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Janelid1966 PDF
Janelid1966 PDF
Janelid1966 PDF
SUBLEVEL CAVING*
I. JANELIDand R. KvhPm
Department of Mining and Mine Surveying, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
(Received 1 November 1965)
* This work has been carried out within the framework of the programme Mine Research of the Swedish
Mining Association. The research problems were investigated at the Mining Department of the Royal
Institute of Technology, Stockholm with the collaboration of various Swedish mining companies, especially
LKAB Kiruna.
129
I
130 I. JANEL1D AND R. KVAPIL
One detail, quite minute in itself, may become decisive for a whole row of subsequent
operations. The T.C. drill bit, for example, has been a direct decisive factor for the following
functional relations: rock drills--long straight holes--mining methods. Another such
detail is the short-delay method of firing which has influenced the following processes:
Large rounds, problems of large lumps, ground vibrations, stope organization, etc. The
subjects 'simple operations', 'combined operations', 'metalliferous mining' etc. can be
discussed on similar lines.
The research and development work in this area will shortly have reached a point where
long and nearly straight holes can be drilled in any desired direction. It will be possible for
large rounds to be charged and fired with adequate regard to safety. The driving of rise
is now a safe and highly mechanized operation and in the very near future all tunnelling
or drifting will probably be extensively mechanized, in some cases with machines drilling
out the complete section.
The operations mentioned above are, however, only a means to an end when more or
less irregular ore bodies are to be mined which used to be done by conventional methods
applying drilling, blasting and loading in suitable workings.
The diagrammatic scheme of the table indicates the necessity of taking into consideration
in mine planning such items as ore losses, dilution by barren rock, cut-off grade, sorting
etc. if a profitable production is to be achieved.
Underground mining in Sweden produces annually about 40 million tonnes of ore and
rock, the principal mining systems being sublevel caving, sublevel stoping, block caving, open
stopes and pillars, and shrinkage stoping. As far as quantity is concerned, sublevel caving
is now the most important method with about 25 million tonnes per annum out of which
Kiruna alone accounts for 19 million tonnes per annum.
Past experience has shown that metalliferous mining in any of these methods is very
advantageous from the point of view of mechanization when long holes are drilled. Long-
hole mining can be divided into two main groups, i.e. mining systems without backfilling
when the ore conditions and the rock strength permit, and caving systems when a system
without backfilling is impracticable. The second group with its main representative, the
sublevel caving method, is very complicated as far as control is concerned, but it has many
advantages as regards safety and mechanization.
These possibilities of development and future prospects were borne in mind when
systematic theoretical calculations were carried out during the last few years, together with
model and large-scale tests, in order to establish the factors which determine or influence
especially two items, i.e. the ore yield and the admixture of barren rock. If these two prob-
lems can be solved satisfactorily, most orebodies of vertical extent can be mined very
effectively with respect to safety, mechanization and capacity by the new modified form of
sublevel caving which will be described in this article.
Before we proceed to the theoretical part dealing with the gravity flow of the blasted
material, the location of the sublevel headings, drilling, loading, etc. we shall describe the
sublevel caving operations in Sweden at the present stage of development based on a
number of illustrations.
Figure 1 shows the location of the sublevet headings and the principal operations required
consisting of drifting, drilling of the sublevel holes and ore loading.
Drifting is a fairly substantial part of sublevel caving and whilst in earlier times pre-
ference was given to air-leg mounted rock drills, the mines are now changing over to various
types of drill rigs. In smaller headings of say 2.2 m × 2.5 m one of the rigs used is the
SUBLEVELCAVING 131
" L
ii,ili i~
i::z i
:iii i11. ~;I-
ii!ii
:!ii, i
i,il
i !i
ii.i~ i
~li,:i I
! !:
i I i iil ii [i: i
ii I !~i I! Ill
II 'i
so-called Tunnler 200 (Fig. 2) with from 1 to 3 drills on a chain-feed cradle and in larger
headings drill rigs with hydraulically operated feed cradles may be used.
Most production drilling, i.e. the sublevel drilling, is now done by hydraulically operated
drill rigs with one or two rock drills, operated by one man. These rigs ensure a high capacity
and also a sufficiently accurate hole direction which is of great importance as we shall see
later. Figure 3 shows a drill rig type Simba 11 on rails designed for medium-size headings
and with one hydraulically operated set. The Kiruna mine with its larger headings of
3.5 m x 5 m uses drill rigs on pneumatic tyres with two rock drills, type Simba 22, as
shown in Fig. 4. This rig is operated by one man and has a capacity of 255 m drilled per
shift which corresponds to 2400 tonnes ore per man and shift. The explosive used to blast
132 I. JANEL1D AND R. KVAPIL
in the sublevel is of the ammonium nitrate or slurry type. The charging capacity of one
charging set (Fig. 5) for A.N. explosive is 1000 kg/hr. Dynamite cartridges can also be
charged in long holes by means of a charging robot illustrated in Fig. 6 which has a capacity
of 400-800 kg/hr.
The ore is loaded from large sublevel headings in mines like Kiruna by JOy loaders
18 H R and 19 H R into shuttle cars or into so-called Kiruna dumpcars with diesel drive
(see Fig. 7). Shovel loaders of various types are also being used for direct transport into an
ore chute. Figure 8 shows such a 'Scoopmobil' in operation.
Most of the loading in small drifts is done by rocker shovels in combination with various
haulage cars. With a compressed-air-driven car type U3N of 2 m a capacity (see Fig. 9)
in combination with the shovel loader type LM 65H one man has reached an output of
300 tonnes per shift over a haulage distance of 50 m.
In several mines the loading and haulage operations in narrow headings are carried out
by a trackless method as dump cars type T2G (Auto-Loader) of 0.75 m a capacity are used
(see Fig. 10).
This brief description of the mining methods and of the mechanical equipment used
indicates that mechanization as well as a simplification of the whole process is feasible.
If we possess exact and detailed information about the gravity flow of the blasted rock
in the sublevel and if we carry out an exact planning and control especially of the drilling
and loading operations, we can turn the modified sublevel caving method into an effective,
cheap and above all a safe mining method.
2. F U N D A M E N T A L L A W S F O R T H E GRAVITY F L O W O F G R A N U L A R M A T E R I A L
A most important factor in sublevel caving is the gravity flow of the lumpy material,
i.e. of the blasted ore and of the barren rock.
The basic deductions from the laws of gravity flow can be explained most simply by the
motion of granular material in a bunker.
In the case of free discharge through the outlet at the bottom of the bunker a certain
zone of the bunker contents will be set in motion. This zone within which the granular
material is moving is called the active zone A. The remaining part of the bunker contents
is immobile and forms a passive zone P (see Fig. I l).
I'1: : ! : fl
1/ IiIi1 A
1
F~c. 11. Gravity flow of granular material.
The movement of the particles in the active zone is effected by gravity so that we can
designate the active zone as the gravity flow of the granular material. The centre line of the
gravity flow is vertical in case the conditions of the granular material remain unchanged.
The motion of the particles in a gravity flow obeys certain laws.
Let us consider a certain point N which lies at the height hn, above the vertical axis
of the discharge opening (see Fig. 12). For the sake of clarity, the point N lies in the hori-
zontal plane formed by the interface n of materials of different colour.
.-FIG. 2. ‘Tunnler 200’.
When the outlet is opened the material begins to flow and the point N drops towards
the discharge. The original straight plane of the interface n deflects downwards due to the
discharge of the material (see Fig. 13).
At the moment when point N reaches the plane of the discharge opening, a certain
amount (volume VN) of granular material has left the bunker (see Fig. 14). This volume
VN did not run off at random but came from a certain zone which in form looks very
similar to an elongated ellipsoid of revolution. For this reason this zone is called an
ellipsoid of motion. In Fig. 15(b) this ellipsoid of motion is marked Eiv. We can distinguish
between its semi-major axis aN and its semi-minor axis bN.
FIG. 12. Run-off process. FIG. 13. Run-off process. FIG. 14. Run-off process.
.........
......... EN '~N
_Jl ...
The volume of the ellipsoid of motion Eiv approximately corresponds to that of the
discharged material VN. We have thus the relationship of
EN ~, VN. (1)
The plane of the interface n, which was originally horizontal, deflects downwards to
approach the limit marked in Fig. 15(a) with the points 1 and 2 (see also Fig. 14). The
funnel-shaped deflexion of the boundary n forms a cone Klv as indicated in Fig. 15(c). The
circular base of the cone Klv has the diameter of line 12, the height of the cone is hN and
its apex corresponds to the point N in the discharge opening [see Figs. 15(a)and 15(c)]. The
volume of the discharge cone KN approximately corresponds to the volume V / of the
discharged material and, of course, also to the volume of the ellipsoid of motion E~v.
The relationship between the volumes of the ellipsoid of motion Ex, of the discharge
cone KN and the volume of material discharged V / c a n thus be described by
Ely ~ Ku ~ Vx. (2)
If the volume V~v and the height of the ellipsoid of motion are known, the semi-minor
axis biv of Fig. 15(b) can be calculated from the formula
/IN
134 I. J A N E L I D A N D R. K V A P I L
The characteristics of the shape of the ellipsoid of motion are determined by its eccen-
tricity ~a-
where
1
eU ~- - x/(a~ -- b2N). (4)
aN
The terms ax and b2v in equation (4) correspond to those of Fig. 15(b).
The Characteristics of the shape of the ellipsoid of motion, i.e. its eccentricity, are not
constant, but depend very much on the particle size of the material. Smaller particles of
material correspond to a slimmer ellipsoid of motion and to a greater eccentricity. Larger
particles extend the ellipsoid in width and its eccentricity becomes less. This is shown
schematically in Figs. 16(a, b, c).
0 l,~0 !~
For the same material the eccentricity depends on a number of factors such as the size of
the discharge opening (enlargement of the discharge opening increases the eccentricity),
the height of the ellipsoid of motion (a greater height increases the eccentricity), the velocity
of discharge (a faster rate of discharge increases the eccentricity) etc.
If, for a certain material, the eccentricity E~v and the height h2v under certain conditions
are known, we can calculate the semi-minor axis from the following formula:
hN
b~ = 5 - V(1 - ~). (5)
The run-off of granular material (without cohesion) causes no cavity due to the ellipsoid
of motion and the surrounding material subsides evenly. This loosens the material some-
what. This process also follows a regular pattern, especially in that it takes place in a zone
resembling an ellipsoid of revolution. This ellipsoid is characterized by its size reaching a
certain limit as the material runs off from the ellipsoid of motion E2v. Outside this limit which
is formed by the outer contours of this ellipsoid the granular material remains stationary.
This ellipsoid of motion is therefore called the limit ellipsoid Ea as indicated in Fig. 17.
Let us now assume that the limit ellipsoid Ea resembles the ellipsoid of motion/iN.
SUBLEVEL CAVING 135
The loosening of the granular material brought about in the limit ellipsoid can be described
by the loosening factor a where
Ec
a -- Eo -- Ely (6)
and Ec and EN are the volumes of the corresponding ellipsoids.
The value of the loosening factor for broken material varies from 1.066 to 1.100.
The volume of the limit ellipsoid Ec (caused by the loosening process) stands in a certain
ratio to the volume of the ellipsoid E~v. This ratio can be expressed by the formula
Ec ~ EN (7)
a-- I
Eo ~ 15 EN. (8)
This means that the volume of the limit ellipsoid Eo is about 15 times greater than the
volume of the ellipsoid of motion EN.
The approximate height ho of the limit ellipsoid can be taken as
ho ~ 2"5 h~v. (9)
The contours of the limit ellipsoid form the boundary between the zone of motion (inside
the limit ellipsoid) and the remaining stationary material (outside the limit ellipsoid).
Should the discharge of the material be stopped, the loosening will gradually become less
on account of the progressive consolidation of the granular material.
The limit ellipsoid continues to develop in proportion to the continued discharge of the
material from the outlet. This brings about the kinetic flow. We are mainly concerned
with the problems relating to the lower part of the kinetic flow over a certain height hiv.
It is important to establish here the width d of the kinetic flow at a certain height hN at a
moment when the material from the ellipsoid E~v (with the height h~v) has already run off
through the outlet. The schedule for the calculation can be seen in Fig. 18.
The width of the kinetic flow at the height hN (at the moment in question) is given by the
points of intersection 1 and 2 in which the contours of the limit ellipsoid intersect the
originally horizontal plane of the interface n [see Figs. 14 and 15(a) and (c)]. The points
1 and 2 at the same time represent the edge of the base of the discharge cone Klv [see Fig.
15(c)]. Figure 18 indicates that d = line ]'2.
p0
•-~..-..-- ~.~......
FIG. 18. Width d of gravity flow at certain height above run-off opening.
136 1. J A N E L I D AND R. KVAPIL
The relationship between EN, K N and E a enables us to calculate the width of the kinetic
flow d -- 2r for the height h~v from the following formula
r ~ ~ / [ ( h c - - hN) hN(1 - - ~2)]. (10)
The terms h~ and h~v in formula (10) correspond to those in Figs. 17 and 18.
The path of the particles in a gravity flow is not straight but a little curved as drawn
schematically in Fig. 19. The particles along the centre line of the kinetic flow are, however,
an exception. The curvature of the paths is, however, so little that we can regard them
asstraight lines.
I
/ i'
,' l
The velocity of travel of the particles in the gravity flow is not uniform, but is distributed
as follows:
The velocity is greater at shorter distances of the particle from the discharge opening
and from the centre line of the gravity flow. (The rule is that the velocity of a particle in the
centre line of the flow at a certain height h above the opening is inversely proportional to
the ratio h / e where e is the diameter or the width of the discharge opening.)
Inversely, the velocity of travel of a particle is reduced as the distance from the discharge
opening and from the centre line of the gravity flow increases. There is no motion at the
boundary of the limit ellipsoid Ea.
This pattern of the velocity distribution can be clearly seen in the individual phases of a
tested model shown in Fig. 20.
~Z
- - ,-w £¢,
E~ ~vr
~vf
......... ~Y
This model was used to produce a constant gr~tvlty flow of the granular material which
was then photographed at various times of exposure. The relation between the velocity of
travel of the particles and the time of exposure makes the moving particles of the model
filling appear on the film as lines. An increasing time of exposure allows smaller velocities of
FIG. 20. Zones of increased velocity of motion in the same gravity flow.
SUBLEVEL CAVING 137
travel of the particles to be recorded on the film. If the time of exposure is shortened, all
those particles are practically 'cut off' which have a velocity of travel below that correspond-
ing to the ratio between time of exposure and velocity. These particles appear to be motion-
less on the photograph. The individual phase of Fig. 20 were obtained at times of exposure
of V1 > 1:2 > I:3 . . . . The differing times of exposure make it possible to differentiate
between the zones of the different velocities in that each shorter time of exposure determines
the zone of the next higher velocity.
For the sake of clarity Fig. 21 shows a summary of the velocity distribution schematically
on the basis of a vertical section through the centre line of the limit ellipsoid Ea. The
velocity of the particles at any point of the ellipsoid Ea is represented with V1 along the
X-axis.
The schematic spatial representation of the velocity distribution of the particles in the
ellipsoid E a according to Fig. 21 shows that the velocity is zero on the periphery of the
limit ellipsoid E¢. A given velocity such as 1:1 (Fig. 21) describes by its path in the plane Z Y
a figure resembling an ellipsoid. In the spatial representation we can talk of an ellipsoid
of like velocities which is marked in Fig. 21 as E v l .
Figure 22 shows that a particle at the apex of the ellipsoid has travelled after a certain
time from point I to point I'. This particle has therefore moved in a certain time a certain
distance w.
FIG. 22
The original height of the ellipsoid of like velocity E v has been reduced from h to hi
because hi = h -- w (Fig. 22).
As the apex particle moves from I to I', all other particles lying at the contours of the
ellipsoid of like velocity E v travel with the same velocity, as can be seen when we compare
in Fig. 22 the apex particle I, for example, with the particle 1.
During this process the centre of the ellipsoid E v also shifts from O to O1. (It should be
noted that the centre O of the ellipsoid does not signify any particular particle, but merely
an imaginary point where the semi-major and semi-minor axes of the ellipsoid intersect.)
This means that in the same time during which the particles have travelled the distance w,
the ellipsoid of like velocity has shrunk by w and its centre has travelled the distance f.
According to Fig. 22 an approximate solution can be expressed by
h-- w
f= A O - - AO1 ~, h/2 2 - - w/2. (ll)
138 1. J A N E L I D A N D R . K V A P 1 L
We can therefore state that the subsidence of the centre O of the ellipsoid of like velocity
Ev is about equal to half the distance travelled in the same time by the particles at the
contours of the ellipsoid E v .
The laws in connexion with the gravity flow of granular materials do not undergo any
basic changes even when the gravity flow is prevented for various reasons from developing
fully and symmetrically to the vertical axis. Such cases arise, for example, if the discharge
opening lies not in the centre of the bunker bottom, but in the side wall. Under such con-
ditions the ellipsoid of motion is, figuratively speaking, cut off by the bunker wall. This is
illustrated by Fig. 23 where this is indicated diagrammatically. The ellipsoid of motion
Ex and the limit ellipsoid Ec are designated in this illustration in the same way as in Fig. 17.
The centre line O of the gravity flow (Fig. 23) deviates from the perpendicular by a certain
angle rI. This deviation becomes greater as the friction along this wall becomes greater, i.e.
the greater the roughness of the wall surface.
As regards the velocity distribution in the gravity flow the statements made earlier apply
in the same way for these cases (Fig. 23).
~ -~ EG
FIG. 23. The ellipsoid of motion E~. and its limit ellipsoid E~, when granular material runs
off through opening in the vertical bunker wall.
:v :i::
c~
FIG. 24. Diagrammatic vertical section through longitudinal axis of extraction drift in sublevel caving.
S --height of slice
V--burden
--gradient of slice, called negative when ct > 90 °, vertical when ct -----90 ° and positive
when ~ < 90 °.
Other dimensions are indicated in Fig. 25 which shows a diagrammatic view of the slice
wall and corresponds to the section along I-I' in Fig. 24.
' ) g "i
i
$
.............
I_ P IBM_ P j B_3
FIG. 25. Diagrammatic view of the slice wall in the plane of the section I-1' of Fig. 24.
The form of the gravity flow depends on many factors and we can regard its form as a
function of these factors. As the gravity flow corresponds to the limit ellipsoid we can say
that the form of the gravity flow is a function of the eccentricity of the limit ellipsoid, i.e.
e/d - f ( , ) .
The factors which are at work in this function are still concealed in this formulation
and it is therefore preferable to state the form of the gravity flow in a simplified symbolic
function as
e/d f(K, h, c, l,) (12)
where K -- properties of the lumpy material, including loosening phenomena which can
be expressed (in the simplified form) by the particle size
h ~: height of gravity flow
c - size of extraction area, here given as the extraction width
t, - velocity of travel of material in the gravity flow, given by the extraction velocity.
The effect of the factor K, i.e. of the particle size of the material is characterized by smaller
particle sizes resulting in a narrower (more parallel) gravity flow which as they become
smaller approaches the ratio e/d -- 1. As the particle size becomes larger, the inflow width d
increasingly exceeds the outflow width e and the ratio e/d drops below 1. If we wish to
express the effect of the particle size on the eccentricity of the ellipsoid of motion (Fig. 16)
we find that the eccentricity is inversely proportional to the particle size.
The height h of the gravity flow has the effect of making the form of the gravity flow
more narrow (as regards parallelity) as the height h becomes greater, and vice versa.
The extraction width c has the effect of making the form of the gravity flow more narrow
(more parallel) as the extraction width increases.
The effect of the extraction velocity is characterized by a more narrow (parallel) gravity
flow at higher extraction velocities, because the latter affect the spread of the loosening
process.
In the same plane of section as in Fig. 24 we can represent the gravity flow in sublevel
caving with a vertical slice in the way shown diagrammatically in Fig. 27.
.L__L.~~
FIG. 27. Pattern of distribution of zones EN, Et; and KN governing motion in vertical section perpendicular
vertical slice wall.
The symbols EN, Eo, KN, hx and bN are the same as in Fig. 15.
The height of the ellipsoid of motion EN can be taken, with a slight simplification, as
twice the slice height, i.e. hN ~ 2 S. The contours of the limit ellipsoid are also the boun-
daries for the gravity flow. The width r of the gravity flow at the height hN is given by
SUBLEVELCAVING 141
formula (10). As the approximate height of the limit ellipsoid ha ~ 2.5 h~v from formula (9)
and as we have assumed that h~v ~ 2 S the width of the gravity flow can be expressed as
r ~ V[(5 s - 2 s ) 2 s (l - ,2)]
where S is the slice height. The unknown quantity is the eccentricity E because this depends
mainly on the particle size.
The blasted ore (and also the waste) can be a very complex and variegated mixture of
factors, so that it is not possible to state exact figures for the eccentricity of these lumpy
materials. The eccentricity is also governed by a number of other factors such as the effect
of the particle forms, the mechanical properties of the material of the particles, the effect
of moisture content, of the roughness of the walls, of consolidation properties and, in an
inverse sense, of the effect of loosening phenomena and external forces. These problems
suffer an additional complication in that even a proportion of 5 to 7 per cent of fine material
can modify the properties of the lumpy material significantly.
The volume of the ellipsoid of motion depends on the eccentricity. As the eccentricity
depends mainly on the particle size, a diagram has been plotted in Fig. 28 which indicates
the approximate principal relations between volume V of the ellipsoid of motion, the
particle size K and the height h of the ellipsoid of motion. In this diagram the graph (1)
applies to fine and the graph (2) to lumpy materials.
When planning a sublevel caving operation we can take in first approximation rough
values of the eccentricity for blasted hard ore from the diagram of Fig. 29 as a function
of the height h u ~ 2 S. The eccentricity figures read from this diagram can be applied
both for the calculation of the width r of the kinetic flow, and for the approximate deter-
mination of the semi-minor axis bu of the ellipsoid of motion EN, see Fig. 27. The approxi-
mate width of the semi-minor axis can be calculated from equation (5).
The exact values of the eccentricity and, resulting therefrom, of the flow width r and of
the semi-minor axis b~v, can only be determined by large-scale tests. These tests can be
organized in various ways. One way is that of distributing marked tracers over the plane n
(Fig. 27). All that need be done during the test is to establish the volume of ore loaded up
to the moment when the tracers have arrived at the extraction drift from point N (Fig. 27)
[see also the case in Fig. 15]. Designating this loaded volume of ore as lie we can calculate
the semi-minor axis of the ellipsoid of motion from the formula
/i 2 (13
bu = N/t2_09 ~/tN]
v (~
FIG. 28. Approximate relation between height h and volume V of ellipsoid of motion.
099,
09"/' ~- - -
0.96 . . . .
095
0 93
092
090
I0 20 30 40
The run-off width e (Fig. 30) is an important factor which governs the shape of the
gravity flow. In practice the run-offwidth e depends on the extraction width c.
The extraction width c is given by the operating reach of the loader and by the loading
system. The gravity flow approaches more closely a parallel form if the operating reach of
the loader is wider and the loading system covers the width of the extraction drift more
fully.
The extraction width c of a loader is narrower than the width of the extraction drift.
If the loader is always stationed at the same spot, for example, in the middle (Fig. 31)
or near the side (Fig. 32) of the extraction drift, the gravity flow will be considerably reduced
in the lower regions, the waste will soon arrive in the extraction drift and the relatively
small run-off width may easily cause undesirable arching of the lumpy material.
FIG. 3 I. Ore run-off during extraction by loader in FIG. 32. Ore run-off during extraction by loader
middle of extraction drift. along sidewall of extraction drift.
SUBLEVEL CAVING 143
The theoretically best conditions are created when the operating reach of the loader
equals the width of the drift. This can be achieved with a loader of smaller reach by letting
the machine deal with the ore in stages across the whole width of the slope in the extraction
drift. An advantageous system is that of I, 11I, 1I (Fig. 33) where 1, II, III are the positions
of the loader.
Such a loading system ensures that the extraction width c as well as the run-off width e
are equal to the drift width B, i.e. c -- e = B. The shape of the gravity flow is good in this
case because it approximates a parallel form and because the contact of the ore with the
waste being high up prevents the latter from reaching the extraction drift prematurely.
FIG. 33. Ore run-offduring extraction by loader according to the system 1, IIl, il over the full width B of the
extraction drift.
The width B of the extraction drift should therefore, not only promote a good shape of the
gravity flow, but also induce an even run-off of the lumpy ore. When planning the width of
the drift we must therefore take into consideration the particle size of the blasted ore by
using the following formula for the approximate width
B > ~,,/[5(5D)z k] (14)
where D = diameter of largest lumps of the blasted ore and k ~ factor of composition
of the mixture of lumpy material, determined by means of the nomogram of Fig. 34.
It can be seen from the nomogram that the factor k depends on the percentage of lumps
(region I), on the percentage of medium ranges (region II) and on the percentage of fine,
damp constituents such as powder- and earth-like constituents, etc. (region IV). The key
of the nomogram is indicated in the illustration by dotted arrows.
Correct ore extraction demands, not only an optimum run-off and extraction width,
but also a good thickness m of the gravity flow (Fig. 27). The dimension m will, of course,
depend on how far the loader can dig into the slope.
If we apply Rankine's theory on the distribution of the trajectories of the maximum
principal stresses, we can establish the optimum depth of penetration of the loader into the
slope. The trajectories of the principal stresses in the slope (Fig. 35) are inclined against the
vertical by 90° 2-- 4' where 4' is the natural angle of repose. The theoretically best depth x
is given by the points I and 2. Point 1 indicates in Fig. 35 the end of the slope and point 2
is given by the intersection between the trajectory of the principal stresses, which originates
from the upper edge of the extraction drift (point 3), and the floor level.
144 I. JANELID A N D R. KVAPIL
IV
15 #0 5
IS i
GI/lll//ll/ll/lll~l/llfl,~iilll/llli/71ililllllllllll/lll/l"/i//////lIilllll
I I
FIG. 35. Theoretically best digging depth of loader in ore pile of extraction drift.
In conformity with the legends of Fig. 35 we can calculate the theoretically best depth
from the formula
90 <' ¢
x ~ Hcot¢ - Htan- . (15)
2
The digging depth xp applied in practice is usually smaller than the theoretically best depth
SUBLEVEL CAVING 145
x and we should note that the results will be the better, the more the applied digging depth
xp of the loader approaches the optimum depth x [from formula (15)].
3.2 Burden
From a theoretical point of view the burden will be governed by many factors. In prin-
ciple we can express the burden by a symbolic function of these factors, bearing in mind
that the effect of the individual factors may differ considerably within this function. There
is also a certain mutual interference between the individual factors.
The burden V can therefore be written down in the form of the symbolic function
V = f ( K , h, c, v, S, x, m, B, a) (16)
where the first four factors K, h, c and v are the same as in formula (12) and the others are
as follows :
S ---- height of slice
x ~ digging depth of loader, also with respect to the height of the extraction drift
(Fig. 35)
m = run-off width according to Fig. 27
B -- width of extraction drift
a = gradient of the slice.
The problem is the determination of the optimum burden V for a certain height of slice S.
The proper burden should in the optimum case correspond to the gravity flow of the blasted
ore in the way shown diagrammatically in Fig. 36.
The optimum burden (see Fig. 36) for a vertical slice can be calculated approximately
from the formula
V _> blv ----? ~/(1 -- c2) (17a)
! R i
i i
, 0
E2~
tt
FIG. 37. Position o f ore r e m n a n t s R with vertical FIG. 38. Position of ore r e m n a n t s R with checkered
~arrangement of extraction drifts. a r r a n g e m e n t of extraction drifts.
When the ore is drawn off at the bottom extraction drift the material moves fastest along
the centre line of a gravity flow which coincides with the axis e f the extraction drift. The
difference between the vertical and the checkered arrangement of the extraction drift can
be clearly seen from the phases (a)-(b)-(c) in Figs. 39 and Fig. 40.
The third phase of the extraction (phase c) shows that the waste G has already reached
the extraction drift in the case of a vertical drift arrangement when it is still far away from
the drift in the case of a checkered arrangement, see Fig. 40(c). When the waste has reached
the extraction drift, as shown in Fig. 39(c) no more pure ore can be extracted because
there is an increasing contamination of ore by waste. Figures 39 and 40 show clearly that
this happens earlier with a vertical than with a checkered drift pattern. The checkered
arrangement is preferred for these reasons because a great quantity of pure ore can be
extracted.
SUBLEVEL CAVING 147
The approximate height of slice S can, if the burden has been fixed, be calculated from
formula (19) and the approximate width of the extraction drift B from the formula (14).
The approximate width of the slice (Fig. 25) should be smaller than or at most the same as
the width of the gravity flow d (Fig. 30). In conformity with the formula (10) and applying
,J, 4:;i
z
• i M
1
I I
N I i
i
FIG. 39 (a--c).Ore run-off with vertical arrangement FIG.40 (a-c). Ore run-off with checkered arrange-
of extraction drifts. ment of extraction drifts.
the calculations according to Fig. 30 we can calculate roughly the width of the slice from the
formula
A -< 2 a / [ ( 5 S - - 2 S ) 2 S ( 1 -- E2)] (20)
P=A --B
where A can be calculated from formula (20) and B from formula (14).
Under good conditions for the ore extraction, i.e. adequate width of extraction drift and
ore extraction over the full width of the drift, the relationship between drift width B, inter-
mediate pillar width P and the slice width A may be approximately
A~B~P.
In this case the gravity flow is nearly parallel and its width cannot be much greater than that
of the extraction drift. Such a case is illustrated diagrammatically in Fig. 41.
FIc. 41
TABLE 2
The particle size ratio K~vl/Kc can be modified in practice because the size distribution
of the ore in the slice depends on the blasting operations.
The earlier formulae provide, as has been mentioned before, merely approximate figures
for the parameters of sublevel caving which we can apply in planning the mining system.
The precise optimum values of the parameters of sublevel caving, including all detailed
effective factors, can only be found on the basis of tests under natural conditions. The
proper execution of such tests is facilitated by an application of the knowledge of the
principles of gravity flow described in detail in Sections 2 and 3 of this article. The execution
of tests under natural conditions is advantageous because the optimum parameters of sub-
level caving can thereby be determined, not only as they are affected by purely technical
factors, but by operational and economical factors as well.
4. FRONT CAVING
On the basis of experimental investigations and practical experience it has been found
that the contamination of the blasted ore by waste will be the more comprehensive and
rapid as the contact areas between blasted ore and waste in the slice become greater and
more curved.
A modified subtevel caving called front caving has been worked out for thick ore deposits,
the characteristic feature being that the blasted ore in the slice forms a continuous front
so that the contact area with the waste is very small.
As the height F of the slice front can be twice as much in front caving as that of a con-
ventional slice height S, the middle sublevel of extraction drifts can be eliminated in the
SUBLEVEL CAVING 149
case of front caving. The arrangement of the drifts in front caving is shown diagrammatically
in Fig. 42.
Extraction of the ore from the upper drifts, sublevel I, leaves between the extraction
drifts the ore remnants marked in Fig. 42 by R.
The principle of the gravity flow in front caving is the same as in sublevel caving. We can,
therefore, calculate the approximate burden V in front caving from formula (17b).
The approximate front height can be calculated from formula
2V
F < ~/(i ~- e2)" (22)
With respect to the drift arrangement in front caving, the checkered pattern (Fig. 42)
is again to be preferred to the vertical pattern.
The ore extraction from the drifts of the lower sublevel lI (Fig. 42) can take place in
front caving either simultaneously or in stages. The process of simultaneous extraction is
illustrated in its individual phases a to e of a tested model in Fig. 43, and the process of
extraction in stages in Fig. 44.
Simultaneous ore extraction yields the best results, but may encounter certain difficulties
for practical mining reasons, one of them being that it requires the simultaneous operation
of several loaders. If such an operation is possible, the simultaneous ore extraction can not
only result in a considerable improvement of the ore yield, but also in a very high production
capacity. If the distance between the individual extraction stages of the successive extraction
drifts becomes shorter, ore extraction in stages may gradually approximate the simultaneous
extraction.
The approximate height hR of the ore remnants between the extraction drifts of the upper
sublevel I (Fig. 42) can be calculated from the formula
hR ~ hN P/2r (23)
J i I
The precise optimum values of the parameters of front caving can, as with sublevel
caving, be established only on the basis of large-scale tests.
Two more illustrations will help to give a better idea of the distinction between front
caving and sublevel caving. Figure 45 shows diagrammatically the location of the extrac-
tion drifts and a view of the direction of the slice walls I, 1I and III. In Fig. 46 we have shown
diagrammatically the arrangement of the extraction drifts and a view in the direction of the
front wall in front caving.
The contact area of blasted ore with waste in sublevel caving is two to five times greater
than in front caving, because the blasted ore is extracted in sublevel caving separately from
single burdens of differing arrangement. In some cases this difference may in practice be
much greater.
Front caving may have considerable advantages compared with sublevel caving. At
practically the same panel height the middle sublevel of extraction drifts can be saved
in front caving. Furthermore, the continuous ore extraction over the full width of the
front wall and the small contact area in front caving, not only yield a larger quantity of
pure ore, but they also diminish the contamination and the ore remnants.
If, for example, the width of the extraction drift B ~ 6 m, the necessary thickness of the
roof hE = 1.2 × 6 = 7-2 m, and if the height of the extraction drift H ~ 3.7 m, the mini-
m u m required height of slice is
S > H-k-hE=3.7--k7.2-- 10"9~ llm.
The lowest sublevels of the iron ore mine Kiruna, where B ~ 6.0 m and H ~ 3.7 m, begin
with a height of slice S ~ 13.0 m.
The question whether sublevel caving is practicable even at greater depths below ground
level has often been discussed. Both theoretical and practical points of view indicate a
positive answer. A few Swedish metalliferous mines operate sublevel caving already today
at depths of over 700 m below ground level.
The case of Fig. 50 will illustrate the point more clearly. In this case the sublevel is in the
virgin state, i.e. no ore has been mined as yet. The plane of break 1, 2 in the hanging and
3, 4 in the foot wall practically forms a large notch 1, 2, 3, 4 with the horizontal plane of the
ore (Fig. 50). The stress pattern has, therefore, the same characteristics as that of a notch
under similar conditions. The lines t which indicate the direction of the maximum principal
stresses therefore follow in principle a pattern as shown diagrammatically in Fig. 50.
, ,l,lt
In the unworked sublevel of the slice (shaded area in Fig. 50) the stress state is characterized
by the horizontal compressive forces in most cases being greater than the vertical forces.
This is indicated in Fig. 50 by thick arrows. It is as if the upper part of the ore stratum is
subjected to lateral compression. The predominating horizontal pressures are in this case
due to the effect of the notch 1, 2, 3, 4. The highest stress concentration occurs at the cor-
ners 3 and 2 (especially 2) of the notch. This stress state causes no, or at least very few,
difficulties in practice during development work, i.e. when the drifts are being driven hori-
zontally and perpendicularly to the longitudinal axis of the deposit from hanging to foot wall.
As soon as the first burden has been mined, the stress state immediately changes. This is
shown diagrammatically in Fig. 51. The removal of the first burden interrupts the con-
tinuity of the orebody and the stress concentration is shifted from the corner 2 ('Fig. 50)
to the corner 6 (Fig. 51). This removes the effect of the horizontal pressures from the
overlying strata on the slice front and the whole process of the stress concentration takes
place below the working zone of the sublevel (shaded area in Fig. 51). The compressive
forces marked in Fig. 51 by thick arrows run underneath the lowest notch outlines and must
therefore pass around the corners 6, 7 and 3. The additional notch effect of the corners 6 and
7 (Fig. 51) is very beneficial for the work in the mining zone of the slice. The working zone
of the sublevel is stress-relieved by it because the weight of the waste from the destroyed
hanging (and sometimes from destroyed foot wall) can under practical conditions
SUBLEVEL CAVING 153
F~G. 51. Changes in stress state when mining the first slice.
never a t t a i n the original figure o f the rock pressure o f a virgin rock mass. This characteristic
i n t e r p l a y o f forces can create suitable c o n d i t i o n s for sublevel caving even at greater mining
d e p t h s b e l o w g r o u n d level.
T h e f o r m u l a e q u o t e d a b o v e for the a p p r o x i m a t e calculation o f the p a r a m e t e r s o f sublevel
caving or front caving can be a p p l i e d for m i n i n g descending f r o m f o o t wall to h a n g i n g or
vice versa.
REFERENCES
I. JANELID|. Mining Engineering and its Development in Swedish Mines, Almqvist & Wiksells, Uppsala (1961).
2. JANELIDI. Research and Development in Swedish Mining, Jubilee paper "Leoben Miners' Day 1962" (1962).
3. JANELIDI. Development trends of drilling and blasting in Swedish metalliferous mines, Berg- undHiittenm.
Monatshefte No. 2, 25-35 (1963).
4. JANELIDI. State and development trends of the loading and haulage operations in Swedish metalliferous
Mines, Berg- und Hiittenm. Monatshefte No. 4, 153-161 (1964).
5. KVAPILR. Theory of the Flow of Granular and Coarse Materials in Hoppers, SNTL Prague (1955); Theory
of Motion of Free-Flowing Material, Verlag Technik, Berlin (1959); Motion of Free-Flowing Materials
in Bunkers, Gosgortekhizdat, Moscow (1960).
6. KVAPILR. Gravity flow of granular materials in hoppers and bins, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 2, 2541
(1965); 2, 277-304 (1965).
7. KVAPILR. Problems of stress distribution in pillars and roofs of rooms, Tech. Digest No. 5, 3-12 (1961).
8. KVAPILR. Problems of gravity flow of free-flowing materials, Aufbereitungs-Technik Nos. 3, 4, 10, 12
(1964).