Samantha Benovitz

12/15/18

An Introduction to Forensic Chemistry and its Basic Applications

Introduction

Forensic science is often misconceived by the public eye. Popular television shows like, CSI and

Bones, glorify the process in which forensic scientists follow in order to decipher evidence. This

process is perceived as quick with spot on results, but that is nearly never the case. Moreover,

this misunderstanding translates into courtrooms as juries confuse what they see on TV with

reality. The purpose of this paper is to provide an introduction to forensic science, specifically

forensic chemistry, and how it can be utilized to analyze evidence from a crime scene.

Forensic Chemistry

There are two main branches of forensic science: forensic biology and forensic chemistry.

Forensic chemistry focuses on the non-biological evidence collected at crime scenes to classify

unknown materials. Some of these materials include but are not limited to blood spatters, fibers,

shoe prints, paint chips, and drugs. Analytical chemistry techniques are applied to these samples

to further identify the samples and detect their correlation with the crime.

Trace Evidence

Fibers collected from crime scenes are considered trace evidence. Trace evidence is the

microscopic material present at crime scenes that can be linked to the crime. Most commonly,

trace evidence includes hair, fibers, paint, and glass. When opening a case that includes one of

these, it is necessary for scientists to first observe the physical, optical, and chemical properties

of the substance before testing or further analysis. This ensures that parts and characteristics of

the sample that may be destroyed during examination are accounted for.
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While hair is considered a biological piece of evidence, other trace evidences like fibers, glass,

and paint are chemically analyzed. Fibers make up three categories: natural, synthetic, and

manufactured. Natural fibers include animal and plant fibers like wool, cotton, and silk.

Synthetic fibers are those that are man-made, like nylon and polyester. Lastly, manufactured

fibers are natural materials that are made into fibers, like rayon.

Manufactured Fibers Synthetic Fibers Manufactured Fibers

(archives.fbi.gov/archives/about-us/lab/forensic-science-

communications/fsc/july2000/deedric3.htm)

When collecting fibers, it is imperative that it is done carefully, as fibers are very “mobile”. This

means that they can become “airborne” or get “brushed off” of clothing. Because of this

mobility, it is essential that fibers are gathered in a timely manner to prevent loss and cross

contamination. With glass, the tiniest of shards and fragments can be important in the solving of

a case. Glass can connect “people and objects to places” because of the type or make of the glass.

Paint is similar to glass in that even the smallest paint chips can be valuable. Hit and run cases

are some of the most common cases in which paint is collected as evidence. With all of these

trace evidences, forensic chemists must be very particular in how they conduct their analysis,

since this evidence is typically collected in very small amounts and can be easily tarnished. In
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all, the examination of trace evidence can “reveal connections between people and places” that

were not evident before.

Like with much of forensic science, trace evidence has a few misconceptions. One of them is that

trace evidence, no matter how small, can “always be matched” to an individual or object.

According to the National Forensic Technology Center, direct identification is “rare”. Trace

evidence typically leads to classification of the evidence as “part of a class”, not as a direct link.

Blood Spatters

Blood is biological evidence, but when it is not being utilized for purposes of identification,

blood can be analyzed by forensic chemists. Blood spatter analysis, or bloodstain pattern

analysis, is the “interpretation of bloodstains” at crime scenes to “recreate the actions” that

caused the spatters. The first items that are examined are the “size, shape, distribution, and

location” of the blood. Passive, transfer, and impact are the three different categories in which

bloodstains are classified. Stains that are in “drops, flows, and pools” are usually the result of

“gravity” enacting on a bleeding body. These types of stains are passive.

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Passive Bloodstain (http://www.forensicsciencesimplified.org/blood/principles.html)

Transfer stains leave “wipes, swipes, or pattern transfers” which can include a “bloody shoe

print” or a “smear”. Typically, these stains come from objects contacting existing blood and then

transferring it to other places.

Transfer Bloodstain (http://www.forensicsciencesimplified.org/blood/principles.html)

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Lastly, impact stains arise from blood “projecting through the air”. These are usually spatters and

are the result of blunt force trauma.

Impact Bloodstain (www.crimescene-forensics.com/Crime_Scene_Forensics/Bloodstains.html)

Chemistry is heavily involved in the examination of latent bloodstains, or bloodstains that

“cannot be seen with the naked eye”. When this occurs, a chemical reagent called Luminol is

sprayed on the blood. This reagent causes a “bright blue luminescent glow” after it reacts with

the iron present in the blood’s hemoglobin. This glow allows analysts to measure and observe the

bloodstains they were unable see previously.

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Luminol on a passive bloodstain (www.forensicsciencesimplified.org/blood/principles.html)

Bloodstain analysis can provide many answers to how a crime was carried out. These answers

include how the bloodstains were formed, the number of victims, and the approximate position

of the victims. While the amount of information that can be told by simple bloodstains reveals

much information, not all of these items can always be identified by bloodstain analysis. It

depends on the amount of blood present at the scene and how well collection procedures and

analysis procedures are performed by investigators. Again, this misconception of having perfect

connections to people and objects of a crime through evidence is often misconstrued by the

general public.

Drug Analysis

Small seizures, like car searches, and large seizures, like boats searched at ports, make up the

evidence utilized in forensic drug analysis. In the lab, chemical analysis is carried out in order to

identify illegal drugs and substances, which is later used to aid law enforcement in prosecuting

offenders. When examining drugs, there are two types of testing: presumptive and confirmatory.
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Presumptive testing, if it is being utilized, occurs first and provides a good idea of what the drug

might be. Typically, these tests are colorimetric, which means that a color change in the test kit

will indicate what the substance may be. While this may seem like a quick and easy way to find

out what a substance is, it is not always the most accurate. Also, if a substance is laced with

multiple illegal substances, a colorimetric test cannot indicate all of these. Other tests that are

considered presumptive are microscopic analysis and microcrystalline tests. Microscopic

analysis is the examining of the structures of the evidence to make a “preliminary estimate” as to

what a substance may be. Microcrystalline tests involve taking small amounts of the substance

and allowing it to dissolve in a solution to form crystals. The way that the solution crystallizes

allows forensic chemists to identify components of the substance when placed under polarized

light.

Colorimetric presumptive test (www.forensicsciencesimplified.org/drugs/principles.html)

On the other hand, confirmatory tests are more accurate and can identify multiple substances at

once. Confirmatory tests use instrumental analysis to classify the elements of a substance. This is
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generally a multi-step process that separates the “individual compounds, determine(s) the

chemical characteristics of the compounds, and compare(s) them” to reference materials in order

to provide an accurate identification. More specifically, these processes are carried out through

chemical analysis techniques like Gas Chromatography, Mass Spectrometry, and Infrared

Spectroscopy. Gas chromatography “separates substances into individual components”. This is

done by “dissolving” the substance in a “liquid solvent”, “injecting” it into a “superheated oven”,

vaporizing the liquid, and driving it through a “glass capillary tube”, using a gas like helium or

hydrogen.

Gas chromatography machine (www.albany.edu/chemistry/forensicIntrumentation.shtml)

During this, the mixture divides into individual chemical components. Because of the different

speeds at which these components travel, forensic chemists can compare the materials and

identify the substances. Once the components of the substances are separated, mass spectrometry

is used. Mass spectrometry uses a “beam of electrons”, causing the components to break apart.

As they break, the structure is “mapped into a spectrum”. Lastly, infrared spectroscopy is used to

“decipher” structures recorded in the spectrum. The amount of infrared light each material can

absorb is observed, finally confirming the substance or substances present.

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With forensic drug analysis, it is not always an easy testing and identification process. The “size

and condition” of the drug evidence determines how accurately a substance can be identified. It

is vital that forensic chemists use as little of a substance when testing in order to preserve extra

for further testing if necessary. Unfortunately, if forensic chemists are asked to testify in court,

the jury often expects more than what is given. This can cause juries to ignore scientific

evidence, as it does not answer all of their questions, which in turn changes the outcome of the

trial.

Conclusion

In essence, forensic science is not what it seems like in Hollywood. Forensic chemistry involves

long processes of analyzing evidence that may not even be sufficient to come to a conclusion

with. Even the most basic applications of forensic chemistry involve long procedures that can

take days. The most important piece of knowledge a forensic scientist can have is how to

analyze the evidence they are given and the proper tests to use based on the size, quantity, and

type of evidence received. Once appropriate examinations are concluded, the evidence can help

lead to the solving of crimes. Forensic chemistry is very important in the resolution of

incidences, as it takes trace evidence, bloodstains, and drugs to aid in the connection of people,

places, and objects to a case.

Citations

“Forensic Drug Chemistry.” DNA Evidence: How It's Done, National Forensic Science

Technology Center, www.forensicsciencesimplified.org/drugs/index.htm.

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“Bloodstain Pattern Analysis.” DNA Evidence: How It's Done, National Forensic Science

Technology Center, www.forensicsciencesimplified.org/blood/.

“Trace Evidence.” DNA Evidence: How It's Done, National Forensic Science Technology

Center, www.forensicsciencesimplified.org/trace/index.htm.

Sprung, Anne. "Chemistry at the Centre of Forensic Sciences." Canadian Chemical News, Oct.

1990, p. 16+. Academic OneFile,

http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/A9157940/AONE?u=j043905002&sid=AONE&xid=ddd27a

79. Accessed 14 Oct. 2018.

Hoyle, Brian. "Bloodstain evidence." The Gale Encyclopedia of Science, edited by K. Lee

Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, 5th ed., Gale, 2014. Science In Context,

http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/CV2644040325/SCIC?u=j043905002&sid=SCIC&xid=a390

d21d.Accessed 21 Oct. 2018.