influence of the approach velocity, time,
flow depth and sedjment size is discussed in terms o!, Vo/tJo",
L, Y^/D
U and D/d.^
fU
respectiveJ-y. The second section deals
with live-bed scour at bridge piers in non-uniform sediments
and the influence of various parameters on scour depths in
non-uniforrn sediments.

4-1.1 Live-Bed scour at Bridge piers lrith uniform sedimencs

The maximum scour depth has been the prinary concern in the
study of local scour around bridge piers and most researchers
have concentrated on measurenent of the maxirnum scour depth,
which has been expressed as the relative scour depth,
d"/D, for both clear \,vater and live-bed scour. In live-bed
scour experiments, it has been customary to measure only the
absolute maxj.murn value of d",/D within the duration of the
experiments. Howeve!, the leve1 of a bed covered with bed
featuxes fluctuates with the t,ranslation of bed forms.
Since the rnaxirnum scour depth at bridge piers occurs when the
trough of a bed feature is at the pier, the measurement
at that ti-me incLudes not only the scour due to the pier
but also that due to bed forms. In Figure 4.1, it, can be
seen that the scour depth d"(max) is the sum of f,O and Ho,
where \ is the lowering of the Local bed level in the
trough of the bed forms and Ho is the scour due to the pier.
When the measured ds (max) is normalised using the pier
diameter, an error is introduced because FO is independent
of D, i.e. the dune height is a function of flow depth and
not of the pier size. This error becomes particularly
B2
 83

large with dunes in deeP rivels anal when antidunes of large

height are Present.

D
Direction
'+ flow
of
\ -- \ M.B.L.

q
--
E o
-
;l
L-- -- J
Fig. 4-1 flluetvation of Lacal Scour Depth at a
Ginen Instant as the 7un of scout Depth
due to the PLer (En) and Change i'n Bed
Eletsation due to Eed Features (86)

This distinction can be imPortant if the results obtainea

frommode]-piersaretobeusedinprototypeconditions.
In the Prototype, the pier diarneter ancl flow depth are not
necessarily in the same scale ratio as in the model'

Many researchers. e.9' et al (1966) ' .Jain and Fischer

Shen
(f979) etc. have recognised the two independent components
of scour dePth- Jain and Fischer pointecl out that the
eontribution of the bed forms to the scour depth becomes
Nevertheless'
more significant as the veJ-ocity increases'
they clid not separate the two aomponents' stating that this
is not possible. The argument is best illustrated with an
example using one of their results' e'g'
run lrl-5 rthere
 84

Max total scour, d,s = lL5 nm

Max scour due to bed formsr HO = 67 mur
Scour due to the pierr lln - ds EO = 48 mn
Diameter of Pier, DI = 50.8 nun
(ds,/D)1 = Q8/50.8) + (67il50.8) = 2.26
If the diameter of the pier is changed, e.g
D2 = 200 mm, then the result is
= (inew scour deprh - 671/200) + (6j/2oo)

Since the bed features are irregular in size, the Local

departures frorn the nean bed leve1 are difficult to define.
As a first approximation, half of the bed feature height
could be assumed as the variation. From laboratory or
field data, the relative temporal mean of the scour clepth,
dur/O, defines the local scour depth without the contribu-
tion frorn bed features. In this study, d"rr/D was obtaineil
from

+ = ,!, (ds)
i,/D
(4.1)

where N = 100 points, measured at intervals of I

minutes

The values of d..r/D can be compared for different pier

diameters. If the fluctuation of the local scour depth as
a resuLC of the translations ofabedfeature is A d",
then the maximum scour depth ds(max) i"

ds(max) = (d".,r/o) x D + 0.5 A d" (4.21

erhere Ad s = d.stmaxJ
.-d. stmLnj.
and d-s tmax
r----'] the maximum in the loca:L scour depth
versus time record. It corresponds
to the translation of the trough of a
bed feature past the scour hole.
 85

dsirnin] = the minimum in the I'ocal scour depth

versus tirne record- It corresponds
to the translation of the crest of a bed
feature Past the scour ho1e.

Tochecktheapproximationthattherueanbedlevelisapproxi-
mately at hal-f the height of the bed features' eqn 4'2 can
be apPlied:

ds(max) = d"..,+o'5acls
,\
ds(max) = d"r, + 0'5 x {d"to"*t - d"tmi,,t}
(-l
d5 - 0'5 x {dst..x) - ds(rnin)/ = du"
lmax)
(-\
o.s x lE.(max) + ds(mintl = d"t
The calcul.t"a qo.ntity, 0.5 x {itslmax) + d"(.irr1 }/n
(or d.(aver),/D) is plotted as a function of d"rr,/D in Fignrre
4.2. 'lhe graph shows that ds("rr"r)/D is equal to d"rr'lD
within about t 5t, confirraing that the mean bed level is
approximately at half the height of the bed features
translating Past the scour hole'
During the experiments, the heights of welJ. defined bed
features (ho) and the corresponding fluctuations in the
scour depth (A ds) were measured' llhe relationship
between A d= and ho is plotted in Pigure 4'3' A straight
line of A d" = a ho + b' can be fitted to the data'

By using linear regression, the values of a and b were found

to be 0.768 and - 2-467 mxn resPectiveLy' The correlation
factor, r was equal to 0.985' The ho-intercept is
approximately 3-2 mm which could be interpreted to mean
that any bed feature with a height of less than 3'2 mm
woul-d not cause a measurable fluctuation in the scour
depth'
shenet aI (1965) stated that "based on flume experiments'
 B6

dov'/D

Figure 4.2 EaLf of the 9un of Maxi-mun and

Mininun Scour Depth versut
Equi'l,ibriun Scour Depth

j,,t is safe to acld half the expected dune height to the

maximun scour depth as a design criteria". Even though
Shen et al clid not defj.ne the trmaximum scour depth", their
estimation of "half the dune height" forms an upper limit
to the results obtained from the present stud.y.
The results of the present stuciy indicate that it is safe
to estimate tbe local scour depth frout

ds (desigrn) (davlD)xD+0.5ho (4. 3)

 87

100

80

E
5oo
o
!

Fi.gwe 4.3 Eluetuati,ons i.n the Scour DePth

(L de) aa a tuneti-on of the Hetght
of BZd Features (ho)

The height of becl features, hor varies with flow conditions'

It can be estimated. for example, from experimental data
by Yalin o972), Figure 4'4'

4.L.2 Effect of ePPfgectr-lefogitY

The measured values of the relative scour
temPoral" average
depth, duu/D, in a uniform sediment around a cylindrical
pier are-shown for each sedirnent size as a function of the
velocity pararneter U"/Eo" in Figures 4'5 (a) to
(tl) '
Superimposed on the d",,r,/D versus Uo'luoc curves are the
fluctuations of the scour depth' A d"' Note that al1 the
less
approach flows were subcritical with the Froude
Nurnbers
 88

0.3

o
o
q n.1
o.
o
(l,
o
o
L
+J i'
g 0.01

!
o
d

10 100
0r0"

?igute 4.4 : Bed Featu?e Steepness ue?eug

0/Qe after Ialin (1972)

than unity. gome of the data points in the 1.45 rmr

sediment were collected using a larger flow depth (Yo =
340 mn) in oriler to ensure that conctitions rernained sub-
critlcal (refer to Appendix A for the ctetails of each data
point).
It has been strown by previous researchers that the scour
ilepth in the cJ"ear nater region increases alrnost linearly
with increasing velocity and reaches a maximum at the
threshold velocity of the bed sediment. Lj:nited clata
for cl-ear water scour collected in this study are con-
sistent with this trendl. The dlfference in the values of
the relative thresholdl scour depth in rippling and non-
 89

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 90

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 93

rippling sediment is clearly seen fron Figures 4.5(a) and (b).

The reason for this difference was explained by Ettema (1980).

In live-bed scour, the data show decreasinq scour depths above

the threshold condition until a local minimum is reached,
after which the scour depth increases again, but at a decreas-
ing rate, until a plateau or a second peak is reached. The
results shown are consistent with those presented by Chee (1982).
The:/ are also consistent with the results of Jain and Pischer
(1979) insofar as the initial drop and the subsequent rise in
the scour depth are concerned, although ilain and !'ischerrs
data did not indicate the second peak (refer to 9igures 2.20(a)
and (b)). At velocities greater than those for the second
peak, the scour depth drops off slightly (refer to Fiqures
4.5(a), (!) and (c)). with the 3-2 mm sedirnent (Figure
4.5(d)), the second peak and subsequent drog could not be
reached due to equipment limitations.

The shape of the d"*r./D versus Uo,/Uo" curves is related to the

bed features translaEinq Past the scour hole- Because changes
in velocities cause chang:es in becl features, these different
bed features affect the development of the scour ho1e. The
scour hole is affected blr bed forms in the following r.ea1'53

I. the volume of sedirnent transPorted and available

to be dumped into the scour hole which varies with
the particular bed feature present, and
2. the time avaj.lable for scourinq between successive
bed features passing the scour hole' i.e. from one
dumping of sediment into the hole to the next.
This is determj-ned by the wavelength of the becl
features, l. and their height, ho. The speed of
transl-ation of bed features is proportional to
t/ho.

When the aPproach vefocity exceeds the critical velocity

of the bed sediment, general sediment movement begins and
sediment is transported into the scour hole' The data
 94

show that initialJ.y the scour depth decreases with the

increased approach velocity and scouring power. The
reduction is a consequence of the different rates of scour
hole development and sediment supply frorn upstream.
For uo t uo., the equilibrium scour clepth is reached after
a long period of scouring. When sediment transport beg'ins,
a new dynami.c eguilibrium is established between the supPly
of sedirnent and the scouri.ng process, generally yielding a
reduced scour depth. This equilibrium depth of live-bed
varies with Uo; it reaches a minimum at a velocity of
about double that at threshold, after which it increases
again.

The data show that the velocity which produces the minimun
live-bed scour depth also produces the largest fluctuations
in the scour depth, indicating that the minimun scour depth
is related to the largest dunes (for a given flow depth and
bed sedirnent) translatsing past the scour hole. The data
of Chee (1982) also showed a similar trend (refer to
Figure 2.21-1. This observation is substantiated by reference
to Yalin's (1972) relationship beLween bed feature steePness
(ho,/f ) and 0,/9. (refer Lo Figure 4.4), which shows a
maximum in ho,/tr ax 0/8" = 10 and 7 for non-rippling and
rippling sediments respectively. The equivalent values
for the minirnum scour depth in the present study are
e/Oc + 8.4 and 7.4 for non-rippling and rippling sediments
respectively, where a = u2*/ (ss-l)gd, 0c = shields Dntrainment
Function for dUO of the respective sediment (refer to data
Iisted in Appendix A; e.g. for rippling sediment' the
minimum live-bed scour depth occurs at Uo,/Uo. = 1.5 (see
Figure a.5(a)), the corresponding shear velocity = 0'00354
rnls, hence, 0/0c = 7.4). when the dune height is large and
the wavelength is short, (ho,/f = large) the downflow and
the horseshoe vortex have re-l-atively little time to remove
sediment from the scour hole before the next dune arrives
and dumps sediment into the scour hole.
 95

At velocities above that producing the ninimum live-bed

scour depth, this trend is reversed. The steepness of
bed features decreases, the dune heiqht is reduced and
wavelength j"ncreased. As a consequence, there is more
ti:ne to excavate the sediment durngeil before the next dune
arrives at the scour hole. Ilence, the scour deptlt
increases again. When the transition flat bed is formed'
the equilibrium scour depth reaches a new maximun- The
situation is similar to the flat bed clear water geak except
that there is continuous inPut of sediment to the scour
hole, resulting in a lesser scour depth. Note that in
the case of rippling sediments, the threshold peak is low
due to the presence of ripples even at below threshold
conditions so that the live-bed maximum is larger than
the threshold scour dePth.
The relationship between the fluctuation in scour degths
(A ds) and the velocity Parameter (uo,/Uoc) is shown
in Figures 4.5(a) to (d). The curves clearLw shor"
the correlation between the fluctuations of the scour
depth and the equilibrium scour depth. rn Figures 4.5(a),
(b) and (c), the live bed naximtuu occurs over the range
of veloeities for which the minimum A d" occurs- The
minirnurn A d" corresponds to the transition flat bed.
The finite value depicted is due to the avalanches of
sedirnent which occur from the upstream slope into the
scour ho1e. It should be pointed out that for the
3.2 nEn sediment, it was not possible to obtain the transi-
tion flat bed due to the lirnited flow depth available with
the flume used. Thj.s aspect is discussed later in
this section.
Asthevelocitlrincreasesgastthelive-bedmaximumscour
depth, anti'lunes are forrned. The scour depth decreases
since the rapiC rnovenent of large arnplitude bed forns
has a sirnilar effect to that of dunes' There is little
time availab.le for scouring between successive bed forms
 96

and the sediment transport rate in general is very high.

It should be noted that in flume experiments, it is often
difficutt to maj-ntain subcritical flow and attain high
velocities for the formation of transition flat bed.
rnstead, antidunes are forrned in the flow with high
Froude Number. This constraint was also encountered by
simonsand Richardson (1966) in their study of the forma-
tion of bed forms. The problem is more J.ikety to arise
with coarse bed materiaL for which the transition
flat bed is forrned at a relatively high mean velocity.
The problem was evident vrith both the 1.45 nmand 3.2 mm
sediments (Yo = 170 mm and 210 rnn respectively) usecl in
this study, where transition flat beil was not formed
(refer to Figures 4.5(d) and 4.6). The bed features
changed directly fron dunes to antidunes- In Figure
4.7, line I shows the typical variation of dav/D with
mean velocity for relatively Large Yo/D ancl D,/DUO (i-e.
the effects of flow depth and sediment size are not
present), and a flow./sedinent combination allowing the
formation of al-1 types of bed features. llowever, when
the depth of flow is decreased so that the velocity at c
has a high enough groude Nlrnber to force the formation
of antidunes rather than transition flat bed, then the
scour depth would start to decrease at point c rather than
at point d, i.e. the local- maximum point shifts from m'
to m'r and the scour depth fol-lows line II. ft is assuned
that Yo,/D is large enough not to affect the results.
In this case the local maximum occurs in the dune bed
rather than in the transition flat bed. This feature is
evident in the 1.45 nun sedirnent used in the experiments
where Yo = 1?0 nun (refer to Figure 4.6)' With the 3'2 mm
sediment (see Figure 4-5(d)), the formation of antidunes
occurred even earlier, somewhere between point a and the
minimum live-bed scour depth and the true live-bed rninimurn
vras not observed. In this situation the maximurn point m"'
occurs in an antltlune bed and the scour depth follor'rs
J-1NE III.
 o.'

o
DYo
o
E
(mm) (mml

o 31.75 't70
1,0 o"210
tr 40'00
d so = 1'45 mm A /.5.00 170
A"210

1?3t,5
uo/ uoc

Flgure
" 4.6 : 3e?.atite EquiLibrium Scoztt' Depth ue?sus Uo/Uoc
lor duo = 1'45 (F'Z 1)
 98

E
CL
o
o

)o
L

aC)

cd
Velocity

Figut,e 4, 7 Seour DeptTt as a Funetion of

Veloeitg rllustnatittg the
Effeet of Fz,oude Nunber

Comparison with Previous Results

Chee's (f982) data, obtained using different experimental
apparatus, compare well with the results obtained from this
study. His data r.rere obtained in "sha1Iow" fLow depths
(Yo/D < 2). Chee uEed the flow ctepth function (refer
to FiEure 2.26) obtatned by Ettema (1980) for cfear water
scour to adjust his data for the effect of flow depth.
However, he pl-otted values of d=(*"x)/D instead of d^u/D,
hence introducing errors due to bed features (HO).
Chee concluded that two curves are evident for rippling
and non-rippling sedirnents respectivel:/ (refer to
Figure 4.8), the two curves eventual.ly merging to becone
one at the transition flat bed.
 99

o
x
d
E

€o d." - (mml
a . I'J()
A . 1. /.0

Figure 4.8 Relatiue Marinum Seour Depth

q: F.y\1!\on of uo/uo. aftet
" (7982)
Chee

The results obtained from the present study (ref,er to

Figures 4.9 and 4.24) show that the functions for the
ripple forming and non-ripple forming sedinents merge at
the region of live-bed minimun scour depth. This is
because at this stage and for higher shear stress excess'
dunes are forned in both tyPes of sediments-
 100

I
I
I
I

Yo = 170 mm

uo/ uoc

Ftgure 4.9 Relatite Equilibriun Seout

De?th DePsu" Uo/Uo.

Data by Chabert and Engetdinger (1955) and Hancu (1971)

(Figure 4.10) ancl chee (1982) (rignrre 4.11 - replotted
using d..,r,/D instead of d={rr*;,/D)confirm the result that
merging of the two curves occurs near the live-bed minimum
scour. Atl these data have been adjusted for the effect of
flow d.epth using the flow depth function proposed by Ettema
(1980).

Jain and Fischer (Lg7g, 80) found that the scour depth
increases in the antidune region (refer to Figures 2'20(a)
and (b) ) , contrary to results by Chee (1982) and the present
 101

non - rippiing
sediments
jv
o efir
o
u
E

rippling
sediment

1 2
il ./rlvoc
vo

Figuz,e 4- 10 Relaf,ite Scoun Depth as 6 Fuxrction

of U6/tloe - aftev Chabert and
EngeLdinger (i956) and Hdncu (197L)

study. This is Jain and Fischer measured absolute

because
maximum scour depths within the duration of each of their
experi$ents. As discussed in Section 4'1.I, data
measured in this i{ay are misleadinq because they include
the scour due to bed forms as welL as the scour due to the
pier- The writer observed an antidune of amplitude
130 rmn in a flow of l-70 mm depth. The antidune height
is verlr significant in the context of scour depths
 102

25

o
o
o o
o
E

15 - (mm)
. 0.2/., 0.38
a 0.80. 1.40

= 100 mm

10-'i
Uo /Uoc

Fisur e 4' 1 1' :Ztzr'r',i.'rXi'"t 3T'r:1oZZ"i?rl""o

to
Chee (1962)

obtained from flume experiments- If the total scour depth

includes half the amplitude of the antiilune, it is not
surprising that .Tain and !'ischer obtained a value of d"'/D
as high as 3 from their experiment with a pier of
diameter of onI1' 50.8 mm.
It is possible to produce a curve similar to that by Jain
and Fischer from the data collected in this study if the
absolute maximum scour depths are used to Plot a d=1.u*;/D
 103

versus Uo/U-o.' euff€ (refer to Pl'g-urne 4.12). It d.s also

possl-b.le to obtaeq f, Gorv€r basedl on ilai! a$d'Figherrg
data,, Slltll.Iar to'the ewrres obtaiaed f,:rolq ttle'p-:teqe.nt
etudy by replott{ng thej.r data baFed on d"o ratheq
than d"(nax1 (refer to Fignrre 4.13). l[h€ values of da.,
were obta:Laecl bpr s,ubtracting aqoEr dlue tq be'ci fotrnie frojl
the tota]- sc:o-irf,

D = 31.75 mm
3{) Y"= 1'70 rnm
dso= 1'45 mm o

o
x
tr.
E
ll
<t
2.5

0:4 0'6 0€ 10 12 V, '1'6

Meqn Velocity (rnls)

Flgare
- 4-72 : Rel;atio'a Abcolute itrasinun' Eco*t'
DePlh v'ets*s liteaa VeLocii,Eg
 dso = 1'5 mm

o
o
E
YolD =2

1.0
Y

0'4 0.6 08 1.0 1.2

Velocity (m/sl
Figune 4. 1.3 Relatiue Equilibz'i-un Scout Depth
as a Functi-on of VelocitY - after
Ja'in and Fi.scher (7979)

4.1.3 lime Effects

It is generally accepted that the live-bed scour dlePth
fluctuates with the translalion of bed features past the
scour ho1e, increasing and decreasing with the passage of
troughs and crests, resPectively. Apart from this and
sorne other general commentsr there are few recorded
observations on the developrnent of live-bed scour' In
this study, observations $rere made on the changes of the
scour trole in both size and shape as ripples. dunes,
transition flat beit and antidunes moved Past the scour
hole. Descriptions of the physicaS" changes of the scour
hole in response tc the translations of bed features and
their effects on the scour depth as a whole are Presented
in this section. They are considered under two headinqs:
 t05

1. Ripples and Dunes

Transition Flat Bed and Antidunes

1. Ripples and Dunes

It is difficult to distinguish between these two

types of bed forms and to discuss their effects
on the scour hole separately. For the sake of
this discussion, ripples are considered to be
3-dimensional, small, irregular bed features with
very short wavelength while dunes are considered
to be more 2-di:nensional and have more regular
features, larger height and longer wavelength.
Based on this definition, ripples, in this stuiiyr
were only observed in the 0-24 mn sediment'

In a rippled bed, the scour hole develops rather

slowly from an initially flat bed. Bed features
first form at positions along the length of the
flume where sma1l irregularities or discontinuities
occur, e.g. at the inlet end of the flume'
The rippled bed dlevelops frorn these points until-
eventually, ripples aPpear along the entire length
of the flume. The influx of sediment carried by
the ripples inhibits the deveJ-opment of the scour
hole to its maximum depth. When the equilibrium
scour hole is formed on a ri-pp1ed bed, very littl-e
activity is seen in the hole and the size and shape
of the scour hole change onJ-y very slightly in
response to the Passagre of ripples' This is
because the associated shear stress is relatively
srnal.l so that both the sediment transport rate and
the scouring mechanism are weak' When the
experiment is started from an initially flat bed at
relati.veJ.y low velocity excess (which is associated
with the formation of ripples) the maximum scour
depth is reached rapidtll' (usually in less than 20
 106

minutes) before ripples become fully developed. The

scour depth decreases slightly as the equilibrium
condition is approached due to the sedlrnent txansport
on the ful1y developed rippled bed (refer to Figure
4.14). It was found to be necessary to continue
the experiments for a long period (at least 16 hours
in this study) to ensure that the eguilibrium condition
was fullv established.

Time
Figure 4.74 Vapiati"ons of Seour Depth uith Ti-ne
in RiooLed and Dune Covered Bed

on a dune-covered bed at relativeLy higher velocity

excess, the scour hole in an initially flat bed
develops quickly but bed features rapidly appear and
the sediment transport late is large enough to affect
the inj.tial peak of the scour depth. The scour
clepth fluctuations are apparent before the equilibrium
scour depth is established (refer to Figure 4.14).
During the first part of this study, experirnents were
run for not less than 16 hours after which the
equilibrium scour hole was assumeil to have been
established. It \,tas later found that the scour depth
 J-07

measured after 8-10 hours showed no measurable

difference from that after 16 hours and the duration of
runs nas shortened accordinglY.
For a particular flow condition, dunes of a certain
steepness and celerity are expected. HovJever, in
practice, dunes do not necessarily alwalrs appear in
2-dimensionaL form nor with identical form or steepness.
Generally, dune height and length vary from dune to
dune as well as along the crest of the same dune and
some dunes have obligue crests.

As the flow passes over a dune' it separates at the

crest of the dune and reattaches several dune heights
downstream on the upward slope of the preceecling
dune. Sediment particles can be ca*ied in suspension
to the reattachment Point or slide down the lee side
slope. At the reattachnent region' the particles
may be disglaced in any direction. If they are
caught in the wake of the separation zone, thev become
less mobile and may be moved backwards. The
equilibri-un scour dePth in a dune-covered bed flucluates
in response to the translation of the dunes past the
scour ho1e. It is interesting to note that both the
rate of scouring and the scour dePth vary depending
on the position of the dune in relation to tlre scour
hole. Wheir the reattachment point coincides with
the scour hole, the scouring is due to both the
reattached flow and the downflow and its associated
horseshoe vortex. Particles are visibly moving
about in the scour hole and rernoved from it more
vigorously than at other times. After the reattach-
ment point has passed the pier, the rate of scouring
decreases markedly. The scour depth' however,
increases until just before the sediment particles
from a dune crest slide into the scour hole.
Thereafter, the scouring intensity increases again as
 108

sedinent dumped into the hole is removed by the

downflow. lhe clePth of the scour hole decreases
abruptty as Lhe dune falls into it and reaches a
minimum. Thereafter, the scour continues to deepen
until the next crest arrives. This is why the tine
between successive dunes is important in determining
the depth of scour.
The plan shape of the dune also changes as it trans-
Iates past the scour hole. Consider a 2-dirnensional
dune as it approaches the scour hole as shown in
Figure 4.15. It underg:oes the following changes:
t. The mid-section of the dune crest is ilravrn into
the scour hole as it approaches the hole.
2. The sediment from the dune directly upstream of
the scour regrion is dumped Lnto the scour hole
and is subsequently eroded from it. This
sediment travels at a faster rate than that in
the dune at either side of the pier, which is
transported at the normal (away fron the pier)
speed. In this way, the mid-section of the
dune becomes elongated.

fhe whole of the m.id-section of the dune is

transported past the pier while the rest of the
dune laqs behind.

4. The mid-section of the dune enters the pier

wake where the mean velocity is lower and the
speed of propaqation of this section of the dune
decreases while the rest of the dune translates
forward at its normal sPeed.
). The sections of the dune unaffected by the pier
catch up with the mid-section at about half a
dune length downstream of the Pier and the dune
reverts to its original shape anil size' The
 10.9

(1t
F
# (31

-r-.-\-
i-\
\..
\- --
\-/ ?

{s)

Fisura 4' 1 6' !r1ffi,I""72,u"Iu1*"or'l"rrYzk"?Z funo?.lu r t

r-u
 110

steepness of the dune, before and after passing

the pier, remains more or less the same.

It is appropriate to mention here that some experi-

ments !,tere conducted using larger diameter (D = 50.8 mn
and 70 mn) piers. For these piers, the relative
live-bed scour depth (dav,/D) was consistently lower
than that obtained using the 45 mm, 40 nun and 3l-75 mn
piers (refer to Figure 4.16) for the same flow clepth
and sediment (Yo = 170 rrun; dso = 0.6 run)- The
relative clear etater scour Clepths for a]-]. pier sizes
were. however' more or less the same, indicating that
neither Yo,/D nor D,/dUO is tbe cause of the difference.
It, was argued, therefore, that the reduction of ].ive-
bed scour for large piers is a consequence of the way
bed features propagate past these large piers. It
was observed that the entire dune translating past
the scour hole was durnped into the scour hole and that
the elongation of the dune as described above did
not occur. Instead, the whole dune was "destroyed"
and then "reconstructed" after it had passed through
the scour hole (refer to Figure 4.17). The lateral
sections of the dune were forced into the scour hole
due to the low aspect ratio, B/D of the flume (where
B = width of the flume). This extra sediment reduced
the depth of the scour hole. It was therefore
concluiled that for live-bed experiments, the minimum
aspect ratio must be at least I0 to avoid a reduction
in scour depth due to aPParatus.

2. Transition Flat Bed and Antidunes

In the transition flat bed and upper flow regimes'
the size and shape of the scour hol-e changed
continuously. The flow also carried a substantial
suspended load which obscured the view of the scour
hole. observations of the temporal deveJ-opment of the
 r11

2.3
Yo = 170 mm

dso = 0'6 mm

roo

Dr 50.8mm

uo/ uoc

Fi.gure 4.76 EquiLibriun Seoun DePth teraug

U^/U^- in a 440 mn \lide Channel
sfrou-iig the Effeet of the Bloekage
Ratlo

scour hole were difficult, often imPossible, even

with the aid of a strong light.
the scour hole in both the transition flat bed and
antidune bed develops very quickly. rnitially
5-6 hours were allowed for equilibrium state to be
established but after l-2 hours, no measurable
difference could be detected and experiments were
shortened accordinglY.
In a transition flat bed, the seilinent slides in and
out of the scour hole, somewhat lj'ke a layer of carPet
being pulled from the downstream end of the scour
hole. Occasionally, avalanches of sediment occur at'
 \L2

\
\
\
I

{
r fiI

d -
(31

Ei,suva 4.7? : Pl,an Vieu of a

r"^1"'i"iZ'-b"it-it
(q".
l[l

sc-2u1-E-ele qs a
(Eloekage Ratio
Dune

< 74)

t,he ,uPg'trean s,logle of tlre scpu'r hotr'e qausiog fllluotFa*

tiorls in ther ssour itegtlrr' ltre bed do{dtr€trea$ :t
t's-eotrr hOileil as il-Iustrateil fuii"*
pi,eE Fhovts a Bhallo!fl
for
iignre a.fE' trtilj''s- soour of the bed is'dtreeEer
ulger dLianeter pters and fol tlighet f,Iotls'
Ehe
of the seous hQlg is
water lev.el iSroed'iatety 'lovnatliean pi'et riirrdt iLs wali€"
lowereril due tso the Briesenee
of the
elie€rtitl,g a cotltra€ted flow in ttr:ls region' Additiq4al
rrqrt:i'ees atrong the
rscg-uriqq is &re fq tlro sapara'tJ'oo
ot-l:"t
bnundar,ies of the, tral<e' A largq! ui:" :: "
larger dtcoP ilt t'!re
'itater
$ean v'eloci'tg Frsetue'ea a
 113

level immediateJ-y downstream of the pier and a

stronger contracted flow effect which leads to a
deeper scour.

y^ Direction .\-JYO
+ \J\
of ftow -J
-J

tl
L--J

Figure 4. 78 Si-de Eleuation of a Seour Eole at

?ransitiott ELat Bed Shouing the
Louering of bed (6) Downstrean of
the Seouv EoLe

the scour depth fluctuates very quickly anil sediment

particles are seen to be lifted almost to the nater
surface by the vortices in the interface to the wake.
The angle of the upstream slope of the scour hole is
steeper than the angle of repose of the sediment.
Chee (1982) a].so made this observation. ilain and
Fischer (1979) and Chee (1982) proposed that at the
stopping of a particular experirnent, the suspended
load settles into the scour hole and reduces the
scour depth. I{owever, the sediment that appears at
the surface of the base of the scour hole after
stopping is coarser than that which would be carried
in suspension (this is especiall"y obvious in experi-
ments carried out with non-uniform sediments).
observations did confirm that the scour depth is
reduced. However, the more likely cause is that the
 114

sediment Particles which make up the steePer uPstream

slope of the scour hole during the flow slide into
the hole when the flow is stopped, thus reducing the
sloPe to the static angle of the sediment.

Antidunes, unlike dunes, do not form all the time'

Each train of sinusoiilal bed forms develops and
subsides after the corresponding water surface waves
break. After collapse, the bect features resemble
normal dunes, but they gradually grow in size
developing into the next train of antidunes' The
scour hole in an antidune bed changes rapitlly in both
size and shape. This is because antidunes are large
when cornpared to the scour hole in flume experiments.

The antidunes in this study were observed to be as

high as 130 mm. When a large antidune dumps
sedinent into the scour hole' the clepth of the hole
is reduced significantly. The process of dumping
and entrainment of sedi-Elent into and out of the scour
hole was similar to that of dunes excePt that all
aspects occurred at a much faster rate. Scour due
to becl forms was more significant than scour due to
the pier because there was very 1itt1e time for the
dovrnflowand the horseshoe vortex to act between the
passage of successive antidunes. It needs to be
appreciated that the amplitude of the bed feature
was at times as high as 3-4 times the diafteter of
the Pier used.

4.I.4 Effect of Flow Depth

The study of the effect of flow depth on live-bed scour clepth
complemented the results of Ettema (1980) (refer to
Figure 2.26) for clear water 6cour. Data obtained by
Ettema are replotted in Figure 4-19 (omitting data for
D=240mmwherethemaximumequilibriumscourdatav'asnot
 L15

reacheil and the aspect ratio r,tas too smalL). In general

three regions can be identifiecl:
1. p/ds0 = 5: where the effects of Yo,/D on scour
depth are stil1 apparent at lo/o = 7

2. o/a50 = 15: where the effects of Yo,/D on the

scour deptb become insignificant at
Yo/D = 7

3. o/dSO > 20: where the scour depth is independent

of Yo/D when Yo,/D > 4
In this studyrexperiments vtere carried out under clear water
conditions (u*,/u*" = 0.9) using 0.85 mrn sediment to
complement Ettena's data. Two large values of D,/tlso
(= f56 and 282) and two small values of D/d50 (D,/dsO = 14-t
and 5.6) were used. The results are sholrn in Tables 4.1,
4,2 and 4.3 respectively.

Yo (mm) o (nun) Yo/D o/aso

Cl
se se/^
--=-/ z. J^
D

E
50 133 0. 38 156 r.28 0. 56 E
n
r00 133 o.?s Is6 1.39 0. 60
o
80 240 0. 33 282 L.02 0. 44 tl

o.2L 282 0.77 0.33 o

50 240 UI
o
30 240 0.13 282 0. 58 o.25

TABLE 4.I

In analysis of the data, d.",/D was assumed to be equal to

2.3 tox large values of Yo,/D and D,/duo = 50 or greater, i--e-
neglecting the small reduction in scour depth recorded by
Ettema (1980) (Figure 2.36). Similarly' d"",/D fron
Figure 2.36 is equal to 1.83 and 1.17 for D/dUt = 14.1
and 5.6 respectively.
 r16

o"" d
o/dso Eo /r.a:
Yo (run) D (nn) vo/D D
e
E
2L0 45 4 .67 14. I 1.57 0.86 N

4.22 14.1 t_.53 nn4 (r)

r90 45
ll

45 L.67 14.1 L.08 0. 59

t) n
45 I. 44 t.L2 0.51
bl

45 0.89 14.1 0. 89 0.49

40

TABLE 4.2

o""
Yo (mn) n (nn) Y o/<lso -5- $.11.17
tf '
o/D
E

45 4.44 5.6 0.93 o.79

200
ll
100 45 2.22 5.6 0.8r 0. 69 o
Itl
r q1 5.5 0.71 0.61-
68 45

TABLE 4.3

with
In Figure 4.19, the new experirnental data toqether
versus ds(Yo)'/ds(Yo = 0'6 t) '
Ettemars data are plotted as Yo,/D
It is apparent that for D,/drO > 50' the data
col-lapse
that the dependence
approxirnately on a single tine sfrowing
relative pier
of scour clepth on Yo/D is independent of the
50' The results
to sediment size wfrln o/a'o is larqer than correlation
g'ood
obtained using low values*of D/d50 show
with the results of Ettema'
Cheers (1982) data for clear water
scour (Yo/D < 2) are also
general Pattern'
plotted in Figure 4'19 and fit into the
of the Clata by Chee is
The relative pier to sediment ratio
and the
larger than 50, the sediment $tas non-rippling
iteep flow was assumed
equilibrium scour depth in relatively
to be 2.3.
 lr7

o
>r
o
N
l<

o
@$
lr, od
&"
$
tt) s
tl \l
o
rt)
F
$
! o
o \J
q
9s
ot
AqI
oa
I o=
I
>j
I :<
\l s+at
o \t \t 3d
|'r) D tl O(D
I .rf
a!
o
a
o
(\I I I \, 5t)

E \\o*
o lo { I }1s
rr) a t o
q No)
o-lt' o:
o c{ -t
I @ s9
2
x
o $
$
o s
E o 7 Gt
o o
E
.o
c.
)I
R.
c) (J
lrl
 118

some experiments were carried out in a relatively shallow

yo'/D = 0'125)'
flow (e.g. D = 240 rmn; Yo = 30 mm;
observations of the temporal development
of the scour hole
short that scouring commences at the
sides of the piet'
approximately ! 45-50o to the direction of
the undisturbed
indenta-
flow, as recorded by previous researchers' SmaLl
of flow and
tions form immediately after the comnencement trenches to
proPagate rather slowly uPstream as peripheral
meet at the nose of the pier' It took approximately
30 minutes after conunencement of the
flow for the two side
trenches to meet at the front of the
pier' At this time'
pier (ds) f was less than
the scour clepth at the front of the At
the scour depth aL the sides of the pier'
(ds) s'
(ds) f = 75 mm and
t= 60 minutes' the scour depths were
(d")= = 91 mn. (ds)f did not exceed (d")" until
about
of the experiment at which
80 minutes arter tfrJ lo*t""""rnt"t
tirneentrainmentofsedirnentparticleswasclearlyvisible
increased
in front of tbe pier and the rate of erosion principle
markedly. The scour Process had entered the
Ettema (f980)
erosion phase (refer to section 2'4'3)'
reason for the
postulated (refer to Section 2'4'4) that the
roller at the
reduction in scour depth v'as that the surface
with the
free surface in front of the pier interferred Present
vortex'
downflow and the associated horseshoe
that the reiluction is due to the
observations suggest
at very shallow
reduction in the strength of the downflow
the horseshoe vortex
flow depth- Both ttre surface rolLer anil
were clearlY Presenl'
mnr d'o = S rullr
For very low values of D/dsO (D = 45
is deeper than the scour
D/d50 15.6), the scour at ihe sides At
in front of the pier throughout the exSreriment' of the experiment)
equilibrium, (t = ? days after conunencement of the pier'
downstream
the deepest scour was in the wake'
the usual picture depicting
This observation is contrary to
at the front of the
the deePest Point of a local scour
that the dovrnflow is
cvlindrical pier and signifies again
 119

weak, even weaker than the disturbances in the wake region.

The combined action of the cast-off vortices and the
turbuLent agitation near the bed in the wake downstream of
the pier is now stronger than the downflow and its
associated horseshoe vortex. This observation was also
made by Ettema (1980).

Live-Bed Scour

A few experiments were conducted with shallow flows to

investigate the effect of flow depth on live-bed scour
with transition flat bed. Experi-rnents \trere conducted using
0.24 nrn sediment and a flow r^rith Uo,/Uoc = 4. The results
are shown in Table 4.4 and are plotted in Figrure 4.20.
Data for clear water scour (where O/dS' > 50) are superinposeal
in Figure 4.20 together with experimental data by Shen et
al (1966) and Chee (1982) obtained for similar values of
UolUo" and large D/iSO @/d50 > 50). Figure 4.20 shows
that the influence of Yo/D on scour depth at transition flat
bed conditions is aboutthesame as at clear water conditions.

d av dav (Yo),/D
ao/uo" -o vo/D dso o/dso
D aJYj ;=7
€ 170 5.4 o.24 132. r. 99

.lJ
170 4.3 0.24 167 . 2.00 I
16
4 170 3.8 o.24 187. s r.91 0. 96
I?O 3.8 0.24 187.5 1.94 0.97
..{
'}J
L40 3.1 o.24 187. 5 1.88 0. 94
a
o L20 2.7 0.24 187. 5 1. 80 0.9
.Er
70 1-6 o.24 187.5 1. 59 0.8
41.
45 r.0 o.24 187. 5 r.29 0. 65

TABLE 4.4
 120

Us / U66
0.9 +z +L
Shen (66) A tr

Ettemo (80) t
Chee (82) v A tr

Chiew t84) v B

L
o D /dro I 50
o

tr

S/s
t
amd
tr
'aY
oo-
0.2 04 0'6 08 10

K (Yo/D)

Fi.gure 4. 20 Io/D oetsus the FLou DePth

ndiustnent Factor X(I o/D)

at conditions
The effect of flov{ itePth on live-bedl scour complicated
betl,reen threshold and transition
flat bect is
experimental data
by the presence of bed features' Sone(1982) for I'9 <
obtained by shen et al (1966) and Chee
The Froude Number
t1 /tJ < 2.! axe pLotted in Figure 4'20'
rhe clata \^tere
;:' ;i:=. data ransed from 0'37 to 0'81' the present
frorn
normalised using measured scour depths
study in which 3'8 < Vo'lD < 5'35 and
l'g < Vo/voc < 2'L'
 12]

These data shovr reasonable agreement with those for thres-

holil and transition flat bed. In suunary, it appeare that
the enpiricalJ.y deternined relationship for flow depth
effect on clear vrater scour can be applied to Live-bed scour.

4.1.5 Effect of Sediment Size

The measured values of the temporal average scour depth,
dav,/Ei, in uniform sedimentg at a cylindrical pier are
plottecl in Fi.gnrre 4. 21 as a functj-on of the veloci.ty
parameter, Vo/Voc. The curves show the influence qf the

D/d5o r 53

tr
o o 2'1.9 ! D/dso!31

D/d5s =Jl'

D /d so ='10

uo / uoc
Eigune 4. 27 R elati.u e E qui Lib*ium S couY Depth
vn-ru^u,".
oI
U
u/a 50 o/U
o. shouing the Effeet
 L22

relative size, D,/d50, of the pier and sediment on the

equilibrj-um live-bed scour depth' Considering
a constant
value of uo/Vo"r say Uo/uo. = 1'5 for.exann5rle' it
can be
seen that the scour depth decreases with decreasing
vaLues
the equilibrium scour
of D,/duo. At high values of D/dse,
ctepth i..orn independent of the value of D'ldUO so 1on9.
" not occur' (d50 t 0'5 - O'7 mm or Uo/uo"
as rippling does
is higher than the ripple forrning range')
Clear water Scour
Ettema (1980) used data obtained for th-reshold conditions
and plotted two very similar curves showing the
relation-
ship between d="/D ancl D/d50 for u*'/u*" = 0'9 and-
resPectively. fhe result" t"t" plotteCt on semi-Iogarithnic
paper and one of the plots is shown in Eiqure 2'35'
The

data form two ilistinct groups' Results frorn non-rippling

sediment indicate an increase in the maximum equilibrJ'un
scour depth rai-th increasing values of D/dSO
until a peak
is reached at the value of o/dSO = 50' after which the
scour
and equal
depth decreases slightly and then becornes constant
Lo 2'2 ot 2'3 for u*'/u*" = o'9 and 0'95 respectively'
t 80 and are
The data for ripplit'g =tdi*"ttt are for o/itsO
more scattered at aboub d"../D = l'5' Ettemars data are
Chee (1982)
replotted in Figure A'22 and additional points from
are added showing a good correlation among all
results'
experjments in relatively
Note that all the alata are from
is not affected by flow
deep flow where the scour depth
depth.

Live-Bed Scour
The ternPoratrelative average scour degth' duu/D is-plotted
of the pier and
as a function of the relative size, D/d50,
!o/!o" = 1'5'
sediment for values of the velocity Paraneter '
4'22' The
2.0, 3.0, 3-5 and 4.0 respectively in Figure
to that obtained
result is a family of curves very similar
The curve obtained
by Ettema (1980) for clear water scour'
riPPling
for uo'luoc = 1'5 shows the effect of sediment
 L23

'9 . Uo/Uoc( '98

Chee (82)

cleor woter

live-bed I I O Otr

Uo/Uoc
0.9 .95 I 2.0 3.C t.5 4.0
A o ? tr I o
^
:ttema
/an\ Present StudY

101
5 to2
D /dso

Figure 4.22 Relatitte Equitibniun Secuz' Depth -

1)erEu6 D/dgg at Various Values of
u
o/u o"
 L24

whlch causes some points at high

values oe D/dso (where
dSO = 0.Za run) to be scattered
about the value of d"t"/D
do not show this trend
equal to 1.5. The other curves
as rippling tlicl not occur because
of high Uo/Uot' even.with
discussed in Section
rippling sediments' this asPect is
drawn show the values of
4.L.2. AlL four live-bed curves
increasing values of
tl"o/D increasing almost linearly with
D'lcluo until D/d50 = 50' after which
the curves asymptote
indicating
to their respective limiting values of dav/D' size of
of the relative
that the scour depth is independent
the pier to sediment' fhe peak shown
in the curve for
the curves for live-bed
cLear water scour is not evident in
> 50 Ettema recorded
scour. For the few points of D/d50
aslightreductionofbedlevelinunediatelyupgtreamofthe
the horseshoe vortex
rim of the scour hole which weakened
and resulted in a lower rnaximurn
eguilibriun scour depth'
llowever there is some whether this reduction i's real
'loubt (1982) do not suPport it'
and, for examPle, itata by Chee
The limiting values of ilav/D obtained
in this study at high
at UolUo" = t't:
values oe D/dSO for each of the curves the results'
2.0, 3.0, 3.5 and 4'0 have been used to normalise
conditions are tabulated
These limi-ting values for live-bed water
dt"'/D t"t
in Table 4.5. The liriting value of (Ettema' :l::: 1980) was
scour depth i'e' u*/u*c = 0'9 and 0'95 cases and the
50 in both
taken as the peak t'"fo! "t o/dSo = the
slight reduction at higher values was neglected'
4'23'
normalised data are Plotted in Figure

so)
Stto/auo '
1.5 L.75
2.O r.7 0
3.0 1.9s
3.5 2.00
4.0 2.00

TABT,E 4.5
 L25

'-0 0.4 0.6 0.8 10

K (D/d)

Figure 4.23 Ihe Pier to Sedinent Size Paradetet

(D/d) oevaue the Sediment Siae
Adiustnent laetor' t (D/d)
 LZO

TheresultsshowthattheinfluenceotD/dsoonthescour
depth is the sane regardless of the value
of Uo/uoc'
low vaLues of
Figure 4.23 allows the value of d"'*r'lO for
D,/dsO to be adiusted as below
(i'e' the effect of sedirnent
.ize-to be removed from the data):
>
dav./D (D,/d5O) = K(D/d) x d^u/D(D/ds' 50)

at a
where dav,/D (D,/d50)= relative eguilibrium scour ilepth
given varue of D,/iluo ancl uo'luo"' and
scour depth
dav,/D(D,/d50 > 50) ] relative equilibrium
at the same Us/U.. ancl D/ctr' > 50
D'lduo ls
1the reduction in the scour clepth at low valuesof
caused bY:

1. the stlucture of the bed at the base of the scour

:::::"":::'ff .";":::.il:'# ffi ::":":"1"11""'

penetrates the bed' dissipating some of its
energy t

relative
2. the relatively large sediment particle sizepier
to tbe widtth of the groove in front of the
(* o'Zso wide) impedes the erosion process'

4.1.6 SuNnarY
pier in uniform
fhe equilibrium scour itepth of a cylindrical
sedimentsisinfluencedbytheapproachvelocity,flow
rJo/uot' vo'ln- and D'lclt6
dePth and sediment sizes in terms of
respectively' By using the adjustnent factors
K(Yo'lD)
4'2Q and 4'23
and K(D/dSo) obtained frorn Fi'gures
the effects of flow depth and sediment size
respectively,
canbeaccountedforbyexperimentallyobtaineddata.
The experimental data have been
adjusted for flow depth and
4'24 showing
grain-size effectsand are pl-otted in Figure
 1 'r'7

st
Fnt
$'d
ovr
s R-
s TQss
s, 'j or
O \H
.r. Qt
v(4
qJT E
os lr}

\!o*( E
i $.
o sto
os
F. 3$
$ o!
5NN
l!

.. n, o a
oQ ('!
f,{l
{ -&O'
f
o x ,P.6
$ q--
{r q til

5 ^$D
.d +r!
&q)
'€ Ei$
FtSP
'd't$
J 30)
c.i -s
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oo"
i s$
so
rr Es
$ 'tr
s\JN
ql Q) l,
&vr$

!,
Otr{
(\l
0,2 ^Dp
 128

the relation between the relative eguilibrium scour ctepth

1 and the velocity Parameter, vo/uoc- It must also be noted
, that al-L the data in Figure 4.24 were obtained in sub-
critical flow conditions (i.e. Fr < 1).

4.2 LIVE-BED SCOUR AT BRIDGE PTERS WITE }]ON-UNIFORM SEDIII,IE}ITS

Very few experiments are known concerning the effect of

sediment gradation on live-bed scour. Experiments with
non-uni'form sediments and clear rtater conditions (where the
effects of flow depth and sediment size are not Present) have
shown that:
1. An increase in the sediment non-uniformily
(representect bV on) of the bed materials leails to
a reduction of the local scour depth (refer to
Fiqure 2.38) due to the formation of an armour layer
on the base of the scour hole, composed of the
coarser sedfinent fractions from the original mixture'
2. The reduction of the depth of the scour hole is only
dependent on the value of og and is not a function
of the value of dUO as long as the size of the pj-er
is large relative to the size of the sediment
(p/dSO > 50) and ctUO is larger than 0'7 mm so that
no rippling occurs.
under live-bed conditions when the applied shear stress does
not exceed the critical armourinq shear stress of the non-
uniform sediment, two types of eguilibrium may occltrr:
1. A static equilibrium; the bed armours and the
sediment transport rate approaches zero'

2. A dynamic eguilibriun; the sediment entering the

cross section is equal to that leaving the cross
section as j-n a sediment recirculating flune'
An armour layer is formed but is partially covered
by finer fractions of the sedirnent in transport
 I29

and may be exposed only in the troughs of the

overpassing bed features.

The conditions simulated in this study are those of the

dynamic equilibrium since the sediment leaving the flume
was returned to the top eud of the flune by the sediment
prmp. When the approach velocity exceeds the critical
velocity of the finer fractions of a non-uniform bed, some
sediment is set into motion but an essentially flat bed is
stiLl maintained. The finer sediment particles move over
this fLat bed. The local scour depth increases beyond
the clear water value coresponding to the dUO size of the
bed sediment. As the approach velocity increases, a larger
proportion of the original mixture is set in motion leading
eventually to a condition where the difference in sediment
transport into the scour hole and out of it leads to a
reduction in the equilibriun scour depth. This "critical"
velocity at which a reduction in scour depth occurs is
referred to as Uob and is related to the amount of fine
sediment in the original nixture. UoO is not directly
related to o-9Ybecause two sediments having the sane o^ may
have different Uob depending on the amount of fines in the
bed. By definition, the (first) maxi:nurn local equilibrium
scour depth occurs at Uob.
If the static eguilibrium condition develops, i.e. the
sediment input from upstream tends to zero, an armour layer
forms, a flat becl is maintained and an almost cLear t ater
scour condition is observed. Defining u(b"a) as the velocity
above which an armour layer will not form (i.e. the critical
velocity for the entrairunen! of the largest grains in the
sediment bed) , the local scour depth at U (U"a) would tend
to 2.3D regardless of the bed sedinent composition, provided
there are no flow dePth or sediment size effects. This
situation is directly cornparable to that of clear-water
scour in uniform sedirnent at threshold condition-
 130

4.2.I Effect of APproach Velocity

The measured values of the relative equilibriurn scour dePth,
d..*r,/D in non-uniform sediments around cylindrical piers are
shown for values of on = 2.O,2.8, 5'5 and 4'3 as a function
of the velocity p.t"t6t.t, uo./Uoc in Figures 4'25(a)' (b)' (c)
and (d) respectively' Superimposed on each of the d"rr'lD versus
Uotoo" curves is the fluctuation of the scour depth' A d"'
The d-rr/o versus Uo/Uo" curves in non-uniforrn sedj:nent have
essentialll' the same shape as their counterparts in uni'forn
sediment(refertoFigxrresa.5(a)-(d)).Neverthelesssome
differencesarenotedandthereasongfortheseilifferences
are listed below:
1. The first locaL maximurn point in a non-uniform
sediment does not occur at the value of Uo/Uo. = 1
as in the uni-form sediment due to the effect of
armouring on the sediment bed' For dynamic equilib-
rium conditions, the first peak occurs at the values
of uo,/uo. = 1'0, I'5, 1'7 and 1'8 for on = 2'o'
2.8, 4.3 and 5.5 respectively' These values corres-
pond to Uob of the respective non-uniforrn sediments'
The scour depth in the non-uniform sediment with
og = 2'0 shows very little difference fron that in
uniformsediment,indicatingthatthe'.non-uniformity'.
is too smalI to cause any significant ilifference in
the values of d"rr,/D'
2. Bhe value of il.rr,/D in the non-uniform sediment is
everywhere less than or equal to Lhe value of darr'/D
j-n the uniform sediment for the sarne value of Vo/rJo"
because the armouring at the base of the scour hole
reduces the equiJ.ibri-urn scour ilepth'

Idhen the approach velocity is less than or

equal to UoO'
general sediment transport on the bed is restricted to
the
with
transPort of the fine fractions over a bed covered
can be seen
coarser grains. In some mixtures larqer grains
 131

F(p
F\
(o<
EE d.€
EE ll {r
crroo
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i?T ssl
kfiJ
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E tooB I oo
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\$
o
b!r
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d
R;s
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o. tJ
ox
AN
(Y' C'
o
f :"-
oq
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o t4 c!

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F.
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'd.ri
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Et(l
$s
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rJ ll
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qb

-- -- sN
tl
v
oo
.t
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(\ o o I \)
(7, GT

(urur) spv g/^Dp $)

 132

Eq
Fr3
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rrrtltltl'
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ttrt =Fv O/ ^DP
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 133

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 134

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 135

to embed. At lo\,t velocity excess, the amount of fine

sediment in motion is not sufficient to develop ripples or
dunes, they merely slide or saltate on top of the armour
layer. The armoured bect condition is similar to the clear
vrater condition of the unifo:m sediment beds.

The temporal develoPment of the scour hole for Uo < UoO is

similar to the temporal developmen! of the clear water
scour in uniform bed (refer to Eigure 4.26\. the equilibrium
condition is usually reached over a long period of tjme.
In cases where Uo apProaches Uo"r the erosion phase of the
development of the scour hole ilid not occur' as indicated
by Ettema (1976) (tliscussed in Section 2.4.5). The equili-
brium scour depth is reduced by the formation of an armour
Layer at ttre base of the scour hole. The armouring of the
scour hole arises from exposure of coarser particles in the
scour hole and from accunulation in the scour hole of the
larger particles in transport, particularly in the overpassing
mode. This leads to a lower "armour peak" scour depth
than the clear water peak. the small amount of sediJtrent
in transport does not cause the scour depth to fluctuate as
under live-bed conditions. The reason is that bed features
of measurable height are required to cause noticeable
fluctuations in the scour depth- lhe fine particles enter
the hole, but appear to descend only approximately a quarter
of the way down the scour hole before being entrained by
the flow and carried out again' During the experiment, no
fine particles were observed to settle onto the base of
the scour hole in this range of velocities'
when the mean velocity exceeds UoO, the anount of sediment
in rnotion increases rapidly and bed features develop' The
size of the bed features with non-uniform sedinent is
generallylessthanthatwithunifornsedirnentatthesame
velocity ratior Uo/Uoc. This is clearly evident in the
fluctuations of the scour depth, A da in the two cases
(compare Figures 4.5 and 4.251'
 136

1.5
dso = 0'8 mm uo/uoc
Yo = 170 mm 1.32
o D = 31.75 mm
)E 1.0 og = 2'8
1.10

1oo51ot510'510t510'
Time (min.)

Fi.gure 4.26 : Relatioe Seour Depth tseraus Iine

The speeal and mode of transport of the coarse and fine

particles of a non-uniform sediment are different at this
stage of flow. Generally, the fine particles move as dunes
over a layer of coarse! bed exposed at trough levels.
They create a smooth boundary upon which some of the coarser
particles can slide. Coarser particles form an arnour
layer under the dunes which is clearly visible in the trough
of the dunes (see Plates 4.1(a) and (b))' The path of a
typical coarse particle can be described as follows:
Assume that initially the particle is resting on the surface
of the dune at its upstream end as shovrn in Figure 4.2?
and assume that it protrudes above the beil. Its exposure
reduces the grain's critical shear stress (refer to Figore 4.23 -
Fenton and ebbott, 1977 and Chin, 1984). The sequence
of movement of coarse particles is then as follovs:
1. The protruding particLe is entrained by the flow
and it slides or rolls over the dune at a much
greater speed than the dunet i.e' the overpassing
mode.
 137

Flou
Direetion

PLATE 4.1 (a) PLan tieu of a dune conposed of finet,

naterialB ouez,passing a Lager of coaree
particles t)n a non-untfovn sedinent.

F Low

Di.v'ec tian

Plate 4l .7(b) : Sid,e Elepation af, the

Same Dune
 r38

As the particle reaches the creet of the dune, it

slides down the lee face and is buried by the
advancing dune.

3. The particle remains stationary while tbe dune

translates ilownstream, eventuarrlr exposing it to
the flow again.
4. The particle remains stationary until it is coincident
with the point of reattachment of the flow from the
next dure. Under "favourable" conditions, the
particle may be entrained and the cycle could be
repeated. otherwise, the particle remains in the
bed to be buried again by the next dune.

Direction
+
of flow
time = t

:-
'lt\{2 fie rl..
time=t+ At

Eigure 4.27 t Tranaport of Coarse and Fi-ne

Partibles in a Non-Uniform
Sedi.ment

Initially, the equilibrium scour itepth decreases with the

formation of bed features, in a similar mannet to that for
the uniforrn sediment. with j-ncreasinq veJ'ocity' the scour
depth reaches a minimum, thereafter, the eguilibriura scour
depth increases again as the dune steepness decreases and
the armour layer on the bed and in the scour hole is
 139

progressively broken. Armouring at the base of the scour

hole is still evident in this range of velocj.ties.
0
\
\.
\
\
.\.
o.2 \.
\
\.
oo a\
o\ t
\.. '
0.
)'--
t'\t
t t?^t' a
. a'.o\:{t. .
'tl.?-ra-6
0
-
-0.3 0 0's t0
PID
Fi.gut:e 4.28 : Ihreshald Shear Sitess, 0s De"aus Relatiue
Protrusion abote the Bed - Fenton and Abbott
(1977) and &zin (1984)

with increasing Uo/Uoc, the effect of armouring in the

scour hole becomes less and less signi.ficant and eventually
negligible. This is evident from Series M2 (d5O = 0.8 umr
og = 2.8, D = 45 run) where the value of d".,r./D increases with
increasing Uo/Uo" until it becomes equal to that of the
uniform sediment. At this stage' the behaviour of the non-
uniform sediment is very similar to that of the unif,orm
sediment since all particJ-es in the mixture are now mobile.
This is also clearly evident j-n the dSO = 0.6 mm, og = Z-ft
sedi:nent where the sediment behaves just like a uniform
sedirnent, even at low velocity excess. Comparison of the
 140

veru" Uo/Uoa curves for uniform and non-uniform

d.rr,/D
sediments shows that the grradient of the rising limb of the
curve for non-unifom sediments is significantly steeper
than that for uniform sediments. rhis is a consequence of
the progressive break-up of the armour layer at the base
of the scour hole with increasing velocity.
Since the local maximr:ro equilibriurn scour depth occurs at
Uob rather than Uoc in non-uniform sediments where dynarnic
equilibriun persists, ttre former is therefore appropriate
for normalising the mean velocity of the f1o\t in non-uniform
beds for comparison of results. The curves of d"rr./D
versus troftob for non-uniform sediment hthere on = 2'8'
4.3' 5.5 are plotted in Pigute 4.29- The diffeience between
the values of d"rr"/D for the sane sediment and mean velocity
is caused by the effect of Lhe relative size parameter'
D/d, of. the pier to sediment. Ehis aspect is discussed
in the following section. Note that the eguilibriurn scour
depth associated with on = 4'3 is less than that associated
with on = 5.5- This is because the coarsest particles in the
ooY
= 4.-3 sediment are larger than those in, the og = 5.5 sedirnent.
Thus the effect of the relative size paraneter causes a
lesser scour depth in the og = 4-3 sediment-
4.2.2 Influence of D/d
It is clear from Figures 4.25(b) to (d) that the relative
size of pier to sediment has an important bearing on the
equitibrium scour depth of non-uniform sediments. The
relative equilibrium scour depth witlr the same sediment is
larger for larger pier diameter than for srnaller pier
diameter at the same velocity. This trend is consistent
in all three non-uniform sediments used in this study where
og t 2.8. rn uniforn sedirnents, the adjustrnent factor'
x7o/al is based on the dro size of the particJ-e size distri-
bution of a given sediment. Ilowever, the dUO size is
inappropriate in non-uniforrn sedinents because the larger
particles in the sediment have a lower D/d ratio and will
affect the scour depth. For example, a non-unj.forrn
 141

o o
A
o A
o
a
I

D 0q
(mm) 2.8 1.3 5.5
31.75 a A I
45.00 o A tr

1 23
Uo/ Uop

Eigune 4, 29 : Relati.ve Equilibt,iun Seour Depth

DersuE U o/U ob

sediment could have o/dso t 50 but D,/d90 < 50. In laboratory

experiments, the reduction of the equilibrium scour depth
with non-uniform sediment is due to:
1. the armouring of the coarse particles at the base
of the scour hole, and
 L42

the relative pier to sediment size. This is

because non-uniform sedinents generally contain a
wide rangre of Dld, values, from relatively large to
relatively smaI1. In particular' in flume
experiments, D/d may be very small and the Larger
particles nay form an armour layer at the base of
a scour hole around a smalL pier by virtue of their
size relative to the groove generated by the clown-
flow, whereas.Particles of the same size would not
stay in the giroove formed by a J-arger pier.

The effect of sediment size is usually negligible in proto-

type conditions where the dianeter of the pier is large
relative to the size of the largest sediment particles,
but if laboratory experiments where the size of the pier is
generaj-ly sma1l relative to the coarse particles in the
sediment beil are scaled up this could lead to a significant
error. It is difficul-t to distinguish between the effect
of armouring and the effect of sediment size relative to
the pier and to separate their respective effects. lvith
1.ow velocity excess, it was observed that an accumulation of
coarse particles was found at the base of the scour hoIe.
This layer of coarse particles was the result of the effect
of coarse particles being trapped in the scour hole and
being exposed (see Plates 4.2(al and (b)). At the enil of
sorne of the experiments. these coarse particles were
collected and analysed and it was found that the dUO size
of the arrnour particles comesponded to approximately the
dnO size of the original particle size distribution of the
mixture. ft is thus assumed that the effect of D/d can
be evaluated in terms of the parameter o,/dno using
Figure 4.23. In using this method for evaluation of the
effect of o/d, it is assruned that the effect of D/d is the
same in uniform sediments and non-uniform sediments at
low velocitlr excess. Adjustments \'rere rnade to the data
for each of the non-uniform sedj:nents (og > 2'B) for Uo,/UoO = I
and the results are given in Table 4.5- Adjustments for
the sedirnent size are limited to a certain value of D,/d
 143

PLATE 4.2(a) FLoa direetion

4

PLATE 4. 2 (b )
Arnowring of the Coan,ee Sed,inent in tke Seoar HoLe
 t44

og 2.8 4.3 5,5

D (mn) 31. 75 45 31.75 45 3r.75 45

drO (nun) 3 3 ?? 7.3 4

o/dgo I0. 6 I5 4.3 6.2 7.9 1,1. 3

K (D,/d) 0.73 0.81 0.47 0. 59 0.65 0-74

aav/D L.23 L. 32 0.97 1.20 1. l_0 I.20
Adjusted
du,lD 1.58 1. 63 2.06 2.03 1. 59 L.62

TABLE 4.6

below which the sediment partJ-cLe becomes too large to be

entrained by the fIow. The adjusted davlD values for the
og = 2.8 and on = 5.5 secliments (where o/d9g Z 8) are
approximately egual (refer to Table 4.6) whereas the
adjusted il..r,/D values for the og = 4.3 sediment (where
D/dgO < 8) are too high' indicating that the nethod of
adjustment is unreliable in this instance. lhis is because
at very low value of D/d, the sediment particle is larger
than the groove excavated at the base of the scour hole so
that when it is lying against the pier, it will be partially
ernbedded in the upstream slope of the ho1e, as shor.rn in
Figure 4.30. It j-s impossi.ble for the particLe to be
entrained, by the downflow under this situation so that
adjustment of the value of dav,/D is unreliable.

At high oo/!o" with the forrnation of transition flat bed' the

effect of o/d becomes less significant in reducing the
equilibrium scour depth. It was observed that, for example,
the coarser partlcles in the og = 2.8 sediment (D = 45 nun,
n/dSO = 45/3.0 = f5) did not siay in the scour ho1e, but slid
in and out of the hote without seemingly affecting the
scour depth. This rntas because al-1 particles of the bed
were in t.ransport including the coarse particles within
the hole which are mobile due to their exposure to the
 145

Direction
.--
of flow

?igune 4.30 Large Particles Embed.ded in a

SmaLL Entrainnent Zone

downflow. This is in contrast to uniform sediment or non-

uniform sediments in lower velocity excess where the
particles r"rere closely packed together reducing their
exposure to the downflow. It is, however, observed in
other experiments ' e.g. in the og = 4.3 sediment (D = 3I.75 run
O/dgO = 3I.75/7.3 = 4.3), that larger partj.cles clicl stay
in tbe scour hole by virtue of their size relative to the
groove excavatedatthe base of the scour hole, as discussed
earlier.
When the rnobility of the coarsest particles in the scour
hole is not restristed in any r^ray at high veJ.ocityr the non-
uniforrn sedi:nent behaves like a uni.form sediment and the
average effect can be assumed to be that of D,/dUo- Bhis is
true for the og = 2'8, d5o = 0'8 mm sediment' The results
of the acljusted d"u./D values for high values of Uo,/Uoc are
tabulated in Table 4.7 and show that the adjustment for D,/d at
high approach velocities may be based on D/dtO. For the
other sediments' the coarse particles were too large and
their mobility was hindered due to their relation to the
 146

groove, hence reduced relative equilibrium scour depths $tere

recorded, as shown in Figure 4.25. The effect of the relative
size of pier to sediment decreases with increasing velocity'
Initially, the effect may be evaluated with dr. but with
increasing velocify the effective Particle size ilecreases
and at transition flat bed even the coarsest particles (d*.")
pass through the scour hole. Then the average effect can
be estimateil with an equivalent particle size of dUO.

oq = 2.8' ds' = 0.8 nun

D (run) +3 3L.75
uoluo. 4.31 4.54 4.7 4 4.49
d^'/D I. 94 2.00 1. 09 1.87
p/dso 56 56 40 40

K (D/d) I 1 0.95 0.9s

Aal justeal
a^/D L.94 2.00 1.99 L.97

TABLE 4.7

4.2.3 Suggestions for Further Research

The study on live-bed scour at bridge piers with non-uniform

sediments has not been exhaustive. Its aim was to explain
the deveLopment of a live*bed scour depth with non-uniform
sediments. Further investigations of live-bed scour at
bridge piers are necessary' including in particular the
folJ-owing:

1. Experiments on live-bed scour at briclge piers with

non-uniform sediments where the effect of sediment
size is not present- This kincl of experiment
can only be conducted in large flumes so that large
diameter piers can be used' The results would help
to guantify effects of velocity on the equilibriunt
 L47

scou,r dePthr withou,t the Laflrrenqee of. D/d or yu/D,

64d shor'the effect of, annu,riag, p.artierlilarllr at low
veloeity e*cess.
-2, lhe effect of flqw elepth oa live-bed gsour depth wlth
noa-uriform sediBents. It ie asgrtoed that
experJ.nentat Eegtrlts obtained froru unifo-rm geili.rierrts
wor,rld atrso apgly to noa-unif,ollm. sed.iaents. Eltis
agsrfr$rtion reqrrlres aelditlonal elrperimentatr verlfi-
cati.on.
3. tr-lre effect, of, rlelecity on iLLve-bed eeou; depth ,with
non-urelfoim sedfunent uErder a static eEuilibni.rrn
€oBititio-r. It traB suggeseed in this study that the
rcelatj-ve efFriltrbrlqg seotr dlepth could axrprsacb 2.3'
when Il. approaehes Utt"Al and tlre sedlinen[ ttianqport
rate ,aEproa,che,6 zerO. Tlrls reguires elr;teFJsertal
\reflf,tcatton preferably frou extrreriurents ea6r'ied
out in conditions, rrhere the effect of eedlfient size
is not pr€6ent..
Chapter 5

Summary and Conclusions

There are nany design formulae, mostly derived from experi-
mental data, available for estimation of local scour depth
around briclge piers. Many of the earlier formulae fail to
differentiate between cLear water and live-bed scour. Until
very recently, ernphasis was given to clear water scour
because it was thought that maxirnurn scour depths always
occurred at threshold condj.tj-on. As a consequence there
has been a need for further investigation of live-bed scour.
fn this thesis, results from an extensive experimental
investigation of live-bed scour together with analyses of
published data are combined to present a more complete
description of locaL scour around bridge piers in cohesionless
sediment. Data from Ettema (1980) for clear water scour
and chee (1982) for live-bed scour are used in addition to
the data collected in this study. In this chapter, a
sunmary of the results of the project is presented, together
with a flow chart for estimation of local scour depths for
design purposes.
The primary aim of the study lras to investigate the effects
of sediment size and sediment gradation on live-bed scour
depths. Experiments were confined to steady approach flows
and cylindrical piers. The parameters influenci.ng the
equilibrium depth of loca1 scour around cylinilrical bridge
piers in cohesionless sediment can be grouped as follows:

r- -./D = f(F1ow Velocity, Flovt DePth,

d-sleqJ-
Sediment Size, Sedi-ment Gradation) (5'1)

In the following discussion each of these parameters is

considered.
148
 149

5.1 LOCA], SCOT'R WITE TJNIFORM SEDIMENTS

Local scouf, can generally be divided into two phases, namely

clear water and live-bed scour. The maximum equilibrium
clear water scour depth is reached over a long period of tirne
and is approximately equal to 2.3 times the pier diameter
when the effects of flow depth and sediment size are not
present.

The naximum live-bed scour depth, however, is reached more

rapidly and occurs when the trough of a bed feature is
coincident with the scour ho1e. Thus, it includes both the
scour due to the pier and that due to bed forms. The former
is related to the pJ-er diameter while the latter is related
to the height of the bed features (ho) propagating past the
scour hole. The norrnalised temporal average scour depth
is defined as d".r,/D. Since ho is independent of the diameter
of the pier, it is necessary to scale d"*r/D to the
prototype pier size and then acld the scour due to bed forms.
The experimental results show that the latter can be taken
as 0.5 times the height of the bed feature. Thus the
maximum scour depth for design can be estimated from:

ds{design} = (davlD) x D + 0.5 * ho (s. 2)

the effects of velocity, flow depth anil sediment size on the

eguilibriurn scour depth are discussed in terms of Uo,/Uo",
Yo,/D and D/clto resPectivelY.

5.1.1 Effect of velocity (Uo,/Uoc)

the variation of the eguilibrium scour dtepth with aPProach

velocity (normalised by the critical velocity of the
respective bed sediment) is shown in Figure 4.24, which
includes data collected in this investigation together with
data by Ettema (f980) for clear vtater scotlr. Al-1 data are
independent of the effects of flow depth and sediment size,
and the approach flow is subcritical, i.e. the Froude
Number is less than unitY.

The eguilibriurn scour depth increases almost linearly untiL it

reaches a local rnaximum at the crltical velocity of the bed
sediment. As the approach velocity exceeds the critical
velocity of the bed sediment, the eguilibriun scour ilepth
decreases due to the supply of sedj-ment to the scour hole
from upstream and because there is insufficient time for the
renoval of the material dumped into the scour hole by the
passageofadune before the arrival of the next dune. This
trend continues until the live-bed minimum scour depth is
reached at about the velocity vhich produces the steePest
dunes. rhereafter, the equilibriun scour ,ilepth increases
again because the steepness of the bed features decreases
and more time is available for the scour nechanism to remove
sediment from the scour hole betr.teen the passage of succesgive
dunes. The equilibriurn scour depth reaches a second peak
around the range of velocities which produces the transition
flat bed at which tj:ne the steepness of the bed features is
negligible. rf the approach velocity j.s increased further'
the eguilibrium scour depth decreases due to the formation of
antidunes. In an antidune bed. there is 1ittle time
available for scouring between successive bed forms arriving
at the scour hole and the sediment transPort rate is generally
very high. Generally. variations in the scoux depth with
increasing fl-ow velocities are reLated to the volume of
sediment transported and available to be clumped into the
scour hole and the ti:ne available for scouring between
successive bed features arriving at the scour hole.

For rippling sediments, the scour depth is reduced by about

40* at threshold conditions due to the sediment suppJ'ied to
the scour hole by the rippled bed- At higher veLocities.
the effect of rippJ.es decreases with increasing velocity and
disappears when dunes develoP.
 l_51

5.L.2 Effect of Flovr Depth (yo/D)

DaLa by Ettema (1980), Chee (f982) and from the present stucly
are plotted in Figure 4.19 as K(Y,/D) versus Yo,/D with D,/dUO
as the third parameter. A1l these data rcere collected at
threshold conditions. It is apparent that the scour depth
increases with flow depth at a decreasing rate and that there
is a Limiting flow depth beyond which the scour depth is
unaffected. It is also apparent that the scour depth is
influenced by the value of D/d50 if D/d.50 < 50.
It was demonstrated in Figure 4.20 that this flow depth
function is ind.ependent of the stage of bed particle motion
and the approach velocity for D/drO > 50 and it is assumed
that this is also the case for other values of D/dUO.
Using Figure 4.19, the equilibrium scour depth for any value
of Yo/D can be estimated:

dav,/D $o/Dl = K(Yo/D) x darr'/D (s.3)

where dav/D (Yo,/D) = eguiJ.ibriun scour depth (normalised by

D) at a particular Uo/Uoc and a
relatively low Yo,/D such that flow
depth effects are present
dur/D eguilibrium scour depth (normaliseil by
D) at the same Uo,/Uo" but a relatively
high Yo/D such that flow depth effects
ate absent, dav./D can be estimated
frorn Figure 4.24
K (Yo./D) flow depth ad.justrnent factor obtained
from Figure 4.19

The principle cause of the reduction in the equilibrium

scour depth is the redluction in the strength of the downflow
for shallow flow depth. This is because eroslon of the
scour hole is due to the momentum of flui,d lmpinging as
 L52

downflow at the base of the pier. In a shallow flow, this

momentum is reduced and a reduced scour depth results.

5. 1. 3 Effect of Sedirnent Size (D,/d50 )

The experirnental data collected in this study, together with

data by Shen et aI (1966), Ettema (1980) and chee (1982)
are pJ.otted in Fignrre 4.23 as K(D/d) versus D/{SO. The
data are independent of flow depth, either being derived from
relatively deep flows or having been adjusted for flow depth
using Figure 4.L9. No data have been included for which
ripples r^rere present (i.e. either Xo/ao" > 2 or o/dSO , 0.5 mn).
Figure 4.23 shows that the scour depth increases with
increasing pier to sedirnent size parameter and becomes
independent of it for D/dUO > 50. The data are derived
from flows with varying Uo,/Uo" so that the fluctuation is
j-ndependent of this parameter. Using Figure 4.23, the
equilibrium scour depth for any Uo/uo" and DildUO < 50 can
be estimated as follows:

dav,/D (D,/ds0 ) = K (P,zd) x d^u/D (s.4)

where dav,/D (D,/d50) equilibrium scour depth (normalised by

D) at low values of D/dUO and a
particuJ.ar Uo/Oo"
d../D equilibrium scour depth (normalised by
D) at the same Uo/Uo" r^there the
effects of n/d,UO and rippling are not
present, d".r/D can be estimated
from Figure 4.24
K (D,/d) sediment size adjustment factor which
can be estimated from Figure 4-23

naudkivi and Ettena (1983) suggested that the cause of the

reduction in the eguilibriun scour depth at low values of
D,/dUO is that the structure of the bed at the bas€ of the
scour hole, upstream of Lhe pier is more open due to coarse
 153

sediment particles and some of the downflow penetrates the

bed. thus ilissipating some of the energry of the downflow.
In addition, the relatively large sediment particle size
relative to the wiitth of the groove in front of the Pier
(+ 0.25 D) impedes the erosion process.

5.2 LOCAI SCOUR WITE NON-UNIFORM SEDIMENTS

Ettema (1976) investigated the effect of sediment gradation

on clear water scour depth- His findings are sununari-sed
in Figure 2.38. Ettema concluded that an increase in the
sediment non-uniformity (represented by on) of the bed
material leads to a reduction of the 1ocal scour depth due
to the formation of an armour layer on the base of the
scour hole, composed of the coarser sediment fractions from
the original mixture. He further deduced that the reduction
of the depth of scour hole is only dependent on og and is
not related to the value of dUO as Long as the size of the
pier is large relative to the size of the sediment and clt'
is more than 0.5-0.7 mm so that rippling does not oceur'
The effects of sediment gradation on live-bed scour were
investigatedinthisstuily.Datal,erecollectedforflows
in which the amount of sediment entering a cross section
of the channel was equal to that leaving the cross section'
An alternative situation, where verl' little or no bed
material is transported by the river, may exist in natural
alluviaL channels which armour' Under this condition' it
may be postulated that the scour depth could approach the
maxjmum equilibrium scour depth as at threshold conditions
for uniform sediments, i'e' at the critical bed shear stress
of the armour laYer.
For situations where material is suPplied fron upstream'
a dynarnic equilibrium exists between the input of sedi-nent
to and the amount of material removed from the scour hole'
The velocity Uob at which the maximum scour depth occurs
for
a particular non-uniform sediment (refer to Figure 4'25) is
 154

used to normalise approach veLocities in non-uniform sediments.

As explained in Section 4.2' the value of UoO for a
particular graded sediment will clepend on the amount of fine
material present. This is because the amount of bed load
will be greater (for a partJ,cular flow velocity) for a
sediment containing a large guantity of fines, than
otherwise, As a consequence, it is expected that there is
no unique relationship between uob and og.

The results of the experimental investigation show that the

eguilibriurn scour depth with non-uniform sediment is reduced
from that of an equivaLent size uaiform sediment. The
reduction is due to the formation of an arrnour layer at the
base of the scour hole. fhe armour layer at the base of the
scour hole is progressively broken with increasing velocity.
At lohr velocity excess, the larger fraction of the sediment
bed stays in the hole, resulting in a Lesser equilibriun
scour hole. At high velocity excess, al-1 the sediment
particles becorne nobile and armouring of the scour hole
(provided that there is no relative pier to sediment size
effect) does not take p1ace. In this case, the equilibriun
scour dePth for non-uniform sedjments aPProaches that for
uniform sediments. This occurs, for exampLe, in the
og = 2.8 sediment (where the effect of D/d is not present)
.i the velocity which produces the transition flat bed.
The value of the relative equilibriurn scour depth is egual
to 2.00, the same value as the seconil peak in uniform sediment
where the effect of sediment size is not present. For loht
armour layer was broken
Yl, G- = 2.0 in this study) the
o-t
.t lorer velocity excess. Generally, the effect of
sediment gradation on equilibrium scour depth appears to be
negligible for on < 2-0-
The relative size of pier to sediment, D/d, also plays an
important role in reducing the equilibrium scour depth'
particularly in flume experiments. This is because the pier
size used in laboratory experiments is general-Iy small
relative to the size of the coarse particles used in a non-
 fff

uniform sediment. The results showed that the eguivalent

sediment size for adjustment at low velocity excess is based
tv size of the original mixture whereas at high
on the do^
velocity excess, the equivalent size for adjustment is
based on the d.^
3U
size of the original mixture. lhis is
because at high velocity, all the sediment particles in the
channel are mobile and the non-uniform sediment behaves in
the same manner as a uniform sediment. Nevertheless, the
results also showed that adjustrnent of sediment sizes were
onJ,y correct for D/d > 8. This is because at lower
values of D/d, the sediment particle is larger than the groove
excavated at the base of the scour hole so that when it is
lying against the pier it will be embeitded in the upstream
slope of the hole. In this case it is unlikely that the
particle can be entrained by the flow and the scour ctepth
is reduced.

5.3 A DESIGN GUIDE FOR LOCAT SCOUR AROUND BRIDGE PIERS

Figure 5.1 shows a flow chart which indicates to a ilesigner

the sequence for estimation of the 1oca1 scour depth at a
bridge pier in uniform cohesionless material. In order to
use the fl-ohr chart, the follor"ting Parameters must be known:

t. ,F lor,, parameters: Flow velocity (uo), flow depth (yo),

angle of attack of flow (c) and
channel slope

Bed rnaterial parameters: Mean sedi:nent size (dr.)

3. Pier dimensions: Pier size (D) ancl pier shaPe

By using the curve in Pigure 4.24 (dav"/D versus UolUo") ' the
normalised equilibriun scour dePth can be estimated for a given
velocJ.ty excess. As mentioned in Section 4.1.6, the d..r/D
values in Figure 4-24 ate independent of flow deSrth and
particle size effects. The dav,/D values as a function of
Uo/Uo" in Figure 4.24 apply to equilibriurir scour depths
 If,D

DESIGN DATA
Uo, Yo, o, ds', D, Pier shaoe

Calculate ao/!o.

Estimate d"o/D from

Figure 4.24

Calculate o/dSO

Evaluate K(D/d) from

Figure 4.23

Evaluate K(Y./D) fron

Figure 4.19

Estimate Pier Shape Factor, Ks

from Appendix E

Estimate Alignment Factorf Ko

from Appendi* F

Estimateheight of bedl features, ho

from Figure 4.4

[{+ , o.*).". o.*}. r". E] t}r,"

= i 0-06] -
", {.[3J {^t=J

Fi.gure 5. 1 ELou Chatt for Esbinati'on of Local Seour

Depth in llniforn Sedinent for Deslgn PutPoaes
 l-51

where the flo\.t depth is large and particle si-ze is snal1

relative to given diameter, for both coarse and fine
sedirnent. The effect on equilibrium scour depth of both
flow ctepth and sedi$ent size, as illustrated in Figures
4.20 and 4.23 respectj.vely, is to reduce the d..,r/D values
as shown in Eigure 4.24- This fact is irnportant because
it shows that the deepest local scour at bridge piers at
any given condition Cloes not exceed 2.3-2.4 times the
diameter of the pier. In live-bed conditions, the local
scour depth is always less than about 2D. However, under
live-bed conditions, the contribution to the total scour
depth from bed features may be significant, especialll'
in flows where bed features are largie rel-ative to the
diameter of the pier.

Generally, the sediment is rarely uniform and the threshold

scour depth (at Uo = Uo") selilom reaches 2.3D in natural
conditions due to armouring by the coarser particles and
other debris which may collect in the scour ho1e. In
addition, threshold conditions seldonr Persist long enouqh
for the scour depth to reach equilibrium. Hence, the
depth 2.3-2.4D can be taken as an upper l-imit for design as
far as local scour around bridge piers is concerned.
In practice, piers are constructed of many different shaPes
including the single circular shape. Generally, piers
are desigined such that they are aligned to the approach
flow under flood conditions. Ito\dever, the flow malr alter
its angle of attack and the effective pier 'width' may
increase (refer to ApPendix F). Under such conditions,
the corresponding d"rr/D is larger than that shown in
Pigure 4.24. rurthermore, debris washed down from
upstrean durinq flood conditions may accumulate around the
pier and increase the effective pier width and resulting
scour depth.
 tr58

Appendix G shqrrs thas 90S qf tbe data in riguree {'20r

it.23 anal 4.2i* Lie wiLhtrr the foUdrling bandwidthsl

.[+] r o-o'e

-[B] t o-o.

'da.,
Tr t o'r5

rrhere K(yO/D) i K(D/d) and tl"o"/D af€ ttre estiroated mean valuee
i given by ttrre sol!<l trines in eaeh figure' in aPpliatlon
of th;Ese results it shouldt be noted that the vallues of
]
*Wn1Ol and r(E/dt) lle by defln,itiou bedrd€ea 0 and l'0'
]
I
ntblioSrapW

AHMAD MUSHTAQ (1962) Discussions on "Scour at Bridge

Crossings" by Laursen E.M., Trans. A.S.C.E. VoL. I27, Pt, I,
pp 198-206
ALLEN aI.R.L. (1982) "Sedimentary Structures - Their
Character and Physical Basis" (Development in Sedinentology
308) VoI. II, Chap. 5, Ej.sevier Seientific Publishing co.,
pp 173-189
BAGNoLD R.A. (1966) dAn Approach to the Sedirnent Transport
Problem from General Fhysics" U.S. Geological Survev
Professional Paper 4?2-I
BAGNOLDR,A. (1973) "The Nature of Saltation of rBed-Loadt
Pransport in glater" Proc. Royal Society of London, A 332
pp 473-504
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 163

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 L67

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 168

vAltol{r V.A., BRoOFg N.E, and ffm{NEEC J.F. (19511 'Lecture

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nTrd,faln€ P.E. alld. SllltP .P.8. (I9?I) rlnl&iatloo of Bipples I

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I

pp 5:05-5Zz I

wrr,r,xs ,t.s., COL@IAN l$"L, and EIJ.TS w.]4. tL972) lDaboratgrl| I

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YAI;fN !.1,s. (19?Zl "ltechanic of, sedjiqeot TliansEort"
Per'ganro$ Pre.s6

(19??l non pge D€Serirnination of Ri.ppl.e LeDgthu

IALIrir M.S.
Jm Prloc. A.s,.c.s. v61. lo3' dn4, FF 439-442
Apptndix A
Experimental Data for
Uniform Sediments

159
 170

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Ig!8,
(i) * All values of average velocities and shear velocities
are measured in n,/s.
(ii) a ** the local scour depth (maxinum and average) are
recorded as dirnensi.onless values, i.e. normalised
with the diameter of the pier.
b ** A ds values are measured in nul.
(iii) ***The results obtained using 70 mm pier were less
than that obtained using a srnaller pier (D < 45 mn)
because of the low aspect ratio. This aspect
is discussed in Section 4.1.3.
(iv) + During the experiments with non-uniform seiliraents,
it was observed that antidunes were not formed
for flovrs where the Eroude Number exceeds unity.
It appears that the non-uniformity of the
sediment has an influence on the formation of anti-
dunes. The same phenornenon \.tas observed by white
(1975) when carrying out live-bed scour exPeriments
at high flow (rr = 0.8, 1.0 and 1.2) with non-
uniform sedirnent (dgo = 3.4 nun, dso = 0'8 nm).
The observed "bed features vtere not pronounced during
the experiments" indicating the formation of
transition flat bed rather than antidunes for Fr
> 1.
A few experiments were carried out at sub-critical
flow (Fr < t) uslng the on = 2.8, dt' = 0'8 mrn
sediment at the same Uo/Uoa as the experiments
at supercritical flow (Fr > 1) - The bed features
in both cases vtere transition flat bed' The
values of dr.r,/D, as sbown be1ow, show no difference
from that obtained in supercritical flow (cf'
Fig. 4.25(b))- This indicates that the equili-
briun scour ilepth is onJ.y related to the apProach
velocity and bed form and not to the flow
regime '
D (run) (nm) uo (m,/s) uoluo. Fr duu/D
3L.7 5 290 L.47 3.69 0. 87 1.70
31. 75 300 1,17 2.92 0.68 1.45
3r.75 310 1.60 3.90 0.92 r.79
Apptndix

SEDTMENT TRANSPORT RATE

Since the turn of the century, there have been innunerable

flume experi-rnents conducted to rel-ate sedinent transPort
rate (either as bed load, suspended load or total load) to
the strength of the water flow. Nevertheless, there is as
Iret no agreement on a unique relationship between these t\^ro
variables. The aim of this appendix is not to develop
another relationship but simply to present the data in
the forn of sediment concentration (C, B in weight) as a
funct.ion of flow rate (q, m3/s-m). The data are plotted
on log-normal paper and compared with the data gresented
by l.rillis et al (1972).
The method used to collect samples of sediment to evaluate
the concentration of sediment is described in Section 3'2'
the sedirnent concentration, C= in the sediment line is
deternined as follows:

Drv weight of Sedj:nent

aS =@x
(l<g)
ruvn an I \

The sediment concentration, C in the flune is estimated

from (also see Figure C.1):

t'tot crQ= n c*Q}' (c.2)

where Qq, flow rate in the water line

n
*s flow rate in the sediment line
Qtot o=*% = totalflowrate
a
'w sedirnent concentration in the water line
(in 3 by weight)
c" sedirnent concentration in the sedirnent
lj-ne (in t by weight)
LU5
 186

Mixing
Chomber

F'i.gure C - 1 Schenati.c Sketeh fllustrati.ng the

Relationshio betueen Sedinent
Coneenttation and FLou Rate

The following assumptions are made:

1. Q, is assumed to remain constant and equal to 9.0 &,/s

(refer to Section 3.5).
C, is assumedto be zero implying that there is no
sediment transport in the vrater line. However, in
practice, some fine particles are invariably carried
in suspension past the weir which seParates the main
pump intake from the sediment reclrculation punp
intake.
J. The measured value of sediment concentration, C,
is assurned to be equal to the sediment concentration
in the sediment f.ine, C. (refer to Figure C.2),
when the valve is oPened: Cl + c2 + Cs
Qs=01+Q2

when the valve is closed: Ct = Q1 = 0

6-A
-2- -s
Qz=Q"
4. A11 the sediment particles (includling the coarsest
in a non-uniforrn sedirnent) are assumed to be
included in the measured val-ue of Cf i'e' the
particle size distribution is not affected by the
samPling method.
 L87

Oz to mixlng
etromber

I
Qr ,Cr

os,",gs

Fi nt'r'e'c' 2' fr'"X:A1:"'":"nli"TrKr,,u],'wffi^:*:r

aoae:etttnatibn e.nil Pls.a Rabe ta
the S.eil:i,ment tr''tne

ratioa i's pl-otted ag a functlon olf flord

trlre sedi,4ent ciince.n.
rEte in Figlrres e -3 ,anil C.il fsr rlnligtlrn anil non-urr*iforal'
sedisents respeotlve,llr,. irhe Eurvee have si.rrrila'r shape
to that obtained by l{tllis et. al (1972) for ,0,.1 m Eerdi'nent
ae plotted in X'igr"ure C.{. Wi1lis €t al (1972) coacludledt
that tlre po.int 6f, coJttraflexlrte iu tbeee Gurves €cdur€ at
abouu g6s trapeiLioq fLat bed.

The,sedtinent cose€rl'uEatd'on la {lhe 0.24 ry.o sedliroeuL is troweri

than sone ,of the otber qaEree gailirnents at ths E:a[e f1o]i
f,ate. nhis ls besaltse sediment'was iost to the wate'r'1i6e
tn thE fornr of suspended lo.adl aad was not I'ncluded in C"i
1-e. c* \r,?.5 rrot ie.g.1gno,l.ficant,
:[he '<t"aba obtainedt f,rom this study ls tistedl below:
 188

Wittis et ot. 172

(
A
a,
oo
(

)--o 6 o o
1
o
p; rO 5r
a a
3
,r*
-o t rto
\o t
lI A v
c ara v
.o o
o ^o
r OA
AA
L
tt ra
I
L .A v
o o v
E.o I
l' v
o
(J I
a 4 v
co v
=
E
v
(l, 7
a

.00 1 A
I
r rl dso Yo
(mml (mm)
I A 0.2t, 170
I 0.60 170
a 1.45 170
o 1.45 210
v 3.20 210

.0 001
0 0-1 0'2 0'3

Flow rote (m3ls-m )

Figure j.3 : Sedi,nent Ccneentrai:ion ,ersue (Lou Rate fcr

rnna
Irc
; t
.cl

E
'1rt I
cn ti^
510
o
L
co
U
co
(J Yo = 170 mm

dso=0'6 mm
*c t0-
o 0g
.E
p . 1.2
ao . 2.0
a 5.5

0.1 02
Ftow Rote (m3/s-m)

Figure C-4 : Sedinent Coneentration vevsue

ELou Rate fot Non-Unifotn
Sedi.ments
 190

Se.rjree L1
d-^
3U =
0.24 tm
Y" = x70 mr'
o_.
Y
- 1.33

RUrl No.. 6" Stot c

(rsfs) 1fr/e-u) (t by nt. )
Ax-0:2 0.973 0.i65 0.0250
Ar-03 0.500 0,08,5 0.0024
AI-04 0.75,1 Q;12,9 0.00?a
etr-05 0.625 0, 106 0, 00{3
al-06 1.2,3 '0r ?,0,9' 0.0c63
EI-01 0.526 ;0. 089 0.000,9
B[-03 0,582: :o. qgg 0.0014
p1-04 s.729 0"r.24 0.0066
E1-05 A,7X2 o" 131 q.0211
EL:07 O.841 0..143 0,0190
Bt-08 I.079 o.183 0.0AIi[
Bt-og 1,291 O.22:0 0.019167
8..,1-10 I.520 0.276 0.2070
et-01 0.436 0,.074 0.0011
c1-02 0.5{7 0.09'3 0.0050
c1-03 0 " 55191 0.Ir.a, 0.0La1
cil-04 A"842 0. [43 0. olsx
et-05 I.019 0.173 4.027x
QI-0fi 0.153 ,o. r'9j6 0. 0497

IT Serlee D2
dgO = 0.6 lur
Y, = 170m
o-
Y
= I'1.8
A9-01 0.479 0.081 0.00.05
tu2-6,Q 6.117 0. Q9:3. 0.0067
A2-ro4 0.5.7'9r o.098 0.001?8
42-05 0.585 0i 09.9
,0.128
0. 00i67
aa-08 0.?53 0. 0237
A2-'08 0. 83'q 0 .141 0,0416
A2-10 0.e63 0., 164 o.0522
a2-i1 1t01S 0. r?3 0.05?o
A2-tr2 1.100 o.1g? 0,09,61
A2-I3 L.190' 0. aaz 0. 08E:9
D2-01 0.'556 0.1r2 0.0172
cZ-gl 0.a155 4.477 0.0.00.8
c2-02 0.530 0. o9p, 0.0073'
c2-03 0.581 0.099 0.00?4
C2=04 o.660 0.1_11 0.,0J.87
cz-os 0-?59 a.!29, 0.04,83
c2-o5 0,890 0, r51 0.o674
e*-gil tr.000 0.170 0.0796,
 l9r.

c2-08 1.220 0.207 o. 1038

D2-01 0.558 0.095 0.0131
D2-,O2 1.080 o. tg4 0.16:58
D2!04 1- 096, 0.186 0.0867
D2-05 1.2.55 0- 213 0.10t?3
D2:06 L.293 o"ua 0.,165r2
D?-0i 0. 579 0.0:9g 0.,0.082.
Dz-O8 0,770 0.131 0.,:0.421
D'2-0'9 1.015 0. 173 0.0902
D2-10 0.855 0. 147 0.0542
E2-L3 0.660 0.1tr2 0.0220
D2-14 0.780 0.133 0.0358

ItI Seties L^
5
(d)

ds,o = 1..45 mm.

Yt = 170 inm
6-t = L.24
Rurr No. u" Qt"t, c
(n/'s) (ln/E-rn) (8 by wb.)
A3'-01 0.67 0.1!4 0. 0250
A3'O! L.27' 0.216 0.157'9
a3-03 0.73 0.124 0.0331
a3-O4 0.9 3 0-1s8 0,,0341
A3-05r t. t8 0.201 0.1100
.8,3-06 1.038 0.176 0.0564
A3-07 1.128 0.L9.2 o.089,0
c3-0r 0.7L6 o.tr22 o.0215
c3-02 0.648 o.110 0. 01s3
c3-0'3 0.81 0. 138 0. 0259
e3-,0.tt 0.92 0,156 Q,.0296
c3-05 1.05 0. t79 0. 0805
u3-06 1.11 0.18e 0.1334
e3o0r7 1. X7 0. r99 0.1265
c3-08 L.2s 0.213 o.2467
I'XI Serles f, (b),
dso = Lt!5 rutI
Y=
o
210 @
o-5 = !.24
A3-08 1.054 a.22r 0. I1tr7
A3-09 1- 137 0. t:jg, 0.1tr31
e3-'10 L.272 o.267 0,.1798
A3-11 1.416 o.297 0.2488
83-01 o.622 0.131 o,0126
ts3-0? 0.782 0..164 0 - 003.4
B3-O3 ,0,.880 o,. t8s 0,0168
B3-o4 0. 9:95 0:.209 0" 0446
 L92

E3-d5 1.4Xt9 0.29a 0.11!84

B3-O5 1. ?0 0.25? 0.115a
B3:_07 r- 085 0.228 0.r05OE
C3=0r9 L, i006 o.3915 0.1745.
c3-10 1.064 A;223 0.1.0,08
C5-:tr1 r.155 0. 2,43 0.0920
e3d? L.279 6.269 0.u88
8€rie$ tr4

dso = 3.2 ti&

fu = 8tr0 nu!
ct-
!, = 1.28
Rllri No, uo Qt"t e'
(rols) ,(n7s-IQ) (E bV wt.)
a4-0[ o.877 0.18,4 0. 00tr
.ait-0u o. q8 0.206 0.0,049
4a_0t 1.r25 o.?36 0.01tr5
Arr-04 1.24 0.96'0 0.0368
A4-05 1.06 o. ?23 0.0060
e,4-06 r0.9,4 0.197 0. 0014
84-,0.1 0.958 a-2,4I 0.0032
tg4_,bE 1.045 s.419 0.00i39
Ba-03 1. L2 o.'235 0.0108
Br{_05 1. 09? o.230 0- 0r3t
B4-0,5 1..28it 4.?,69 0.043t
84_0? 1.215 0,?r5 0. 0152
Seri.es Mn

ago = 0.5 rfio

v-o = 170 .i@
"g
= 2-0
8u$ No. Ito QFrt ,c
{n/s) (u7e-p) (t by rtrt.)
!{4tr-91 0.583 0.,,0,94 0'r Q 0iL9
M['t-02 L.27'6 a.,2L7 ,0- 092s
DrAl-03 o.672 0.u4 0,0076
!4Al=04 O.8,22 0.L40 0.0098
!{&l-0:5 0.975 0.16:6 0.04sr8
MAl-06 1.. roe 0.1€9 0,0c32
lr,A.1-07 0.,451 0,.0,71 0.00'0:2
[TAI.LO 0.984 0..,167 0,0:550
lral-t1 o.852 0-r45 0,0316.6
!!E'[-04 1.3,33 a,.w7 0l. o8E0
i!tE1-'05 0.9€8 0.x68 0.0.3r5L
uiFr-02 0,79€ 0-13d o.0136
$[c1-01 1..28i! 0.2f,8 0.l:.,015
MCI-02 0.560 0.0r95 0,,001.6
${c,1-03 0.8tr0 0,..tr38 0.0075
 193

!{C1-{l''4 1.094 0.186 0.0298

Hel-05 0.6x8 0.115 0.0104
uel-o6 0.i542 0.,09e 0.i000t3
ltc1-08 f .i020 0.,173 0ir070r2
MCh-09 0- 666 0.,113 0.0091

VJ g-eriea ttt
dso = 0.6 ru
-o
11?
= 170 lru'e
tg = 5.5
Ruq rilo. Itd Qt",tt c
G4/,8tr ft#s-n)' ($ by i{u.l
D|A3-O2 '4.:r9 0,1-3.4 0. S3:4.9
!!a3-04 tr.,4q o.238 o-2]JL4
1,L43-OS :0.615 0. trll 0,0190
u83=0e 0! 51 i0,.IO4 0r0047
!{83-03 A.12 a.L22 0.0177
l{83-04 tr.25 0, 213
,0.136
0. L3.tr2
o.9245
Pgg!,-,05 O' 8'0
[,F3=06 0, g8 0.150 0.0:21?
uF3-07 I.0a 0.173 0.0,487
0.tgAo
!,!ts3g08- 1'41 0. 2.40
us3-o9' !"l5,{ a,26.2 9..25201
I{83-10, 1.72 0.297,, 0r tlilS7
Apptndix D
LOCAL SCOUR AT ELONGATED PIERS

Local scour around brliige piers is deoendent on the shape of

the pier. An elongated pier was tested both as shor_vn in
Figure 3.8 (referred to as pier "K") and inverted (pgfs3jgd
to as pier "L") in lj.ve-bed condition to investi.gate the
effect of pier shape on the equilibrium scour deoth. Each
of the piers was embedded in the 0.5 n (on= 2.0) sedirnent,
the flow depth was 170 run and the pier was aligned such that
its major axis was para11eJ. to the approach flow.
Since the major cause of local scour is the dorvnfLow that
develops at the nose of the pier, it is not unreasonable to
expect that a pier with its upstrearn slope as in pier "K"
will generate a largier scour hole. This is because the
slope of the pier deflects the downflow into the scour hole,
hence increasing the strength of the downflow impinging on
its base. Conversely, the inverted pier "1" will
partially deflect the downflow upwards, hence reducing the
strength of the downflow inoinging on the base of the scour
ho1e.

9or giers similar in shape to piers "K" and "L" with side
angle > 2Oo, tteill (l-973) suggested values of scour depths
for desj.gn as tabulated in Table D.1.
Values quoted by Nei11 (1973) imply that the scour ilepth
associated with pier "K" should be I.33 tines as largre as
the scour depth associated with a circular 5rier with the
same width normal to the approach flow, while the scour
depth associated with gier "L" should be 0.67 tiqes as
large as that of the sarne circular pier-
L94
 r.95

Sugges:ted
.al Loildhc€ fib,r
P,ie,r ShaF, P:ier Shape 'lpcal sco..u:r for
in Fltnr iR ProiFi'le Yo<50

+@. ds=1'5D

.+
Y d" =ll.QrP,

Tabne' E'7 z hoeql 6'9Qat AL'Eeaiaaeea fot

Piets At'l,ilgned'- Pqnallel to
d'L,ow - Ee,iW (19,7a)

out del this studll' shottEd tiat these

E:€erfureil€s, ,cEf;f,ie.d
sqour dieE'ths rtele€ X.ZO andt 0.76, tLi[$E'r r€sltectiY-el1rt as
Large as btrose .at a ciroutrar plar of, diametels egual to
the Elr,iol*nOs,6 ed ttrese pters at tlie 'sa&e rte]ocity' '!.bP
measqrced. aaoru Glepibl*8 |are telFU=iLaLeS tn lflab'le D:'2'
 196

d"',r/D
P.un No. II.., (n/s) d/D d;6_TdfuIE;I
\r o .67 2.03 1. 20
K2 0. 81 2.06 1. 20
r1 0.67 L.29 0.75
lrZ u.a/ 1. 33 0.79
r2 0. 81 1.25 0.7 4

Teble D.2 NornaLiseC Equilibriun Scour Deoth of

ELongated Piers
EFFECT OF FOOTINGS

It is not uncolnmon for a bridge pj.er to have a footing.

Nei1l (1973) stated that "a footing, caisson or othe!
enlargement tends to reduce the local depth of scour Provided
the enlargenent renains below the qeneral scoured bed level
under design flow conditions and j-s of sufficient horizontal
extent to cover the area of loca1 vortex acti.on". Iie
added'that the hsrizontal projection of the enlargement riust
be at least equal to the diameter or width of the pier shaft" -
IIe further added that if " the enlargernent is Liable to be
exposed to the main current, its effect is sinil-ar to that
of a parge pier ... n.
However, in live-bed conditions (assuming that there j-s no
general scour), the enlargement is 1ikely to be exPosed to
the flow when a dune trougih is coincident with the gier.
Under such circumstances, the scour depth may be affected
by the larger diameter footings rather than the pier.
Experiments were carried out using a 45 r'r'n diameter pier
wlth a cylinder twice as large attached to the base of the
pier. The assembly was embedded in the 0'6 mm (on = 2'0)
sediment such that the mean bed level rras 6 mm higher than
the top level of the footing (refer to Pigure 3'9) and
tested at a flow depth of 170 nn. Experiments l"ere carried
out to ensure that the Passage of a dune would not exDose
the footinq (note: during the experirnents, sone largre
 L97

Aus.rea d,tdl e*Eo.ec elre foo,t,iug).. 'iFlr;e results. ats tabulats,d

in EablF Dr3r

d-1€
llo (n/sl
Witb rootn.ng mitho;rrt Pootl-.ng
0.67 r.67 1.69
0.€1 r. t0 1.71
't, It
!+

teble D.3 : .Ea*matiaed. Equiltbtiun in a Scout Dep,th

gipe1;1a7 Br,tdge ei"let'Ui,tk G-ineul.A* _
' Bt't'dge lao'ttxg lIuiee t'he Dianetet of *he
-

I Fi.,e*
I

r llhe resrllts shqq i:ba€ the eqtlilj;btturq sconlE depttt is

I 6e,e.,enelally the, sasie in bo'th a o.ojldt*I pi..er a.nd that which has
a foo,Lir{g.
Append*, E

llqs€ tro-J34 Ireagtb-T{,fldEh Raeto 4"

Recteng"lll.aF E t .00

$strl-.cir,eular C 0.90

Elliptioal .2rL C 0.80

3:1 C 0,.75,

I.entisu:letr 2tL <. 0.€o

rlrl
C 0.70

Abu*$eutF!
v.ertiaal wa1l 1.00
$li,ng oaLl- 0..90
,sp.iLl tlirou$l 0.80

9*rape co€ffJ,cient$ Bs €qr :So,ge €orrae tto' be

usd oxlf f,elE !|.te{s aliigtreal. silnth f'ltdlls)

le8
Apptndix

l/b =16

1d
15 30 /.5 60 75 90
Angte of Attock - A lDegrees)

Ali.gnnent Faeton Ko for Pi,evs not AXigned ai-th

FLou - Laursen, 19[.8

199
Apptndix G

The range of scatter tso be expected in the scour depth

predictions was estimated by analysing the exPerimental
data in terns of departure from the estimated mean vafue,
dur/D, given by the solid line in Fignrre 4.24. rt was
found that 90t of the data points lie within the constant
bandwiclth dav,/D t 0.f5. Although visual inspection of
Figure 4.24 shows that the spread of data points varies
with uo,/uoc the quantity of data available does not
warrant a more refined analysis.
The range of scatter to be expected in the data in
Sigure 4.20 was calculated in a si-nila! nanne!. over the
range of available data from K(yo,zD) = 0.25 to 0.99
i: was found that 908 of data lie within the constant
bandwidth K(yolD) t 0.09, where K(yo/Dl is the estimated
mean value given by the solid line in Figure 4.20.

Similarly for Figure 4.2i in which the range of available

data is K(D,/d) = 0.35 to 0.99, it was found that 90t of
data l.ie within the constant band\'tidth K(D,/d) ! 0.06;
where K(D,/d) is the estiraated mean value given by the solid
line in Figure 4.23.
In application of these results' it should be noted that
the functions fitted to data points in Figures 4-20 and
4.23 are limited, by dlefinition, between 0 and 1-0, and
that these are the minirnum and maximum values of f(yo,/o)
and K (D,/d) .

200